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Noise Control
Noise Control
From Concept to Application
Second Edition
Colin H Hansen
Kristy L Hansen
Second edition published 2021
by CRC Press
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN
and by CRC Press

6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300, Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
© 2021 Colin H Hansen and Kristy L Hansen

First edition published by CRC Press 2005
CRC Press is an imprint of Informa UK Limited
The right of Colin H Hansen and Kristy L Hansen to be identified as authors of this work has been asserted by them in accor-
dance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechani-
cal, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or
retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.
For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, access www.copyright.com or contact the Copyright
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Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification
and explanation without intent to infringe.
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Hansen, Colin H., 1951- author. | Hansen, Kristy L., author.
Title: Noise control : from concept to application / Colin H Hansen, Kristy
Hansen.
Description: Second edition. | Boca Raton : CRC Press, 2021. | Includes
bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2021002295 (print) | LCCN 2021002296 (ebook) | ISBN
9781138369016 (hbk) | ISBN 9781138369023 (pbk) | ISBN 9780429428876
(ebk)
Subjects: LCSH: Noise control--Textbooks. | Acoustical
engineering--Mathematics--Textbooks.
Classification: LCC TD892 .H359 2021 (print) | LCC TD892 (ebook) | DDC
620.2/3--dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021002295
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021002296
ISBN: 978-1-138-36901-6 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-1-138-36902-3 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-0-429-42887-6 (ebk)
Typeset in Latin Modern font
by KnowledgeWorks Global Ltd.
Dedication
This book is dedicated to Susan, to Laura, to Branko, to Vladimir and to Dimitrij.
v
Contents
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii
1 Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Noise-Control Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2.1 Sound Source Modification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2.2 Control of the Transmission Path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2.3 Modification of the Receiver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2.4 Existing Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2.5 Facilities in the Design Stage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3 Acoustical Standards and Software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.4 Acoustic Field Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.4.1 Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.4.2 Magnitudes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.4.3 The Speed of Sound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.4.4 Acoustic Potential Function and the Wave Equation . . . . . . . 11
1.4.5 Complex Number Formulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.5 Plane, Cylindrical and Spherical Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.5.1 Plane Wave Propagation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.5.2 Cylindrical Wave Propagation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.5.3 Spherical Wave Propagation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.5.4 Wave Summation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.5.5 Plane Standing Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.6 Mean Square Quantities and Amplitudes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
1.7 Energy Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
1.8 Sound Intensity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
1.9 Sound Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
1.10 Decibels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
1.11 Spectra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
1.11.1 Frequency Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
1.12 Combining Sound Pressures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
1.12.1 Coherent Sounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
1.12.2 Incoherent Sounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
1.12.3 Subtraction of Sound Pressure Levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
1.12.4 Combining Level Reductions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
1.13 Impedance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
1.13.1 Mechanical Impedance, Zm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
1.13.2 Specific Acoustic Impedance, Zs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
1.13.3 Acoustic Impedance, ZA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
1.14 Additional Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
2 Loudness, Descriptors of Noise, Noise Criteria and Instrumentation . 61
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
2.2 Loudness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
2.2.1 Comparative Loudness and the Phon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
2.2.2 Low-Frequency Loudness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
2.2.3 Relative Loudness and the Sone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
2.2.4 Weighting Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
vii
viii Contents
2.3 Descriptors of Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

2.3.1 Equivalent Continuous Sound Pressure Level, Leq . . . . . . . . . 70
2.3.2 A-Weighted Equivalent Continuous Sound Pressure Level, LAeq . 70
2.3.3 Noise Exposure Level, LEX,8h or Lex or Lep0 d . . . . . . . . . . . 71
2.3.4 A-Weighted Sound Exposure, EA,T . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
2.3.5 A-Weighted Sound Exposure Level, LAE or SEL . . . . . . . . . . 72
2.3.6 Day-Night Average Sound Level, Ldn or DNL . . . . . . . . . . . 73
2.3.7 Community Noise Equivalent Level, Lden or CNEL . . . . . . . . 73
2.3.8 Statistical Descriptors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
2.3.9 Other Descriptors, Lmax , Lpeak , LImp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
2.4 Hearing Loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
2.5 Hearing Damage Risk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
2.5.1 Requirements for Speech Recognition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
2.5.2 Quantifying Hearing Damage Risk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
2.5.3 United States Standard Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
2.5.4 Occupational Noise Exposure Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
2.5.5 Impulse and Impact Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
2.6 Implementing a Hearing Conservation Programme . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
2.7 Speech Interference Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
2.8 Psychological Effects of Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
2.8.1 Noise as a Cause of Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
2.8.2 Effect on Behaviour and Work Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
2.9 Ambient Sound Pressure Level Specification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
2.9.1 Noise Weighting Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
2.9.1.1 NR Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
2.9.1.2 NC Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
2.9.1.3 NCB Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
2.9.1.4 RC, Mark II Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
2.9.2 Comparison of Noise Weighting Curves with dBA Specifications . 98
2.9.3 Speech Privacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
2.10 Environmental Noise Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
2.10.1 A-Weighting Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
2.11 Environmental Noise Surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
2.11.1 Measurement Locations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
2.11.2 Duration of the Measurement Survey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
2.11.3 Measurement Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
2.11.4 Measurement Uncertainty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
2.11.5 Noise Impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
2.12 Measuring Instrumentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
2.12.1 Microphones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
2.12.1.1 Microphone Sensitivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
2.12.2 Sound Level Meters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
2.12.2.1 Calibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
2.12.2.2 Measurement Accuracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
2.12.3 Statistical Analysers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
2.12.4 Personal Exposure Meter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
2.12.5 Data Acquisition and Recording . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
2.12.6 Spectrum Analysers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
2.12.7 Sound Intensity Meters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
2.12.8 Acoustic Cameras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Contents ix
3 Sound Sources and Sound Power Determination from Measurement . 119

3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
3.2 Simple Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
3.3 Dipole Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
3.4 Quadrupole Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
3.4.1 Lateral Quadrupole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
3.4.2 Longitudinal Quadrupole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
3.5 Line Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
3.5.1 Infinite Line Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
3.5.2 Finite Line Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
3.6 Piston in an Infinite Baffle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
3.7 Incoherent Plane Radiator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
3.7.1 Single Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
3.7.2 Several Walls of a Building or Enclosure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
3.8 Radiation Field of a Sound Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
3.9 Directivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
3.10 Reflection Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
3.10.1 Simple Source Near a Reflecting Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
3.10.2 Observer Near a Reflecting Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
3.10.3 Observer and Source Both Close to a Reflecting Surface . . . . . 147
3.11 Determination of Sound Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
3.11.1 Measurement in Free or Semi-Free Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
3.11.2 Measurement in a Diffuse Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
3.11.2.1 Substitution Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
3.11.2.2 Absolute Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
3.11.3 Field Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
3.11.3.1 Semi-Reverberant Field Measurements Using a Reference
Source to Determine Room Absorption . . . . . . . . . . 159
3.11.3.2 Semi-Reverberant Field Measurements Using a Reference
Source Substitution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
3.11.3.3 Semi-Reverberant Field Measurements Using Two Test Sur-
faces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
3.11.3.4 Near–Field Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
3.11.4 Uncertainty in Sound Power Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
4 Sound Propagation Outdoors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
4.2 Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
4.3 Geometric Divergence, Adiv . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
4.4 Atmospheric Absorption, Aatm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
4.5 Ground Effects, Agr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
4.5.1 Excess Attenuation Using Simply Hard or Soft Ground . . . . . . 175
4.5.2 Excess Attenuation Using the Plane Wave Method . . . . . . . . 175
4.6 Meteorological Effects, Amet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
4.6.1 Attenuation in the Shadow Zone (Negative Sonic Gradient) . . . 182
4.7 CONCAWE Propagation Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
4.7.1 Geometrical Divergence, K1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
4.7.2 Atmospheric Absorption, K2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
4.7.3 Ground Effects, K3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
4.7.4 Meteorological Effects, K4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
4.7.5 Source Height Effects, K5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
x Contents
4.7.6 Barrier Attenuation, K6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188

4.7.7 In-Plant Screening, K7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
4.7.8 Vegetation Screening, Kv . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
4.7.9 Limitations of the CONCAWE Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
4.8 ISO 9613-2 (1996) Noise Propagation Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
4.8.1 Ground Effects, Agr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
4.8.2 Meteorological Effects, Amet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
4.8.3 Source Height Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
4.8.4 Barrier Attenuation, Abar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
4.8.5 In-Plant Screening, Asite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
4.8.6 Housing Screening, Ahous . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
4.8.7 Vegetation Screening, Afol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
4.8.8 Effect of Reflections Other Than Ground Reflections . . . . . . . 199
4.8.9 Limitations of the ISO9613-2 Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
4.9 Propagation Model Prediction Uncertainty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
4.9.1 Type A Standard Uncertainty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
4.9.2 Type B Standard Uncertainty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
4.9.3 Combining Standard Uncertainties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
4.9.4 Expanded Uncertainty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
5 Sound-Absorbing Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
5.2 Flow Resistance and Resistivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
5.3 Sound Propagation in Porous Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
5.4 Measurement of Absorption Coefficients of Porous Materials . . . . . . . . 216
5.4.1 Measurement Using the Moving Microphone Method . . . . . . . 216
5.4.2 Measurement Using the Two-Microphone Method . . . . . . . . . 233
5.5 Calculation of Statistical Absorption Coefficients of Some Porous Material Con-
figurations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
5.5.1 Porous Liner with a Backing Cavity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
5.5.2 Porous Liner Covered with a Limp Impervious Layer . . . . . . . 235
5.5.3 Porous Liner Covered with a Perforated Sheet . . . . . . . . . . . 236
5.5.4 Porous Liner with a Limp Impervious Layer and a Perforated Sheet 241
5.6 Measurements of the Sabine Absorption Coefficient and Room Constant . 241
5.6.1 Reference Sound Source Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
5.6.2 Reverberation Time Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
5.6.3 Measurement of ᾱ for a Particular Material . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
5.7 Panel Sound Absorbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
5.8 Noise Reduction Coefficient (NRC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
5.9 Sound Absorption Coefficients of Materials in Combination . . . . . . . . 247
5.10 Reverberation Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
6 Sound in Rooms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
6.2 Low Frequency Behaviour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
6.3 Bound between Low-Frequency and High-Frequency Behaviour . . . . . . 260
6.3.1 Modal Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
6.3.2 Modal Damping and Bandwidth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
6.3.3 Modal Overlap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
6.3.4 Cross-Over Frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
6.4 High-Frequency Behaviour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
Contents xi
6.4.1 Relation between Source Sound Power and Room Sound Pressure
Level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
6.4.2 Relation between Room Absorption and Reverberation Time . . . 269
6.5 Flat Room with Diffusely Reflecting Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
7 Partitions, Enclosures and Barriers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
7.2 Sound Transmission through Partitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
7.2.1 Bending Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
7.2.2 Transmission Loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
7.2.3 Single-Leaf Panel Transmission Loss Calculation . . . . . . . . . . 286
7.2.4 Double Wall Transmission Loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
7.2.4.1 Staggered Studs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
7.2.4.2 Panel Damping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
7.2.5 Triple Wall Sound Transmission Loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
7.2.6 Sound-Absorptive Linings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
7.2.7 Common Building Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
7.3 Composite Transmission Loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
7.4 Enclosures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
7.4.1 Enclosure Leakages (Large Enclosures) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
7.4.2 Enclosure Access and Ventilation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
7.4.3 Enclosure Vibration Isolation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
7.5 Barriers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
7.5.1 Diffraction at the Edge of a Thin Sheet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
7.5.2 Outdoor Barriers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
7.5.2.1 Thick Barriers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
7.5.2.2 Shielding by Terrain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
7.5.2.3 ISO 9613-2 Approach to Barrier Insertion Loss Calcula-
tions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
7.5.3 Indoor Barriers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
8 Muffling Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
8.2 Measures of Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
8.3 Design for a Required Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
8.4 Diffusers as Muffling Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
8.5 Classification of Muffling Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
8.6 Acoustic Impedance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
8.7 Impedances of Reactive Muffler Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
8.7.1 Impedance of an Orifice or Short, Narrow Tube . . . . . . . . . . 348
8.7.1.1 End Correction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
8.7.1.2 Acoustic Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
8.7.2 Impedance of a Volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
8.8 Reactive Mufflers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
8.8.1 Acoustical Analogues of Kirchhoff’s Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
8.8.2 Side Branch Resonator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
8.8.2.1 End Corrections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
8.8.2.2 Quality Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
8.8.2.3 Power Dissipation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
8.8.2.4 Insertion Loss Due to a Side Branch . . . . . . . . . . . 365
8.8.2.5 Transmission Loss Due to a Side Branch . . . . . . . . . 367
xii Contents
8.8.3 Expansion Chamber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375

8.8.3.1 Insertion Loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
8.8.3.2 Transmission Loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
8.8.4 Lowpass Filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386
8.9 Dissipative Mufflers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
8.9.1 Liner Specification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396
8.9.2 Lined Duct Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
8.9.2.1 Temperature Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
8.9.2.2 Higher Order Mode Propagation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402
8.9.3 Inlet Attenuation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
8.9.4 Cross-Sectional Discontinuities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
8.9.5 Splitter Mufflers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
8.10 Insertion Loss of Duct Bends or Elbows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
8.11 Insertion Loss of Unlined Ducts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
8.12 Effect of Duct End Reflections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
8.13 Pressure Loss Calculations for Muffling Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
8.13.1 Pressure Losses Due to Friction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
8.13.2 Dynamic Pressure Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414
8.13.3 Splitter Muffler Pressure Loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414
8.13.4 Circular Muffler Pressure Loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418
8.13.5 Staggered Splitter Pressure Loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
8.14 Flow-Generated Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
8.14.1 Straight, Unlined Air Duct Noise Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
8.14.2 Mitred Bend Noise Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
8.14.3 Splitter Muffler Self-Noise Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
8.14.4 Exhaust Stack Pin Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423
8.14.5 Self-Noise Generation of Air Conditioning System Elements . . . 424
8.15 Duct Break-Out Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424
8.15.1 Break-Out Sound Transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424
8.15.2 Break-In Sound Transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426
8.16 Lined Plenum Attenuator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426
8.16.1 Wells’ Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427
8.16.2 ASHRAE (2015) Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 428
8.17 Directivity of Exhaust Ducts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
A Properties of Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457
Preface to the Second Edition
This is a textbook intended for undergraduate or graduate students wanting to learn how to
solve problems in industrial noise control. Occupational Health and Safety engineers as well as
consultants in noise control should also find the book useful. The book covers relevant material
by first introducing the physical principles and then by illustrating these principles with many
examples that are worked out in detail. There are very few derivations of equations, but reference
is made to texts where they are derived. Complex analyses are not included and neither are some
of the advanced measurement and control techniques (such as active control) that are discussed
in other texts by the first author. Additional problems are provided at the end of each chapter
and corresponding solutions are available on causalsystems.com, where we will also post any
errata that we or our readers find. The book is an excellent learning tool for those who wish to
apply their noise-control knowledge to solving real problems.
This second edition has been thoroughly revised and updated with a considerable amount of
new material, many new example problems and many more references to procedures in acoustic
standards.
Colin H. Hansen
Kristy L. Hansen
December, 2020
xiii
1
Fundamentals
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
In this chapter, the reader is introduced to:

• fundamentals and basic terminology of noise control;
• noise-control strategies for new and existing facilities;
• the speed of sound and the wave equation;
• plane and spherical waves;
• energy density; sound intensity and sound power;
• decibels and sound pressure level;
• frequency analysis and sound spectra;
• adding and subtracting sound pressure levels and combining level reductions; and
• three kinds of impedance.
1.1 Introduction
The World Health Organisation (Goelzer et al., 2000) has recognised noise as the most significant
health hazard to the working population in terms of the number of people affected. In many
industries there is much that can be done to alleviate harmful noise. Perhaps the most insidious
aspect of noise-induced hearing loss is that in most cases, damage accumulates over time and is
only recognised as a problem when it is too late to do anything about it.
Noise can also affect our daily living away from the work place. This type of problem is called
environmental noise pollution and it is unhealthy for us in terms of our psychological well-being,
which in turn can affect our physical health. In this context, noise is defined as sound that is
unwanted by one or more individuals, even though it may be wanted by someone else.
When considering noise control, it is well-known that the most cost-effective solution to a
problem is often to control the noise-generating mechanism right at its source. This often has the
added benefit of making the process more efficient in addition to being less noisy. However, it is
often (although not always) only manufacturers of equipment who can alter the noise-generating
processes in their equipment, which leaves the engineer who is responsible for an existing item of
noisy machinery to find some other way of reducing the noise that reaches places or people where
it is either a hazard or unwanted. Often this treatment takes the form of enclosures, barriers,
mufflers or vibration isolation and is referred to as “add-on” noise-control technology. Poorly
designed “add-on” measures can prove cumbersome in use and are likely to be sabotaged by
employees who see them as adversely affecting their efficiency and productivity.
1
2 Noise Control: From Concept to Application
The purpose of this text is to address the causes and methods of control of both occupational
and environmental noise with many example problems to illustrate the principles. Much of the
background to the discussion presented here is provided in the more comprehensive text by Bies
et al. (2018), on which this one is based. The example problems in this book are intended to
illustrate and further expand the material. It is not intended that readers should be able to
complete all parts of each problem without inspecting the solution. The solutions are provided
as a different type of learning tool, as an alternative to spelling out all the principles in the
absence of any problem to which to apply them. Problems without solutions, which can be used
to test the understanding of the reader, are provided at the end of each chapter. Solutions to
these additional problems are available to teaching staff by request to either author.
The treatment here is restricted to passive noise control as opposed to active noise control
where “anti-noise” sources are introduced to “cancel” unwanted noise. Active noise control is
very difficult to apply successfully in an industrial environment; development costs are generally
high and on-going maintenance is currently an issue. The principles of active noise control are
discussed in detail in another text (Hansen, 2001).
The discussion in this chapter begins with an outline of noise-control strategies and a dis-
cussion of the fundamental principles of acoustics, followed by an explanation of how noise is
quantified, with the intention of providing a basis for understanding the applications discussed
in the remainder of the book. In Chapter 2, noise criteria are discussed and instrumentation for
measuring noise is described. Chapter 3 describes the sound fields produced by different sources
and various means for measuring the sound they produce. Chapter 4 is concerned with sound
propagation outdoors and in rooms. Chapter 5 is a detailed treatment of sound absorbing ma-
terials and in particular, their properties and measurement and Chapter 7 is a comprehensive
treatment of sound in rooms. Chapter 7 includes methods for calculating the sound transmission
loss of partitions and the design of enclosures, while Chapter 8 is concerned with the design of
dissipative and reactive mufflers. Properties of materials relevant to calculations described in the
textbook are provided in Appendix A.
1.2 Noise-Control Strategies
Possible strategies for noise control are always more numerous for new facilities and products than
for existing facilities and products. Consequently, it is always more cost-effective to implement
noise control at the design stage than to wait for complaints about a finished facility or product.
In existing facilities, controls may be required in response to specific complaints from within
the work place or from the surrounding community, and excessive noise levels may be quantified
by suitable measurements. In proposed new facilities, possible complaints must be anticipated,
and expected excessive noise levels must be estimated by some procedure. Often it is not possible
to eliminate unwanted noise entirely and more often to do so is very expensive; thus minimum
acceptable sound pressure (or noise) levels of noise must be formulated, and these sound pressure
levels constitute the criteria for acceptability.
Criteria for acceptability are generally established with reference to appropriate regulations
for the work place and community. In addition, for community noise it is advisable that at worst,
any facility should not increase background (or ambient) sound pressure levels in a community
by more than 5 dBA over existing levels without the facility, irrespective of what local regu-
lations may allow. Note that this 5 dBA increase applies to broadband noise and that clearly
distinguishable tones (single frequencies) are less acceptable. In addition, noise that is amplitude
modulated (varying in level regularly with a constant time interval between maximum levels)
or heavily weighted towards the low-frequency part of the spectrum is more annoying than its
time-averaged A-weighted sound pressure level would suggest. The A-weighting that results in
an A-weighted or dBA sound pressure level is discussed in more detail in Section 2.2.4.
Fundamentals 3
When dealing with community complaints (predicted or observed) it is wise to be conserva-

tive; that is, to aim for adequate control for the worst case, noting that community noise levels
(or more accurately, sound pressure levels) may vary greatly (±10 dB) about the mean as a
result of atmospheric conditions (wind and temperature gradients and atmospheric turbulence).
It is worth careful note that complainants tend to be more conscious of a noise after making
a complaint and thus subconsciously tend to listen for it. Thus, even after considerable noise
reduction may have been achieved and regulations satisfied, complaints may continue. Clearly,
it is better to avoid complaints in the first place and thus yet another argument supporting the
assertion of cost-effectiveness in the design stage is provided.
For both existing and proposed new facilities and products, an important part of the process
will be to identify noise sources and to rank order them in terms of contributions to excessive
noise. When the requirements for noise control have been quantified, and sources identified and
ranked, it is possible to consider various options for control and finally to determine the cost-
effectiveness of the various options.
Community sound pressure level predictions and calculations of the effects of noise control
are generally carried out in octave frequency bands. Current models for prediction are not
sufficiently accurate to allow finer frequency resolution and less fine frequency resolution does not
allow proper account of frequency-dependent effects. Generally, octave band analysis provides a
satisfactory compromise between too much and too little detail. Where greater spectrum detail
is required, 1/3-octave band analysis is often sufficient.
If complaints arise from the work place, then regulations should be satisfied, but to minimise
hearing damage compensation claims, the goal of any noise-control programme should be to
reach a sound pressure level of no more than 85 dBA. Criteria for other situations in the work
place are discussed in Chapter 3. Measurements and calculations are generally carried out in
standardised octave or 1/3-octave bands, but particular care must be given to the identification
of any tones that may be present, as these must be treated separately.
Any noise problem may be described in terms of a sound source, a transmission path and a
receiver, and noise control may take the form of altering any one or all of these elements.
When faced with an industrial noise problem, reducing its hazard can be achieved in a number
of ways and these are listed below in order of effectiveness.
1. Eliminate the hazard, which means physically removing it (modification of the source).
2. Substitute the noisy process with a quieter one (modification of the source).
3. Reduce the hazard by good design (modification of the source).
4. Isolate personnel from the hazard via physical barriers or mufflers (modification of
the transmission path).
5. Change the way people work by rotating them out of noisy areas or by introducing
quieter ways of doing things (modification of the receiver).
6. Provide earplugs and earmuffs (modification of the receiver).
When considered in terms of cost-effectiveness and acceptability, experience puts modification
of the source well ahead of either modification of the transmission path or the receiver. On the
other hand, in existing facilities the last two may be the only feasible options.
1.2.1 Sound Source Modification

Modification of the energy source to reduce the noise generated often provides the best means
of noise control. For example, where impacts are involved, as in punch presses, any reduction of
the peak impact force (even at the expense of the force acting over a longer time period) will
dramatically reduce the noise generated. Generally, when a choice between various mechanical
processes is possible to accomplish a given task, the best choice, from the point of view of
minimum noise, will be the process that minimises the time rate of change of force or jerk (time
rate of change of acceleration). Alternatively, when the process is aerodynamic a similar principle
applies; that is, the process that minimises pressure gradients will produce minimum noise. In
general, whether a process is mechanical or fluid mechanical, minimum rate of change of force
is associated with minimum noise.
Mechanical shock between solids should be minimised; for example, impact noise may be
generated by parts falling into metal bins. This problem could be reduced by minimising the
height that parts fall and treating the container that they fall in to.
Guidelines for the design of low-noise machinery and equipment are provided in ISO/TR
11688-1 (1995) and ISO/TR 11688-2 (1998).
1.2.2 Control of the Transmission Path

In considering control of the noise path from the source to the receiver some or all of the
following treatments need to be considered: barriers (single walls), partial enclosures or full
equipment enclosures, local enclosures for noisy components on a machine, reactive or dissipative
mufflers (the former for low frequency noise or small exhausts, the latter for high frequencies or
large diameter exhaust outlets), lined ducts or lined plenum chambers for air-handling systems,
vibration isolation of machines from noise-radiating structures, vibration absorbers and dampers,
active noise control and the addition of sound-absorbing material to reverberant spaces to reduce
reflected noise fields.
1.2.3 Modification of the Receiver

In some cases, when all else fails, it may be necessary to apply noise control to the receiver of
the excessive noise. This type of control may involve use of ear-muffs, ear-plugs or other forms of
hearing protection; the enclosure of personnel if this is practical; moving personnel further from
the noise sources; rotating personnel to reduce noise exposure time; and education and emphasis
on public relations for both in-plant and community noise problems.
1.2.4 Existing Facilities

In existing facilities or products, quantification of the noise problem requires identification of
the noise source or sources, determination of the transmission paths from the sources to the
receivers, rank ordering of the various contributors to the problem and finally determination of
acceptable solutions.
To begin, sound pressure levels must be determined at potentially sensitive locations or
at locations from which the complaints arise. For community noise, these measurements may
not be straightforward, as such noise may be strongly affected by variable weather conditions
and measurements over a representative time period may be required. This is usually done
using remote data logging equipment in addition to periodic manual measurements to check the
validity of the logged data. Guidelines for taking community noise measurements are provided
in ASTM E1780-12 (2012) and ASTM E1503-14 (2014).
The next step is to apply acceptable noise level criteria to each location and thus determine
the required noise reductions, generally as a function of octave or 1/3-octave frequency bands.
Noise level criteria are usually set by regulations and appropriate standards.
Next, the transmission paths by which the noise reaches the place of complaint are deter-
mined. For some cases, this step is often obvious. However, cases may occasionally arise when
this step may present some difficulty, but it may be very important in helping to identify the
source of a complaint. For example, the noise may propagate as structure-borne vibration, which
then radiates as noise when it reaches an efficient acoustic radiator such as a wall or large panel.
Fundamentals 5
Having identified the possible transmission paths, the next step is to identify (understand)
the noise generation mechanism or mechanisms, as noise control at the source always gives the
best solution. In existing facilities and products, altering the noise-generating mechanism may
or may not be too expensive, but should always be considered as a means for possible control.
Having identified the noise sources and determined their radiated sound power levels, the next
task is to determine the relative contribution of each noise source to the level at each location
where the measured sound pressure levels are considered to be excessive. For a facility involving
just a few noise sources this is a relatively straightforward task. However, for a facility involving
tens or hundreds of noise sources, the task of rank ordering can be intimidating, especially when
the locations of complaint are in the surrounding community. In the latter case, the effect of the
ground terrain and surface, air absorption and the influence of atmospheric conditions must also
be taken into account, as well as the decrease in sound pressure level with distance due to the
“spreading out” of the sound waves (see Chapter 5). Commercial computer software is available
to assist with these calculations if necessary.
Measured sound pressure levels can be compared with predicted levels to validate the calcu-
lations. Once the analytical model is validated, it is then a simple matter to investigate various
options for control and their cost-effectiveness.
In summary, a noise-control programme for an existing facility includes (see ISO 11690-1
(1996); Bakker et al. (2009) for more details):
• undertaking an assessment of the current environment where there appears to be a

problem, including the preparation of both worst case and average sound pressure
level contours where required;
• establishment of the noise-control objectives or criteria to be met;
• identification of noise transmission paths and generation mechanisms;
• rank ordering noise sources contributing to any excessive levels;
• formulating a noise-control program and implementation schedule;
• carrying out the program; and
• verifying the achievement of the objectives of the program.
1.2.5 Facilities in the Design Stage

In new facilities the problems are the same as for existing facilities and products; they are
identification of the source or sources, determination of the transmission paths of the noise from
the sources to the receivers, rank ordering of the various contributors to the problem and finally
determination of acceptable solutions. Most importantly, at the design stage the options for noise
control are generally many and may include rejection of the proposed design. Consideration
of the possible need for noise control in the design stage has the very great advantage that
an opportunity is provided to choose a process or processes that may avoid or greatly reduce
the need for noise control. Experience suggests that processes chosen because they make less
noise, often have the additional advantage of being a more efficient process than that which was
originally considered.
The first step for new facilities is to determine the noise criteria for sensitive locations, which
may typically include areas of the surrounding residential community that will be closest to the
planned facility, locations along the boundary of the land owned by the industrial company re-
sponsible for the new facility, and within the facility at locations of operators of noisy machinery.
Again, care must be taken to be conservative where surrounding communities are concerned so
that initial complaints are avoided.
In consideration of possible community noise problems following establishment of acceptable
noise criteria at sensitive locations, the next step may be to develop a computer model or to
use an existing commercial software package to estimate expected sound pressure levels (in
octave frequency bands) at the sensitive locations, based on machinery sound power level and
directivity information (the latter may not always be available), and outdoor sound propagation
prediction procedures as described in Chapter 6 and ISO 9613-2 (1996). Previous experience or
the local weather bureau can provide expected ranges in atmospheric weather conditions (wind
and temperature gradients and turbulence levels) so that a likely range and worst case sound
pressure levels can be predicted for each community location. When directivity information is
not available, it is generally assumed that the source radiates uniformly in all directions.
If the estimated sound pressure levels at any sensitive location exceed the established criteria,
then the equipment contributing most to the excess levels should be targeted for noise control,
which could take the form of:
• specifying lower equipment sound power levels, or sound pressure levels at the operator
position, to the equipment manufacturer;
• including noise-control fixtures (mufflers, barriers, enclosures, or factory walls with a
higher sound transmission loss) in the factory design; or
• rearrangement and careful planning of buildings and equipment within them.
Sufficient noise control should be specified to leave no doubt that the noise criteria will be
met at every sensitive location. Saving money at this stage is not cost-effective. If predicting
equipment sound power levels with sufficient accuracy proves difficult, it may be helpful to make
measurements on a similar existing facility or product.
More detail on noise-control strategies and noise prediction for facilities at the design stage
can be found in ISO 11690-1 (1996), ISO 11690-2 (1996) and ISO 11690-3 (1997).
Example 1.1
You are responsible for a large factory containing many items of noisy equipment. You have
been informed that some of your employees are suffering from severe hearing loss and you have
also received threats of legal action from members of the surrounding community because of
excessive noise made by your facility. List the steps (in order) that you would take to quantify
and rectify the problem.
Solution 1.1
• undertake an assessment of the current environment where there appears to be a
problem, including the preparation of sound pressure level contours where required;
• establish the noise-control objectives or criteria to be met;
• identify noise transmission paths and generation mechanisms;
• rank order noise sources contributing to any excessive levels;
• formulate a noise-control programme and implementation schedule;
• carry out the programme; and
• verify the achievement of the objectives of the programme.
1.3 Acoustical Standards and Software

Acoustical standards are available that describe standardised methods for undertaking various
calculations in acoustics and noise control. International standards are published by the In-
ternational Standards Organisation (ISO) and the International Electrotechnical Commission
(IEC). Relevant American standards are published by the American National Standards Insti-
tute (ANSI) and the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME). Relevant standards
are referenced throughout this text book but readers should also search the relevant standards
Fundamentals 7
organisation database for a possible standard to describe any measurement or calculation that is
to be undertaken. Where guidelines in American standards (ANSI and ASTM) differ from those
in international standards (ISO and IEC), most countries (except USA and Canada) base local
standards on international guidelines.
Software that is able to do the calculations outlined in this book and according to the various
standards is also available for purchase. Examples of packages for outdoor sound propagation
and prediction of sound pressure levels at various locations due to various sound sources include
SoundPlan and CadnaA. An example of a package to perform room acoustics calculations is
Odeon and a package that can perform all of the calculations in this book (and more) is ENC
(causalsystems.com). These packages are widely used by consultants in acoustics and noise con-
trol, but the packages that provide sound pressure level contours are usually quite expensive.
However, the purpose of this book is for readers to gain an understanding of the fundamental
principles that underpin these software packages, such that the input data required by the vari-
ous programs will be better understood in terms of which data needs to be accurate and which
can be estimated. In addition, the knowledge gained from this book and the example problems
will be of assistance in understanding and interpreting the results obtained from the various
software packages.
1.4 Acoustic Field Variables
1.4.1 Variables
Sound is the sensation produced at the ear by very small pressure fluctuations in the air. The
fluctuations in the surrounding air constitute a sound field. A sound field is described as a
perturbation (or fluctuation) of steady-state variables, which describe a medium through which
sound is transmitted.
For a fluid, expressions for the pressure, Ptot , velocity, Utot , temperature, Ttot and density,
ρtot , may be written in terms of the steady-state (mean values), shown as Ps , U , T and ρ and
the variable (perturbation) values, p, u, τ and σ, as follows:
Pressure : Ptot = Ps + p(r, t) (Pa)

Velocity : Utot = U + u(r, t) (m/s)
Temperature : Ttot = T + τ (r, t) (◦ C)
3
Density : ρtot = ρ + σ(r, t) (kg/m )
where r is the position vector, t is time and the variables in bold font are vector quantities.
Pressure, temperature and density are familiar scalar quantities that do not require discus-
sion. However, an explanation is required for the particle velocity u(r, t) and the vector equation
above that involves it. The notion of particle velocity is based on the assumption of a continuous
rather than a molecular medium. The term, “particle”, refers to a small part of the assumed con-
tinuous medium and not to the molecules of the medium. Thus, even though the actual motion
associated with the passage of an acoustic disturbance through the conducting medium, such
as air at high frequencies, may be of the order of the molecular motion, the particle velocity
describes a macroscopic average motion superimposed upon the inherent Brownian motion of the
medium. In the case of a convected medium moving with a mean velocity, U , which itself may
be a function of the position vector, r, and time, t, the perturbating particle velocity, u(r, t),
associated with the passage of an acoustic disturbance may be thought of as adding to the mean
velocity to give the total velocity.
Any variable could be chosen for the description of a sound field, but it is easiest to measure
pressure in a fluid, so this is the variable usually used. It has the additional advantage of providing
a scalar description of the sound field from which all other variables may be derived. For example,
the particle velocity is important for the determination of sound intensity, but it is a vector
quantity and would require three measurements as opposed to one for pressure. Additionally,
the particle velocity is often too small to be measured directly by any practical means, although
it can be inferred from acoustic pressure measurements.
1.4.2 Magnitudes
The minimum acoustic pressure audible to the young human ear judged to be in good health,
and unsullied by too much exposure to excessively loud music, is approximately 20 ×10−6 Pa,
or 2 ×10−10 atmospheres (since one atmosphere equals 101.3 ×103 Pa). The minimum audible
level occurs between 3000 and 4000 Hz and is a physical limit; lower sound pressure levels would
be swamped by thermal noise due to molecular motion in air.
For the normal human ear, pain is experienced at sound pressures of the order of 60 Pa or
6 ×10−4 atmospheres. Evidently, acoustic pressures ordinarily are quite small fluctuations about
the mean atmospheric pressure.
1.4.3 The Speed of Sound

Sound is conducted to the ear by longitudinal waves travelling through the surrounding medium.
Consequently, it is customary to refer to longitudinal waves as sound waves for which the associ-
ated particle motion in the transmitting medium is parallel to the direction of wave propagation.
In general, the medium surrounding the ear will be air and sometimes water but sound energy
may be transported by all gases, fluids and solids. Consequently, the speed of travel of sound
waves has been generalised to mean the speed of travel of longitudinal waves propagating through
any medium. For gases, the speed of sound is:
p p
c= γPs /ρ = γRT /M ≈ 331 + 0.6(T − 273.15) (m/s) (1.1)
where γ is the ratio of specific heats (1.40 for air), T is the temperature in Kelvin (K), R is
the universal gas constant which has the value 8.314 J mol−1 K−1 and M is the molecular
weight, which for air is 0.029 kg/mol. For sound propagating in free space, Ps is the atmospheric
pressure. Equation (1.1) is derived in many standard texts: for example, Morse (1948), Pierce
(1981), and Kinsler et al. (1999).
For calculations in this text, unless otherwise stated, a temperature of 20◦ C for air will be
assumed, resulting in a speed of sound of 343 m/s and an air density of 1.206 kg/m3 at sea level,
thus giving ρc = 413.7. Some representative speeds of sound are given in Appendix A.
Example 1.2
(a) Verify from fundamental principles that the speed of sound in Helium is 1/0.34 times
that in air. Helium has a molecular weight of 4 g/mole and it is a monatomic gas for
which the average number of excited degrees of freedom is 3. Thus the ratio of specific
heats γ = (3 + 2)/3. Air has a molecular weight of 29 g/mole.
(b) Explain why taking a mouthful of helium from a balloon makes you speak with a high
pitched voice.
Solution 1.2
(a) Speed of sound is given by Equation (1.1). The only variables that are different for
the two gases are γ and M . Thus:
Fundamentals 9
1/2 1/2 1/2

4 1.4

cair MHe γair
= × = = 0.34.
cHe γHe Mair 5/3 29
(b) The wavelength of sound emitted from one’s mouth is a function of the vocal cord
properties which remain unchanged by the presence of helium. As f λ = c, and λ
is fixed (as the vocal cord properties are fixed) and c is faster in helium, the sound
emanating from your mouth will be higher in pitch.
Example 1.3
Given the first-order approximation that cwet = (1 + 0.16h)cdry , calculate the speed, c, of sound
in air at 30◦ C with a relative humidity of 95%. The quantity, h, is the fraction of total molecules
which are H2 O. Vapour pressure of water at 30◦ C is 4240 Pa and h = (vapour pressure/total
pressure) × (%relative humidity/100). Assume the total pressure is atmospheric (101.4 kPa).
Solution 1.3
Using the relation for h given in the question and knowing that atmospheric pressure is 101.4 kPa,
4240 95
we can write, h = × = 0.0397.
101.4 × 103 100
The speed of sound in dry air at 30◦ C is given by Equation (1.1) as:
cdry = γRT /M = 1.4 × 8.314 × 303.2/0.029 = 348.8 m/s.
p p
Using the equation given in the question, the speed of sound in wet air is then:
cwet = 348.8(1 + 0.0397 × 0.16) = 351.0 m/s.
Example 1.4
A reciprocating compressor installation is suffering piping joint failures due to excessive fluid
pulsations at the compressor discharge. Prior to designing pulsation dampeners (see Chapter 8),
it is necessary to calculate the speed of sound in the compressed gas and this must include the
gas flow speed.
Assume a gas discharge pressure of 8 MPa, a temperature of 120◦ C, a pipe diameter of 0.1 m,
ratio of specific heats of the gas of 1.4 and a molecular weight of 29 grams/mole. The volume of
gas flowing in the system is 250,000 m3 per day, measured at 15◦ C and standard atmospheric
pressure. This volume flow rate would be different inside the pipe where the pressure is much
greater than atmospheric pressure. Calculate:
(a) gas mass flow rate (kg/s) using the universal gas law, Ps V = (m/M )RT , where Ps
is the gas absolute pressure, V is the gas volume, m is the mass of gas, M is the
molecular weight of the gas, T is its temperature in Kelvin (K) and R is the universal
gas constant (Joules mol−1 K−1 );
(b) density of gas in the discharge pipe;
(c) gas flow speed in the discharge pipe (m/s); and
(d) speed of sound in the gas relative to the pipe and in the direction of gas flow.
Solution 1.4
Gas volume flow rate = 250000 m3 per day at STP.

ṁ
Gas Law also applies to a moving fluid, so Equation (1.1) gives: Ps V̇ = RT .
M
250000
Ps and T are the absolute pressure (Pa) and temperature (K), respectively, and V̇ = =
24 × 3600
2.894 m3 /s.
(a) The mass flow rate (which is the same no matter where it is measured according to
the law of conservation of mass) is given by:
Ps V̇ M 101, 400 × 0.029 × 2.8935
ṁ = = = 3.550 kg/s.
RT 8.314 × 288.2
(b) The density of gas in the pipe is equal to the mass flow rate divided by the volume
flow rate. Thus:
ṁ Ps M 8 × 106 × 0.029 3
ρ= = = = 71.0 kg/m .
V̇ RT 8.314 × 393.2
(c) The gas flow speed in the discharge pipe is equal to the volume flow rate divided by
the pipe cross-sectional area. Thus:
4 4 ṁ 4 3.551
U= V̇ = = × = 6.37 m/s.
πd2 πd2 ρ π × 0.01 71.0
(d) The speed of sound (relative to the fluid) is given by Equation (1.1) as:
1/2
γPs
c= = 1.4 × 8 × 106 /71.0 = 397 m/s.
p
ρ
Speed of sound relative to the pipe is thus: 397.2 + 6.4 = 404 m/s.
Example 1.5
What is the speed of sound in a gasoline engine cylinder just after combustion when the pressure
is 200 times atmospheric pressure and the temperature is 1000◦ C? The ratio of specific heats of
the gas mixture is 1.35 and the gas density is 1.4kg/m3 at 0◦ C and atmospheric pressure.
Solution 1.5
The speed of sound is given by Equation (1.1). Thus, c = γRT /M and for any gas, (R/M )
p
is fixed. We can find (R/M ) by using the properties at 0◦ C and the expression from Equation
(1.1):
m R Ps V
Ps V = RT or = .
M M mT
1/2
101400 1.35 × 101400 × 1273

R
As (m/V ) = 1.4 kg/m , = 3
and thus c = = 675 m/s.
M 1.4 × 273 1.4 × 273
Example 1.6
Show, using the Universal Gas Law, that the value of ρc of air is equal to 400 at sea level and
at a temperature of 40◦ C.
Solution 1.6
Using Equation (1.1), it can be shown that:
p
γPs M c γPs γRT /M γPs 1.4 × 101400
ρc = = = p = p = 400.4.
γRT γRT /M γRT /M 1.4 × 8.314 × 313.2/0.029
Fundamentals 11
1.4.4 Acoustic Potential Function and the Wave Equation

The hydrodynamic equations, from which the equations governing acoustic phenomena derive,
are, in general, quite complex, and well beyond solution in closed form. Fortunately, acoustic
phenomena are associated with very small perturbations. Thus, it is possible to greatly simplify
the governing equations to obtain the relatively simple equations of acoustics. The equations are
said to have been linearised, and the phenomena described are referred to as linear acoustics,
which is adequate for the cases discussed in this text and for sound pressure levels less than
130 dB re 20 µPa.
The potential function, φ, provides a means for determining both the acoustic pressure and
particle velocity by simple differentiation, as will be shown, and is thus a very useful function.
The potential function, φ, is defined such that the particle velocity is equal to its negative
gradient:
u = −∇φ (1.2)
The acoustic potential function may also be used to determine the acoustic pressure, which
for small, negligible or absent convection velocity, U , is given by the following expression:
∂φ
p=ρ (1.3)
∂t
The acoustic potential function satisfies the well-known linearised wave equation as follows:
∇2 φ = (1/c2 )∂ 2 φ/∂t2 (1.4)
The same equation applies if the acoustic pressure variable, p, is used to replace φ in Equation
(1.4). However, the wave equation for the acoustic particle velocity is more complicated. Deriva-
tions of the wave equation in terms of acoustical particle velocity and in the presence of a mean
flow are given in Chapter 1 of Hansen (2018). Other useful books containing derivations of the
wave equation are Fahy and Thompson (2015) and Fahy (2001).
1.4.5 Complex Number Formulations

In the remainder of the book, sound waves will often be represented using complex num-
bers with real and imaginary parts, so that, for example, the time-varying sound pressure,
p, at a particular location of an acoustic wave of frequency, ω (Hz), may be represented as,
p = (a + jb)e jωt√= p̂e jωt = |p̂|e j(ωt+β) , where p̂ is the complex pressure amplitude of the sound
wave and |p̂| = a2 + b2 . The angle, β (radians), is included in p̂ and is the phase of p relative
to some reference which could be its particle velocity, the sound pressure at another location or
the sound pressure of another sound wave of the same frequency. The purpose in using complex
numbers to represent a relative phase is to enable representation of the phase and amplitude of
a sound wave in a form that is easily amenable to mathematical manipulation. In the remainder
of this book, for any sinusoidally time-varying complex quantity, x, its complex amplitude will
be denoted, x̂, and its scalar amplitude will be denoted |x̂|.
1.5 Plane, Cylindrical and Spherical Waves
In general, sound wave propagation is quite complicated and not amenable to simple analysis.
However, sound wave propagation can often be described in terms of the propagation properties
of plane, cylindrical and spherical waves.
1.5.1 Plane Wave Propagation

For the case of plane wave propagation, only one spatial dimension, x, the direction of propaga-
tion, is required to describe the acoustic field. An example of plane wave propagation is sound
propagating along the centre line of a tube with rigid walls. In this case, Equation (1.4) reduces
to:
∂ 2 φ/∂x2 = (1/c2 )∂ 2 φ/∂t2 (1.5)
The same equation applies for acoustic pressure by replacing φ with p in Equation (1.5). A
solution for Equation (1.5) which may be verified by direct substitution, is:
φ = f(c t ± x) (1.6)
Using Equations (1.2) and (1.3), the following equations may be obtained:
u = ∓f 0 (c t ± x) (1.7)
p = ρcf 0 (c t ± x) (1.8)
where the prime denotes differentiation with respect to the argument of f. Division of Equa-
tion (1.8) by Equation (1.7) gives:
p/u = ±ρc (1.9)
which is a very important result – the characteristic impedance, ρc, of a plane wave. The char-
acteristic impedance is one of three kinds of impedance used in acoustics. It provides a very
useful relationship between acoustic pressure and particle velocity in a plane wave. It also has
the property that a duct terminated in its characteristic impedance will respond as an infinite
duct, as no wave will be reflected at its termination.
In Equation (1.9), the positive sign is taken for waves travelling in the positive x-direction,
while the negative sign is taken for waves travelling in the negative x-direction.
Fourier analysis enables the representation of any function, f(c t ± x), as a sum or integral of
harmonic functions. Thus, it will be useful for consideration of the wave equation to investigate
the special properties of harmonic solutions. Consideration will begin with the following harmonic
solution for the acoustic potential function:
φ = A cos(k(c t ± x) + β) (1.10)
where k is a constant, which will be investigated, and β is an arbitrary constant representing

an arbitrary relative phase, which is only relevant when there is more than one wave. As β is
arbitrary in Equation (1.10), for fixed time, t, β may be chosen so that:
kc t + β = 0 (1.11)
In this case, Equation (1.6) reduces to the following representation of the spatial distribution:
φ = A cos(kx) = A cos(2πx/λ) (1.12)
From Equation (1.12) it may be concluded that the unit of length, λ, defined as the wavelength
of the propagating wave and the constant, k, defined as the wavenumber are related as:
2π/λ = k (1.13)
An example of harmonic (single frequency) plane wave propagation in a tube is illustrated

in Figure 1.1. The type of wave generated is longitudinal, as shown in Figure 1.1(a) and the
corresponding pressure fluctuations as a function of time are shown in Figure 1.1(b).
Fundamentals 13
(a)
Wavelength
Acoustic
pressure
pmax
+ +
(b)
patm
FIGURE 1.1 Representation of a sound wave: (a) compressions and rarefactions of a sound wave
in space at a fixed instance in time; (b) graphical representation of sound pressure variation.
The distribution in space has been considered and now the distribution in time for a fixed
point in space will be considered. The arbitrary phase constant, β, of Equation (1.10) will be
chosen so that, for fixed position, x:
β ± kx = 0 (1.14)
Equation (1.10) then reduces to the following representation for the temporal distribution:
2π
φ = A cos(kc t) = A cos t (1.15)
Tp
The period, Tp , of the propagating wave is given by:
2π/kc = Tp (s) (1.16)
Its reciprocal is the more familiar frequency, f . Since the angular frequency, ω = 2πf (radians/s),
is quite often used as well, the following relation should be noted:
2π/Tp = 2πf = ω (rad/s) (1.17)
and from Equations (1.16) and (1.17):
k = ω/c (rad/m) (1.18)
and from Equations (1.13), (1.17), and (1.18):
fλ = c (m/s) (1.19)
The wavenumber, k, may be thought of as a spatial frequency, where k is the analogue of

frequency, f , and wavelength, λ, is the analogue of the period, Tp .
The relationship between wavelength and frequency, for sound propagating in air, is illus-
trated in Figure 1.2.
The wavelength of generally audible sound varies by a factor of about one thousand. The
shortest audible wavelength is 17 mm (corresponding to 20000 Hz) and the longest is 17 m
(corresponding to 20 Hz), although humans can detect sound via their vestibular system (which
Wavelength (m)
20 10 5 2 1 0.5 0.2 0.1 0.05 0.02
20 50 100 200 500 1000 2000 5000 10000 20000

Audible frequency (Hz)
FIGURE 1.2 Wavelength in air versus frequency under normal conditions.
the ear is part of) at much lower frequencies if it is sufficiently loud. Letting A = B/ρω in
Equation (1.10) and use of Equation (1.18) and either (1.2) or (1.3) gives the following useful
expressions for the acoustic pressure and the particle velocity, respectively, for a plane wave:
p = Bsin(ωt ∓ kx + β) (Pa) (1.20)
B
u=± sin(ωt ∓ kx + β) (m/s) (1.21)
ρc
Acoustic velocity potential and acoustic pressure harmonic solutions to the wave equation are
complex and may be written as follows in terms of either exponential or trigonometric functions:
φ = Ae j(ωt±kx+β) = A cos(ωt ± kx + β) + jA sin(ωt ± kx + β) (1.22)
p = Be j(ωt±kx+β) = B cos(ωt ± kx + β) + jB sin(ωt ± kx + β) (1.23)

√
where j = −1 and B = A/(jρω) = Ae−jπ/2 /(ρω), indicating that the pressure phase lags the
velocity potential phase by 90◦ . In Equations (1.22) and (1.23), the negative sign represents a
wave travelling in the positive x-direction, while the positive sign represents a wave travelling
in the negative x-direction. The real parts of Equation (1.22) are just the solutions given by
Equation (1.10). The imaginary parts of Equation (1.22) are also solutions, but in quadrature
(90◦ out of phase) with the former solutions. It can also be seen that the 90◦ phase difference
between the real and imaginary solutions represents a fixed time shift so the two solutions may
be considered the same if the start time of one is adjusted by the time equivalent to a 90◦ phase
shift.
By convention, the complex notation is defined so that what is measured with an instrument
corresponds to the real part; the imaginary part is then inferred from the real part. The complex
exponential form of the harmonic solution to the wave equation is used as a mathematical
convenience, as it greatly simplifies mathematical manipulations, allows waves with different
phases to be added together easily and allows graphical representation of the solution as a
rotating vector in the complex plane. Setting β = 0 and x = 0, allows Equation (1.22) to be
rewritten as:
Ae jωt = A exp {jωt} = A(cos ωt + j sin ωt) (1.24)
Equation (1.24) represents harmonic motion that may be represented at any time, t, as a rotating
vector of constant magnitude, A, and constant angular velocity, ω, as illustrated in Figure 1.3.
Referring to the figure, the projection of the rotating vector on the abscissa, x-axis, is given by
the real term on the right hand side of Equation (1.24) and the projection of the rotating vector
on the ordinate, y-axis, is given by the imaginary term.
Use of the complex form of the solution makes integration and differentiation particularly
simple. Also, impedances are conveniently described using this notation. For these reasons, the
complex notation will be used throughout this book. However, care must be taken in the use of
the complex notation when multiplying one function by another. In the calculation of products
of actual quantities expressed in complex notation it is important to remember that for these
actual quantities, the product implies that only like quantities are multiplied, so the product is
not a full complex product. In general, the real parts of the quantities are multiplied, rather than
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"Now, if I hadn't showed up here just now, what did you intend to do?"
"I intended to stop the machine, of course," Trelawney said. His
expression hadn't changed while Dowland was talking. "Preferably
without involving the Solar Police Authority in our activities. But since
you've now involved yourself, I urgently suggest that we go to the
laboratory immediately and take care of the matter together."
Dowland nodded. "That's what I had in mind, Trelawney. Technically

you're under arrest, of course, and you'll do whatever has to be done
in there at gun point. Are we likely to run into any difficulties in the
operation?"
"We very probably will," Trelawney said thoughtfully, "and it's just as
probable that we won't know what they are before we encounter
them."
Dowland stood up. "All right," he said, "let's go. We'll stop off at the
house on the way. I want to be sure that Miss Trelawney isn't in a
position to do something thoughtless."
He emptied the magazine of Trelawney's rifle before giving it to him.
They started down to the house, Trelawney in the lead, the IPA gun in
Dowland's hand.
The house door was closed. Trelawney glanced back questioningly.
Dowland said in a low voice, "It isn't locked. Open it, go on in, and
stop two steps inside the hallway. I'll be behind you. They're both in
the living room."
He followed Trelawney in, reaching back to draw the door shut again.
There was a whisper of sound. Dowland half turned, incredulously felt
something hard jab painfully against his backbone. He stood still.
"Drop your gun, Dowland," Jill Trelawney said behind him. Her voice
was as clear and unslurred as if she had been awake for hours.
Dowland cursed himself silently. She must have come around the
corner of the house the instant they went in.
"My gun's pointing at your uncle's back," he said. "Don't do anything
that might make me nervous, Miss Trelawney."
"Don't try to bluff Jill, friend," Paul Trelawney advised him without
turning his head. There was dry amusement in the man's voice. "No
one's ever been able to do it. And she's quite capable of concluding
that trading an uncle for an SPA spy would still leave Terra ahead at
this stage. But that shouldn't be necessary. Jill?"
"Yes, Paul?"
"Give our policeman a moment to collect his wits. This does put him
in a very embarrassing position, after all. And I can use his help in the
lab."
"I'll give you exactly three seconds, Dowland," Jill said. "And you'd
better believe that is not a bluff. One...."
Dowland dropped his gun.
The two Trelawneys held a brief, whispered conversation in the living

room. Dowland, across the room from them, and under cover of two
guns now, couldn't catch much of it. Jill was in one of the radiation
suits he'd brought in from the storeroom. Miguel was dead. He had
still been unconscious when she woke up, and had stopped breathing
minutes afterwards. Medic had done what it could; in this case it
simply hadn't been enough. Jill, however, had found another use for
it. Dowland thought the possibility mightn't have occurred to anyone
else in similar circumstances; but he still should have thought of it
when he left the house. As she began to struggle up from sleep, she
remembered what Dowland had told her about medic, and somehow
she had managed to inject a full ampule of it into her arm. It had
brought her completely awake within minutes.
The murmured talk ended. The girl looked rather white and frightened
now. Paul Trelawney's face was expressionless as he came over to
Dowland. Jill shoved the gun she had put on Dowland into her belt,
picked up Paul's hunting rifle, held it in her hands, and stood waiting.
"Here's the procedure, Dowland," Trelawney said. "Jill will go over to
the lab with us, but stay outside on guard. She'll watch...."
"Did you tell her," Dowland interrupted, "to keep an eye out for
something that stands twice as high as this house?"
Trelawney looked at him a moment. "So you ran into it," he said. "I
was wondering. It's very curious that ... well, one thing at a time. I
cautioned her about it, as it happens. Now come over to the table."
Dowland remained standing beside the table, while across from him
Trelawney rapidly sketched out two diagrams on a piece of paper.
The IPA gun lay on the table near Trelawney's right hand. There
might have been an outside chance of reaching it if one could have
discounted Jill's watchfulness. Which, Dowland decided, one couldn't.
And he'd seen her reload the rifle she was holding. He stayed where
he was.
Trelawney shoved the paper across to him.
"Both diagrams represent our machine," he said, "and they should
give you a general idea of what you'll see. This wheel here is at the
far side of the console when we come in the door. The wheel is the
flow regulator—the thing you have to keep in mind. There are scale
markings on it. The major markings have the numbers one to five.
Yesterday morning the regulator was set at five—full flow. Spin the
wheel back to one, and the Ym-400 that's been producing the flow
goes inert. Is that clear?"
Dowland nodded. "Clear enough."
"After that," Trelawney remarked, "we may be able to take things a
little easier."
"What's the quantity you're using in there?"
"No real reason I should tell you that, is there? But I will. The sixty-
eight kilograms the Overgovernment's been grieving about are under
the machine platform. We're using all of it." He grinned briefly,
perhaps at Dowland's expression. "The type of job we had in mind
required quantities in that class. Now, about yourself. We're not
murderers. Jill tells me you can't be bribed—all right. What will
happen, when this thing's settled, is that you'll have an attack of
amnesia. Several months of your life will be permanently lost from
your memory, including, of course, everything connected with this
operation. Otherwise you won't be harmed. Understand?"
"I've heard of such things," Dowland said drily.
It wouldn't, however, be done that way. It was the kind of thing told a
man already as good as dead, to keep him from making a desperate
attempt to save himself. The Freeholders really wouldn't have much
choice. Something had loused up their plans here, and if Dowland
either disappeared or was found suffering from a sudden bout of
amnesia, the IPA would turn its full attention on Terra at once. If he
died, his death could be plausibly arranged to look like an accident or
a killing for personal motives. These people were quite capable of
sacrificing one of their group to back such a story up. And it would
pass. Terra was under no more immediate suspicion than any other
world. Dowland had been on a routine assignment.
There were a few brief preparations. Paul Trelawney checked the

batteries in the radiation suits he and Jill were wearing, then
exchanged his set for that of the spare suit. Dowland left his own AR
field off for the moment. It was at least as adequate as the one
developed by the Trelawneys' suits, and in some respects a much
more practical device. But the suit batteries had an effective life of
twenty-four hours, expending them automatically while the suits were
worn. His field would maintain itself for a minimum of an hour and a
half, a maximum of two hours. In this situation, Dowland wasn't sure
how long he would have to depend on the field. A few more minutes
of assured protection might make a difference.
He saw Trelawney studying the mountaineering rig on the floor; then
he picked up the harness and brought it over to him.
"Here, put it on," he said.
"What for?" Dowland asked, surprised.
Trelawney grinned. "We may have a use for it. You'll find out in a
minute or two."
They left the house by a back entrance. Clouds were banked low on
the eastern horizon now; the first sunlight gleamed pale gold beneath
them. In the west the sky was brown with swirling dust. Jill stopped
twenty yards from the laboratory building and stood on the slope, rifle
in hand, watching the men go on. At the door, Dowland switched on
his AR field. Trelawney tossed the disk-shaped key over to him.
"Know how to use it?"
Dowland nodded.
"All right. After you've snapped it in and it releases again, throw it
back to me. It may be the last one around, and we're not taking it into
the laboratory this time. When the door starts moving down, step
back to the right of it. We'll see what the lab is like before we go in."
Trelawney indicated a thimble-sized instrument on his suit. "This'll tell
whether the place is hot at the moment, and approximately how hot."
He waved the IPA gun in Dowland's direction. "All right, go ahead."
Dowland fitted the key into the central depression in the door,
pressed down, felt the key snap into position with a sharp twisting
motion of its own, released his pressure on it. An instant later, the key
popped back out into his hand. He tossed it back to Trelawney, who
caught it left-handed and threw it over his head in Jill's direction. The
disk thudded heavily into the grass ten feet from her. The girl walked
over, picked it up, and slid it into one of her suit pockets.
The slab of metasteel which made up the laboratory door began
moving vertically downward. The motion stopped when the door's top
rim was still several inches above the level of the sill.
A low droning came from the little instrument on Trelawney's suit. It
rose and fell irregularly like the buzz of a circling wasp. Mingled with it
was something that might have been the hiss of escaping steam.
That was Dowland's detector confirming. The lab reeked with
radiation.
He glanced over at Trelawney.
"Hot enough," the Freeholder said. "We'll go inside. But stay near the
door for a moment. There's something else I want to find out
about...."
Inside, the laboratory was unpartitioned and largely empty, a great

shell of a building. Only the section to the left of the entrance
appeared to have been used. That section was lighted. The light
arose evenly from the surfaces of the raised machine platform
halfway over to the opposite wall. The platform was square, perhaps
twenty feet along its sides. Dowland recognized the apparatus on it
from Trelawney's diagrams. The central piece was an egg-shaped
casing which appeared to be metasteel. Near its blunt end, partly
concealed, stood the long, narrow instrument console. Behind the
other end of the casing, an extension ramp jutted out above the
platform. At the end of the ramp was a six-foot disk that might have
been quartz, rimless, brightly iridescent. It was tilted to the left, facing
the bank of instruments.
"A rather expensive bit of equipment over there, Dowland," Trelawney
said. "My brother developed the concept, very nearly in complete
detail, almost twenty-five years ago. But a great deal of time and
thought and work came then before the concept turned into the
operating reality on that platform."
He nodded to the left. "That's Miguel's coat on the floor. I wasn't sure
it would still be here. The atomic key you were searching for so
industriously last night is in one of its pockets. Miguel was standing
just there, with the coat folded over his arm, when I saw him last—
perhaps two or three seconds before I was surprised to discover I
was no longer looking at the instrument controls in our laboratory."
"Where were you?" Dowland asked. "Six hundred thousand years in
the past?"
"The instruments showed a fix on that point in time," Trelawney said.
"But this was, you understand, a preliminary operation. We intended
to make a number of observations. We had not planned a personal
transfer for several more weeks. But in case the test turned out to be
successful beyond our expectations, I was equipped to make the
transfer. That bit of optimistic foresight is why I'm still alive."
What was the man waiting for? Dowland asked, "What actually
happened?"
"A good question, I'd like to know the whole answer myself. What
happened in part was that I suddenly found myself in the air, falling
toward a river. It was night and cloudy, but there was light enough to
show it was a thoroughly inhospitable river.... And now I believe"—his
voice slowed thoughtfully—"I believe I understand why my brother
was found outside the closed door of this building. Over there,
Dowland. What does that look like to you?"
Near the far left of the building, beyond the immediate range of the
light that streamed from the machine stand, a big packing crate
appeared to have been violently—and rather oddly—torn apart. The
larger section of the crate lay near the wall, the smaller one
approximately twenty feet closer to the machine platform. Assorted
items with which it had been packed had spilled out from either
section. But the floor between the two points of wreckage was bare
and unlittered. Except for that, one might have thought the crate had
exploded.
"It wasn't an explosion," Trelawney agreed when Dowland said as

much. He was silent a moment, went on, "In this immediate area, two
space-time frames have become very nearly superimposed. There is
a constant play of stresses now as the two frames attempt to adjust
their dissimilarities. Surrounding our machine we have a spherical
concentration of those stresses, and there are moments when space
here is literally wrenched apart. If one were caught at such an instant
—ah!"
To Dowland it seemed that a crack of bright color had showed briefly
in the floor of the building, between the door and the machine
platform. It flickered, vanished, reappeared at another angle before
his ears had fully registered the fact that it was accompanied by a
curiously chopped-off roar of sound. Like a play of lightning. But this
was....
The air opened out before him, raggedly framing a bright-lit three-
dimensional picture. He was staring down across a foaming river to
the rim of a towering green and yellow forest. The crash of the river
filled the building. Something bulky and black at the far left ... but the
scene was gone—
The interior of the laboratory building lay quiet and unchanged before
them again. Dowland said hoarsely, "How did you know what was
going to happen?"
"I was in a position to spend several hours observing it," Trelawney
said, "from the other side. You see now, I think, that we can put your
mountaineer's kit to some very practical use here."
Dowland glanced across the building. "The walls...."
"Metasteel," Trelawney said, "and thank God for that. The building's
sound; the stresses haven't affected it. We'll have some anchor
points. A clamp piton against that wall, six feet above the console
walk and in line with it, another one against the doorframe here, and
we can rope across."
Dowland saw it, unsnapped his harness, fed the end of the
magnerope through the eye of a piton, and twisted it tight. "Are we
going together?" he asked.
Trelawney shook his head. "You're going, Dowland. Sorry about that,
but this is no time for sporting gestures. The rope doesn't eliminate
the danger. But if you find your feet suddenly dangling over the air of
a very old time, you'll still stay here—I hope. If you don't make it
across, I'll follow. We get two chances to shut Ymir down instead of
one. All right?"
"Since you have the gun, yes," Dowland said. "If I had it, it would be
the other way around."
"Of course," Trelawney agreed. He watched in silence then as
Dowland rammed the threaded piton down the muzzle of the gun,
locked it in position, took aim across the machine platform, and fired.
The piton clamp made a slapping sound against the far wall, froze
against it. Dowland gave the loose end of the rope a few tugs, said,
"Solid," cut the rope, and handed the end to Trelawney.
The Freeholder reached up to set a second piton against the
doorframe, fed a loop of the rope through it, and twisted it tight.
Dowland slipped a set of grappling gloves out of the harness, pulled
one over his right hand, tossed the other to Trelawney. "In case," he
said, "you have to follow. Magnerope gets to be wearing on bare
hands."
Trelawney looked briefly surprised, then grinned. "Thanks," he said.
"Can you do it with one glove?"
"No strain at that distance."
"Too bad you're not a Terran, Dowland. We could have used you."
"I'm satisfied," Dowland said. "Any point in waiting now for another
run of those cracks in space before making the trip?"
Trelawney shook his head. "None at all, I'm afraid. From what I saw,
there's no more regularity in those stress patterns than there is in a
riptide. You see how the rope is jerking right now—you'll get pulled
around pretty savagely, I'd say, even if you don't run into open splits
on the way across."
Dowland was fifteen feet from the door, half running with both hands
on the rope, when something plucked at him. He strained awkwardly
sideways, feet almost lifting from the floor. Abruptly he was released,
went stumbling forward a few steps before the next invisible current
tugged at him, pulling him downward now. It was a very much
stronger pull, and for endless seconds it continued to build up. His
shoulders seemed ready to snap before he suddenly came free
again.
The rest of the way to the platform remained almost undisturbed, but
Dowland was trembling with tensions before he reached it; he could
feel the drag of the AR field on his breathing. The steps to the
platform were a dozen feet to his right—too far from the rope.
Dowland put his weight on the rope, swung forward and up, let the
rope go and came down on the narrow walk between instrument
board and machine section. The panels shone with their own light; at
the far end he saw the flow-control wheel Trelawney had indicated, a
red pointer opposite the numeral "5." Dowland took two steps toward
it, grasped the wheel, and spun it down.
The pointer stopped at "1." He heard it click into position there.
Instantly, something slammed him sideways against the console, sent
him staggering along it, and over the low railing at the end of the
platform. The floor seemed to be shuddering as he struck it, and then
to tilt slowly. Dowland rolled over, came up on hands and knees,
facing back toward the platform. Daylight blazed again in the building
behind him, and the roar of a river that rolled through another time
filled his ears. He got to his feet, plunged back toward the whipping
rope above the platform. The light and the roaring cut off as he
grasped the rope, flashed back into the building, cut off again.
Somewhere somebody had screamed....
Dowland swung about on the rope, went handing himself along it,
back toward the door. His feet flopped about over the floor, unable to
get a stand there for more than an instant. It was a struggle now to
get enough air through the antiradiation field into his lungs. He saw
dust whip past the open door, momentarily obscuring it. The building
bucked with earthquake fury. And where was Trelawney?
He saw the red, wet thing then, lying by the wall just inside the door;
and sickness seized him because Trelawney's body was stretched
out too far to make it seem possible it had ever been that of a man.
Dust blasted in through the door as he reached it, and subsided,
leaving a choking residue trapped within the radiation screen. If he
could only cut off the field....
His gun lay too close to the sodden mess along the wall. Dowland
picked it up, was bending to snatch the climbing harness from the
floor when light flared behind him again. Automatically, he looked
back.
Once more the interior of the building seemed to have split apart.
Wider now. He saw the rushing white current below. To the right,
above the forest on the bank, the sun was a swollen red ball glaring
through layers of mist. And to the left, moving slowly over the river in
the blaze of long-dead daylight, was something both unmistakable
and not to be believed. But, staring at it in the instant before the
scene shivered and vanished again, Dowland suddenly thought he
knew what had happened here.
What he had seen was a spaceship.
He turned, went stumbling hurriedly out the door into the whistling
wind, saw Jill Trelawney standing there, white-faced, eyes huge,
hands to her mouth.
He caught her shoulder. "Come on! We've got to get away from here."
She gasped, "It—tore him apart!"
"We can't help him...." Dust clouds were spinning over the back of the
mesa, concealing the upper slopes. Dowland glanced to the west,
winced at the towering mountain of darkness sweeping toward them
through the sky. He plunged up the slope, hauling her along behind
him. Jill cried out incoherently once, in a choking voice, but he didn't
stop to hear what she was trying to say. He shoved her into the
house, slammed the door shut behind them, hurried her on down the
hall and into the living room. As they came in, he switched off his AR
field and felt air fill his lungs easily again. It was like surfacing out of
deep water. The detector still hissed its thin warning, but it was
almost inaudible. They would have to risk radiation now.
"Out of your suit, quick! Whatever's happening in the lab has whistled
up a dust storm here. When it hits, that radiation field will strangle you
in a minute outdoors."
She stared at him dumbly.
"Get out of your suit!" Dowland shouted, his nerves snapping. "We're
going down the eastern wall. It's our only chance. But we can't get
down alive if we can't breathe...." Then, as she began unbuckling the
suit hurriedly with shaking fingers, he turned to the pile of camping
equipment beside the fireplace and pawed through it.
He found the communicator and was snapping it to the
mountaineering harness when the front door slammed. He wheeled
about, startled. Jill's radiation suit lay on the floor near the entry hall.
She was gone.
He was tearing the door open three seconds later, shouted, and saw
her through the dust forty feet away, running up toward the forest.
He mightn't have caught her if she hadn't stumbled and gone
headlong. Dowland was on top of her before she could get up. She
fought him in savage silence like an animal, tearing and biting, her
eyes bloodshot slits. There was a mechanical fury about it that
appalled him. But at last he got his right arm free, and brought his fist
up solidly to the side of her jaw. Jill's head flew back, and her eyes
closed.
He came padding up to the eastern side of the mesa with her minutes
later. Here, beyond the ranch area, the ground was bare rock, with
occasional clusters of stunted bushes. The dust had become blinding,
though the main storm was still miles away. There was no time to
stop off at the house to look for the quiz-gun, though it would have
been better to try the descent with a dazed and half-paralyzed young
woman than with the twisting lunatic Jill might turn into again when
she recovered from his punch. At least, he'd have her tied up.
Underfoot were grinding and grumbling noises now, the ground
shaking constantly. At moments he had the feeling of plodding
through something yielding, like quicksand. Only the feeling, he told
himself; the rock was solid enough. But....
Abruptly, he was at the mesa's edge. Dowland slid the girl to the
ground, straightened up, panting, to dab at his smarting eyes. The
mesa behind them had almost vanished in swirling dust.
And through the dust Dowland saw something coming over the open
ground he had just traversed.
He stared at it, mouth open, stunned with a sense of unfairness. The
gigantic shape was still only partly visible, but it was obvious that it
was following them. It approached swiftly over the shaking ground.
Dowland took out his gun, with the oddly calm conviction that it would
be entirely useless against their pursuer. But he brought it up slowly
and leveled it, squinting with streaming eyes through the dust.
And then it happened. The pursuer appeared to falter. It moved again
in some manner; something thundered into the ground beside
Dowland. Then, writhing and twisting—slowly at first, then faster—the
dust-veiled shape seemed to be sinking downward through the rock
surface of the mesa.
In another instant, it was gone.
Seconds passed before Dowland gradually lowered the gun again.
Dazedly, he grew aware of something else that was different now. A
miniature human voice appeared to be jabbering irritably at him from
some point not far away. His eyes dropped to the little communicator
attached to his harness.
The voice came from there.
Terra's grid-power had returned to Lion Mesa.
A week later, Lieutenant Frank Dowland was shown into the office of
the chief of the Solar Police Authority. The chief introduced him to the
two other men there, who were left unidentified, and told him to be
seated.
"Lieutenant," he said, "these gentlemen have a few questions to ask
you. You can speak as openly to them as you would to me."
Dowland nodded. He had recognized one of the gentlemen
immediately—Howard Camhorn, the Coordinator of Research.
Reputedly one of the sharpest minds in the Overgovernment's top
echelons. The other one was unfamiliar. He was a few years younger
than Camhorn, around six inches shorter, chunky, with black hair,
brown eyes, an expression of owlish reflectiveness. Probably,
Dowland thought, wearing contact lenses. "Yes, sir," he said to the
chief, and looked back at the visitors.
"We've seen your report on your recent visit to Terra, Lieutenant
Dowland," Camhorn began pleasantly. "An excellent report,
incidentally—factual, detailed. What we should like to hear now are
the things that you, quite properly, omitted from it. That is, your
personal impressions and conclusions."
"For example," the other man took up, as Dowland hesitated, "Miss
Trelawney has informed us her uncles were attempting to employ the
Ym-400 they had acquired to carry out a time-shift to an earlier Earth
period—to the period known as the Pleistocene, to be somewhat
more exact. From what you saw, would you say they had succeeded
in doing it?"
"I don't know, sir," Dowland said. "I've been shown pictures
representing that period during the past few days. The scene I
described in the report probably might have existed at that time." He
smiled briefly. "However, I have the impression that the very large
flying creature I reported encountering that night is regarded as being
... well, er ... ah...."
"A product of excited nerves?" the short man said, nodding. "Under
such extraordinary circumstances, that would be quite possible, you
know."
"Yes, sir, I know."
The short man smiled. "But you don't think it was that?"
"No, sir," Dowland said. "I think that I have described exactly what I
did hear and see."
"And you feel the Trelawneys established contact with some previous
Earth period—not necessarily the Pleistocene?"
"Yes, I do."
"And you report having seen a spaceship in that prehistorical
period...."
Dowland shook his head. "No, sir. At the moment I was observing it, I
thought it was that. What I reported was having seen something that
looked like a spaceship."
"What do you think it was?"
"A timeship—if there is such a word."
"There is such a word," Camhorn interrupted lazily. "I'm curious to
hear, lieutenant, what brought you to that conclusion."
"It's a guess, sir. But the thing has to fit together somehow. A timeship
would make it fit."
"In what way?"
"I've been informed," Dowland said, "that the Overgovernment's
scientists have been unable to make a practical use of YM because
something has invariably gone wrong when they did try to use it. I
also heard that there was no way of knowing in advance what would
happen to make an experiment fail. But something always would
happen, and frequently a number of people would get killed."
Camhorn nodded. "That is quite true."
"Well, then," Dowland said, "I think there is a race of beings who
aren't quite in our time and space. They have YM and use it, and
don't want anyone else to use it. They can tell when it's activated
here, and use their own YM to interfere with it. Then another
experiment suddenly turns into a failure.
"But they don't know yet who's using it. When the Trelawneys turned
on their machine, these beings spotted the YM stress pattern back
there in time. They went to that point and reinforced the time-blending
effect with their own YM. The Trelawneys hadn't intended a complete
contact with that first test. The aliens almost succeeded in blending
the two periods completely in the area near the laboratory."
"For what purpose?" Camhorn asked.
"I think they're very anxious to get us located."
"With unfriendly intentions?"
"The ones we ran into didn't behave in a friendly manner. May I ask a
question, sir?"
"Of course," Camhorn said.
"When the Trelawneys' machine was examined, was the supply of
YM adequately shielded?"
"Quite adequately," Camhorn said.
"But when I opened the door, the laboratory was hot. And Miguel
Trelawney died of radiation burns...."
Camhorn nodded. "Those are facts that give your theory some
substance, lieutenant. No question about it. And there is the
additional fact that after you shut off the YM flow in the laboratory,
nearly ten minutes passed before the apparent contact between two
time periods was broken. Your report indicates that the phenomena
you described actually became more pronounced immediately after
the shutoff."
"Yes, sir."
"As if the aliens might have been making every effort to retain contact
with our time?"
"Yes, sir," Dowland said. "That was my impression."
"It's quite plausible. Now, the indications are that Paul Trelawney
actually spent considerable time—perhaps twelve to fourteen hours,
at any rate—in that other period. He gave no hint of what he
experienced during those hours?"
"No, sir, except to say that it was night when he appeared there. He
may have told Miss Trelawney more."
"Apparently, he didn't," Camhorn said. "Before you and he went into
the laboratory, he warned her to watch for the approach of a creature
which answers the description of the gigantic things you encountered
twice. But that was all. Now, here again you've given us your
objective observations. What can you add to them—on a perhaps
more speculative basis?"
"Well, sir," Dowland said, "my opinions on that are, as a matter of
fact, highly speculative. But I think that Paul Trelawney was captured
by the aliens as soon as he appeared in the other time period, and
was able to escape from them a number of hours later. Two of the
aliens who were attempting to recapture him eventually followed him
out on Lion Mesa through another opening the YM stresses had
produced between the time periods, not too far away from the first."
Camhorn's stout companion said thoughtfully, "You believe the
birdlike creature you saw arrived by the same route?"
"Yes, sir," Dowland said, turning to him. "I think that was simply an
accident. It may have been some kind of wild animal that blundered
into the contact area and found itself here without knowing what had
occurred."
"And you feel," the other man went on, "that you yourself were
passing near that contact point in the night at the time you seemed to
be smelling a swamp?"
Dowland nodded. "Yes, sir, I do. Those smells might have been an
illusion, but they seemed to be very distinct. And, of course, there are
no swamps on the mesa itself."
Camhorn said, "We'll assume it was no illusion. It seems to fit into the
general picture. But, lieutenant, on what are you basing your opinion
that Paul Trelawney was a captive of these beings for some time?"
"There were several things, sir," Dowland said. "One of them is that
when Miss Trelawney regained consciousness in the hospital she
didn't remember having made an attempt to get away from me."
Camhorn nodded. "That was reported."
"She made the attempt," Dowland went on, "immediately after she
had taken off her radiation suit to avoid being choked in the dust
storm on the way down from the mesa. That is one point."
"Go ahead," Camhorn said.
"Another is that when I discovered Paul Trelawney early in the
morning, he was wearing his radiation suit. Judging by his
appearance, he had been in it for hours—and a radiation suit, of
course, is a very inconvenient thing to be in when you're hiking
around in rough country."
"He might," the stout man suggested, "have been afraid of running
into a radioactive area."
Dowland shook his head. "No, sir. He had an instrument which would
have warned him if he was approaching one. It would have made
much more sense to carry the suit, and slip into it again if it became
necessary. I didn't give the matter much thought at the time. But then
the third thing happened. I did not put that in the report because it
was a completely subjective impression. I couldn't prove now that it
actually occurred."
Camhorn leaned forward. "Go ahead."
"It was just before the time periods separated and the creature that
was approaching Miss Trelawney and myself seemed to drop through
the top of the mesa—I suppose it fell back into the other period. I've
described it. It was like a fifty-foot gray slug moving along on its tail ...
and there were those two rows of something like short arms. It wasn't
at all an attractive creature. I was frightened to death. But I was
holding a gun—the same gun with which I had stopped another of
those things when it chased me during the night. And the trouble was
that this time I wasn't going to shoot."
"You weren't going to shoot?" Camhorn repeated.
"No, sir. I had every reason to try to blow it to pieces as soon as I saw
it. The other one didn't follow up its attack on me, so it probably was
pretty badly injured. But while I knew that, I was also simply
convinced that it would be useless to pull the trigger. That's as well as
I can explain what happened....
"I think these aliens can control the minds of other beings, but can't
control them through the interference set up by something like our AR
fields. Paul Trelawney appeared in the other time period almost in
their laps. He had a rifle strapped over his back, but presumably they
caught him before he had a chance to use it. They would have
examined him and the equipment he was carrying, and when they
took off his radiation suit, they would have discovered he belonged to
a race which they could control mentally. After that, there would have
been no reason for them to guard him too closely. He was helpless.
"I think Trelawney realized this, and used a moment when his actions
were not being controlled to slip back into the suit. Then he was free
to act again. When they discovered he had escaped, some of them
were detailed to search for him, and two of those pursuers came out
here in our time on the mesa.
"As for Miss Trelawney—well, obviously she wasn't trying to get away
from me. Apparently, she wasn't even aware of what she was doing.
She was simply obeying physically the orders her mind began to
receive as soon as she stepped out of the radiation suit. They would
have been to come to the thing, wherever it was at the moment—
somewhere up to the north of the ranch area, judging from the
direction in which she headed."
There was silence for some seconds. Then Camhorn's companion
observed, "There's one thing that doesn't quite fit in with your theory,
lieutenant."
"What's that, sir?"
"Your report states that you switched off your AR field at the same
time you advised Miss Trelawney to get out of her suit. You should
have been equally subject to the alien's mental instructions."
"Well," Dowland said, "I can attempt to explain that, sir, though again
there is no way to prove what I think. But it might be that these
creatures can control, only one mind at a time. The alien may not
have realized that I had ... well ... knocked Miss Trelawney
unconscious and that she was unable to obey its orders, until it came
to the spot and saw us. My assumption is that it wasn't till that
moment that it switched its mental attack to me."
The stout man—his name was Laillard White, and he was one of
Research's ace trouble-shooters in areas more or less loosely related
to psychology—appeared morosely reflective as he and Camhorn left
Solar Police Authority Headquarters, and turned toward the adjoining
Overgovernment Bureau.

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Noise Control: From Concept to

Application 2nd Edition Colin H.

Statistical Approaches for Epidemiology From Concept to

Risk Analytics: From Concept to Deployment (World

Nutritional Science and Technology Concept to

Engineering Noise Control 6th Edition David A. Bies

Medical Device Design Innovation from Concept to Market

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and by CRC Press

© 2021 Colin H Hansen and Kristy L Hansen

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

ISBN: 978-1-138-36901-6 (hbk)

This book is dedicated to Susan, to Laura, to Branko, to Vladimir and to Dimitrij.

2.3 Descriptors of Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

3 Sound Sources and Sound Power Determination from Measurement . 119

4.7.6 Barrier Attenuation, K6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188

8.8.3 Expansion Chamber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375

In this chapter, the reader is introduced to:

1.2 Noise-Control Strategies

When dealing with community complaints (predicted or observed) it is wise to be conserva-

1.2.1 Sound Source Modification

1.2.2 Control of the Transmission Path

1.2.3 Modification of the Receiver

1.2.4 Existing Facilities

• undertaking an assessment of the current environment where there appears to be a

1.2.5 Facilities in the Design Stage

1.3 Acoustical Standards and Software

1.4 Acoustic Field Variables

Pressure : Ptot = Ps + p(r, t) (Pa)

1.4.3 The Speed of Sound

1/2 1/2  1/2

Gas volume flow rate = 250000 m3 per day at STP.

1.4.4 Acoustic Potential Function and the Wave Equation

∇2 φ = (1/c2 )∂ 2 φ/∂t2 (1.4)

1.4.5 Complex Number Formulations

1.5 Plane, Cylindrical and Spherical Waves

1.5.1 Plane Wave Propagation

where k is a constant, which will be investigated, and β is an arbitrary constant representing

φ = A cos(kx) = A cos(2πx/λ) (1.12)

An example of harmonic (single frequency) plane wave propagation in a tube is illustrated

The period, Tp , of the propagating wave is given by:

2π/kc = Tp (s) (1.16)

2π/Tp = 2πf = ω (rad/s) (1.17)

and from Equations (1.16) and (1.17):

k = ω/c (rad/m) (1.18)

and from Equations (1.13), (1.17), and (1.18):

The wavenumber, k, may be thought of as a spatial frequency, where k is the analogue of

20 50 100 200 500 1000 2000 5000 10000 20000

FIGURE 1.2 Wavelength in air versus frequency under normal conditions.

p = Bsin(ωt ∓ kx + β) (Pa) (1.20)

φ = Ae j(ωt±kx+β) = A cos(ωt ± kx + β) + jA sin(ωt ± kx + β) (1.22)

p = Be j(ωt±kx+β) = B cos(ωt ± kx + β) + jB sin(ωt ± kx + β) (1.23)

Dowland nodded. "That's what I had in mind, Trelawney. Technically

The two Trelawneys held a brief, whispered conversation in the living

There were a few brief preparations. Paul Trelawney checked the

Inside, the laboratory was unpartitioned and largely empty, a great

"It wasn't an explosion," Trelawney agreed when Dowland said as

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