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(Download PDF) Etextbook 978 1429219617 Raven Biology of Plants 8Th Edition by Ray F Evert Full Chapter PDF
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FPO Co n t e n t s i n br i ef
The Result of Natural Selection: Adaptation 217 Reproduction and Gene Exchange 259
The Origin of Species 220 Endospores 261
How Does Speciation Occur? 221 Metabolic Diversity 261
ESSAY: Adaptive Radiation in Hawaiian Bacteria 263
Lobeliads 224 Archaea 269
The Origin of Major Groups of Organisms 229 Viruses 270
Viroids: Other Infectious Particles 275
14 Fungi 278
The Importance of Fungi 279
Characteristics of Fungi 281
ESSAY: Phototroprism in a Fungus 285
Microsporidians: Phylum Microsporidia 286
Chytrids: A Polyphyletic Group of Fungi
with Flagellated Cells 287
Zygomycetes: A Polyphyletic Group
of Filamentous Fungi 288
Glomeromycetes: Phylum
Glomeromycota 290
Ascomycetes: Phylum Ascomycota 291
Basidiomycetes: Phylum Basidiomycota 295
ESSAY: Predaceous Fungi 303
Symbiotic Relationships of Fungi 306
SECTION 4 DIVERSITY 233 ESSAY: From Pathogen to Symbiont:
Fungal Endophytes 307
12 Systematics: The Science of
Biological Diversity 234
15 Protists: Algae and Heterotrophic
Taxonomy: Nomenclature and
Protists 317
Classification 234
Ecology of the Algae 320
ESSAY: Convergent Evolution 239
ESSAY: Algae and Human Affairs 321
Cladistics 239
ESSAY: Red Tides/Toxic Blooms 323
Molecular Systematics 240
Euglenoids 324
ESSAY: Google Earth: A Tool for
Cryptomonads: Phylum Cryptophyta 324
Discovering and Protecting
Haptophytes: Phylum Haptophyta 326
Biodiversity 241
Dinoflagellates 327
The Major Groups of Organisms: Bacteria,
ESSAY: Coral Reefs and Global Warming 329
Archaea, and Eukarya 243
Photosynthetic Stramenopiles 330
Origin of the Eukaryotes 247
Red Algae: Phylum Rhodophyta 340
The Protists and Eukaryotic Kingdoms 248
Green Algae 345
Life Cycles and Diploidy 250
Heterotrophic Protists 358
18 Gymnosperms 430
Evolution of the Seed 430
Progymnosperms 432
Extinct Gymnosperms 433
Living Gymnosperms 435
Phylum Coniferophyta 437 SECTION 5 The Angiosperm Plant Body:
Other Living Gymnosperm Phyla: Structure and
Cycadophyta, Ginkgophyta, Development 525
and Gnetophyta 448 22 Early Development of the Plant Body 526
Formation of the Embryo 526
19 Introduction to the Angiosperms 457 The Mature Embryo 530
Diversity in the Phylum Anthophyta 457 Seed Maturation 532
The Flower 460 Requirements for Seed Germination 532
The Angiosperm Life Cycle 465 ESSAY: Wheat: Bread and Bran 533
ESSAY: Hay Fever 475 From Embryo to Adult Plant 534
20 Evolution of the Angiosperms 477 23 Cells and Tissues of the Plant Body 538
Angiosperm Ancestors 477 Apical Meristems and Their
Time of Origin and Diversification Derivatives 538
of the Angiosperms 478 Growth, Morphogenesis, and
Phylogenetic Relationships of the Differentiation 539
Angiosperms 478 Internal Organization of the Plant
Evolution of the Flower 482 Body 541
Evolution of Fruits 492 Ground Tissues 541
CONT ENTS xi
Phosphorus and the Phosphorus Cycle 700 Nutrient and Material Cycling
Human Impact on Nutrient Cycles Interactions between Organisms—
and Effects of Pollution 701 beyond Simple Trophic Relationships
Soils and Agriculture 702 Development and Change of Communities
ESSAY: Halophytes: A Future Resource? 703 and Ecosystems
ESSAY: Compost 704
Plant Nutrition Research 704 32 Global Ecology
ESSAY: The Water Cycle 705 Life on the Land
Rainforests
30 The Movement of Water and Solutes Deciduous Tropical Forests
in Plants 708 Savannas
Movement of Water and Inorganic
Deserts
Nutrients through the Plant Body 709
Grasslands
ESSAY: Green Roofs: A Cool Alternative 714
Temperate Deciduous Forests
Absorption of Water and Ions by Roots 717 Temperate Mixed and Coniferous Forests
Assimilate Transport: Movement of
Mediterranean Scrub
Substances through the Phloem 722
The Northernmost Forests—Taiga
and Boreal Forest
Arctic Tundra
A Final Word
Glossary G–1
Index I–1
SECTION 7 ECOLOGY
On the Web: www.whfreeman.com/raven8e
31 The Dynamics of Communities
and Ecosystems
Ecosystem Energetics—Trophic Structure
preface
• Chapter 10 (Recombinant DNA Technology, Plant The cedar-apple rust fungus alternates between two hosts, cedar
Biotechnology, and Genomics)—updates material on the and apple trees, causing damage to apple harvests (page 278).
xiv PR EF A CE
The Chinese brake fern removes arsenic from contaminated soils • Chapter 27 (Regulating Growth and Development: The
(page 391). Plant Hormones)—expanded discussions of the role of auxin
PRE FACE xv
in vascular differentiation and on hormone receptors and online at www.whfreeman.com/raven8e. Fully illustrated,
signaling pathways for the plant hormones; new discussions these chapters have been thoroughly updated by Paul
of brassinosteroids as a major class of plant hormones and Zedler of the University of Wisconsin, Madison
of strigolactones, which interact with auxin in regulating
apical dominance
Media and Supplements
• Chapter 28 (External Factors and Plant Growth)— Companion Web Site
extensive revision of gravitropism, circadian rhythms, floral www.whfreeman.com/raven8e
stimulus, and thigmonastic movements; new discussion
of genes and vernalization, as well as hydrotropism, For students, this free interactive Web site includes:
phytochrome-interaction factors (PIFs), and the shade-
avoidance syndrome; new essay on “Doomsday Seed Vault:
Securing Crop Diversity”
• Interactive study aids to help foster understanding
of important concepts from the text, including
multiple-choice quizzes, flashcards, plus interactive
• Chapter 29 (Plant Nutrition and Soils)—discusses figures and tables
strategies involving nitrogen uptake by plants, along with
the new topics of beneficial elements, determinate and
indeterminate nodules, and strategies by plants for the
• Animations and live-action videos illustrate several
topics from the text for a deeper understanding of the
acquisition of phosphate; essay added on “The Water more difficult concepts
Cycle”
• Two ecology chapters in easily downloadable and
printable PDF format, fully illustrated and thoroughly
updated with major contributions by Paul Zedler,
University of Wisconsin, Madison.
Preparation Guide for Laboratory Topics in Botany George Johnson, Arkansas Tech University
Preparation Guide for Laboratory Topics in Botany offers Carolyn Howes Keiffer, Miami University
helpful information on how to cover each topic, the length Jeffrey M. Klopatek, Arizona State University
of time needed to complete the material, the sources of sup- Rebecca S. Lamb, Ohio State University
plies and ordering schedules, how to set up the laboratory, and Monica Macklin, Northeastern State University
ways to guide students in their laboratory work. Written by Carol C. Mapes, Kutztown University of Pennsylvania
Susan E. Eichhorn, University of Wisconsin, Madison; Joy B. Shawna Martinez, Sierra College
Perry, University of Wisconsin, Fox Valley; and Ray F. Evert, Austin R. Mast, Florida State University
University of Wisconsin, Madison. Wilf Nicholls, Memorial University of Newfoundland
Karen Renzaglia, Southern Illinois University
Frances M. Wren Rundlett, Georgia State University
Acknowledgments A. L. Samuels, University of British Columbia
S. E. Strelkov, University of Alberta
We are grateful for the enthusiastic response we have received Alexandru M. F. Tomescu, Humboldt State University
from readers who have used previous editions of Biology of M. Lucia Vazquez, University of Illinois at Springfield
Plants, either in English or in one of the six foreign languages in Justin K. Williams, Sam Houston State University
which it has been published. As always, we have appreciated the Michael J. Zanis, Purdue University
support and recommendations made by teachers who used the
last edition in their courses. We also wish to thank the following
people who provided valuable critiques of chapters or portions We are very grateful to our artist, Rhonda Nass, for the exquisite
of chapters for this edition: paintings that open each section and for her beautifully drawn
artwork. She has worked closely with us through many edi-
Richard Amasino, University of Wisconsin, Madison tions, and we value her ability to interpret our pencil sketches
Paul Berry, University of Michigan and render them into drawings that are instructive and accu-
James Birchler, University of Missouri rate, as well as attractive. We are grateful to Rick Nass, who
Wayne Becker, University of Wisconsin, Madison contributed a number of expertly produced graphs. We also
Clyde Calvin, Portland State University thank Sarah Friedrich and Kandis Elliot, Media Specialists,
Kenneth Cameron, University of Wisconsin, Madison Department of Botany, University of Wisconsin, Madison, for
Nancy Dengler, University of Toronto the preparation of digital images of photomicrographs and her-
John Doebley, University of Wisconsin, Madison barium specimens. Mark Allen Wetter, Collections Manager/
Eve Emshwiller, University of Wisconsin, Madison Senior Academic Curator, and Theodore S. Cochrane, Senior
Thomas German, University of Wisconsin, Madison Academic Curator, both of the Wisconsin State Herbarium,
Thomas Givnish, University of Wisconsin, Madison Department of Botany, University of Wisconsin, Madison, were
Linda Graham, University of Wisconsin, Madison very helpful in selecting and scanning herbarium specimens for
Christopher Haufler, University of Kansas our use.
David Hibbett, Clark University We would especially like to thank Sally Anderson, our
Robin Kurtz, University of Wisconsin, Madison talented developmental editor, who has worked with us for five
Ben Pierce, Southwestern University editions now. We are grateful for her many contributions at
Scott Russell, University of Oklahoma, Norman every stage of the process, from the early stages of planning
Dennis Stevenson, New York Botanical Garden the new edition through the manuscript and proof stages to the
Joseph Williams, University of Tennessee, Knoxville finished book. We have worked well together over the years,
Paul Zedler, University of Wisconsin, Madison and we thank her for her dedication to all aspects of making
this edition the most accurate and accessible of all.
We would also like to thank Richard Robinson, who has
The following people gave us helpful feedback as we planned written the engaging ecology-oriented essays that have been
this edition: added to this edition. The essays are highlighted in the text by
a green leaf, and they cover such topics as green roofs, invasive
Richard Carter, Valdosta State University plants, coral bleaching, the development of biofuels, and the use
Sara Cohen Christopherson, University of Wisconsin, Madison of Google Earth to map and study biodiversity.
Les C. Cwynar, University of New Brunswick The preparation of the eighth edition has involved the
Brian Eisenback, Bryan College collaborative efforts of a large number of talented people at
Karl H. Hasenstein, University of Louisiana at Lafayette W. H. Freeman and Company. Particular thanks go to Peter
Bernard A. Hauser, University of Florida Marshall, Publisher of Life Sciences, whose vision and support
Jodie S. Holt, University of California Riverside have made this new edition possible; to Vivien Weiss, who has
PREF ACE xvii
skillfully managed the production process; to Elyse Rieder and coordinated the complicated illustration program. Our gratitude
Bianca Moscatelli, who enthusiastically tracked down pho- also goes to Debbie Clare, Associate Director of Marketing,
tographs; and to Blake Logan, who applied her design talents who has been tireless in managing the sales and market-
to give this edition a new look. We especially want to thank ing efforts for this edition, and to Susan Wein, Production
Sheridan Sellers for the remarkable work she has done in mak- Coordinator, for her many contributions during the complex
ing up the pages of this book—with her aesthetic and peda- stages of production.
gogical talents, she has worked a miracle in placing the many A great number of people, only some of whom are men-
large and complicated illustrations into a coherent layout. And tioned here, have contributed in many essential ways to this
we are grateful to Linda Strange, our long-time copyeditor revision, and we extend to them our deepest appreciation and
who, with good humor and a steady hand, manages to hold us gratitude.
to a high standard in consistency and accuracy. We also thank
Marni Rolfes, associate editor, who competently handled the Ray F. Evert
day-to-day matters and kept us on track, and Bill Page, who Susan E. Eichhorn
INTRODUCTION
of food. They provide us with fiber for clothing; wood for fur-
chapter outline niture, shelter, and fuel; paper for books (such as the page you
Evolution of Plants are reading at this moment); spices for flavor; drugs for medi-
Evolution of Communities cines; and the oxygen we breathe. We are utterly dependent on
Appearance of Human Beings plants. Plants also have enormous sensory appeal, and our lives
are enhanced by the gardens, parks, and wilderness areas avail-
able to us. The study of plants has provided us with great in-
Evolution of Plants
Life Originated Early in Earth’s Geologic History
Like all other living organisms, plants have had a long history
during which they evolved, or changed, over time. The planet
Earth itself—an accretion of dust and gases swirling in orbit
around the star that is our sun—is some 4.6 billion years old
(Figure 1–1). It is believed that Earth sustained a lethal meteor
bombardment that ended about 3.8 to 3.9 billion years ago.
Vast chunks of rubble slammed into the planet, helping to keep
it hot. As the molten Earth began to cool, violent storms raged,
accompanied by lightning and the release of electrical energy,
and widespread volcanism spewed molten rock and boiling
water from beneath the Earth’s surface.
The earliest known fossils are found in rocks of Western 1–2 The earliest known fossils Obtained from ancient rocks
Australia about 3.5 billion years old (Figure 1–2). These micro- in northwestern Western Australia, these fossilized prokaryotes
fossils consist of several kinds of small, relatively simple fila- are dated at 3.5 billion years of age. They are about a billion years
mentous microorganisms resembling bacteria. About the same younger than the Earth itself, but there are few suitable older
age as these microfossils are ancient stromatolites—fossilized rocks in which to look for earlier evidence of life. More complex
microbial mats consisting of layers of filamentous and other organisms—those with eukaryotic cellular organization—did not
microorganisms and trapped sediment. Stromatolites continue evolve until about 2.1 billion years ago. For about 1.5 billion years,
to be formed today in a few places, such as in the warm, shal- therefore, prokaryotes were the only forms of life on Earth. These
low oceans off the shores of Australia and the Bahamas (see so-called microfossils have been magnified 1000 times.
Chapter 13). By comparing the ancient stromatolites with mod-
ern ones, which are formed by cyanobacteria (filamentous pho-
tosynthetic bacteria), scientists have concluded that the ancient on Mars, for example, whose early history paralleled that of
stromatolites were formed by similar filamentous bacteria. Earth. Strong evidence, first discovered by the Opportunity
Whether life originated on Earth or reached Earth through rover in 2004, indicated that water once flowed across the
space in the form of spores (resistant reproductive cells) or planet, raising the possibility that, at one time, Mars could
by some other means is problematic. Life may have formed have supported life (Figure 1–3). In 2008, the Phoenix Mars
1–1 Life on Earth Of the nine planets in our solar system, 1–3 Life on Mars? This color-enhanced image shows a portion
only one, as far as we know, has life on it. This planet, Earth, is of the Jezero Crater, a 25-mile-wide impact crater on northern
visibly different from the others. From a distance, it appears blue Mars that once held a lake. Claylike minerals (indicated in green)
and green, and it shines a little. The blue is water, the green is were carried by ancient rivers into the lake, forming a delta.
chlorophyll, and the shine is sunlight reflected off the layer of Because clays are able to trap and preserve organic matter,
gases surrounding the planet’s surface. Life, at least as we know it, deltas and lakebeds are promising areas in which to search for
depends on these visible features of Earth. signs of ancient life on Mars.
4 C h a p te r 1 Botany: An Introduction
Lander found water ice in abundance near the surface. More- that all living things share a common ancestor: a DNA-based
over, its instruments monitored a diurnal water cycle: water microbe that lived more that 3.5 billion years ago. Near the end
vapor, originating from the shallow subsurface water ice and of On the Origin of Species, Charles Darwin wrote: “Probably
from water clinging to soil grains, is released into the Martian all the organic beings which have ever lived on this earth have
atmosphere during the morning hours, and at night it condenses descended from some one primordial form, into which life was
and falls out by gravity. Most of the ice crystals evaporate as first breathed.”
they fall through the atmospheric boundary layer, but snowfall
on Mars has been observed. Autotrophic Organisms Make Their Own Food, but
No organic molecules or traces of previous or present bio-
logical activity were detected at the Phoenix landing site. How-
Heterotrophic Organisms Must Obtain Their Food from
ever, one would expect organic molecules to be present in the External Sources
Martian soil, given the steady influx of certain types of mete- Cells that satisfy their energy requirements by consuming the
orites that contain considerable quantities of organic material. organic compounds produced by external sources are known
Meteorites that fall to Earth contain amino acids and organic as heterotrophs (Gk. heteros, “other,” and trophos, “feeder”).
carbon molecules such as formaldehyde. We will continue to A heterotrophic organism is dependent on an outside source of
assume, however, that life on Earth originated on Earth. organic molecules for its energy. Animals, fungi (Figure 1–4),
In 2011, NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter satellite and many of the one-celled organisms, such as certain bacteria
found evidence of liquid water flowing down slopes and crater and protists, are heterotrophs.
walls during the warm month on Mars. The liquid is thought to As the primitive heterotrophs increased in number, they
be highly salty and to occur just below the surface, where it is began to use up the complex molecules on which their existence
protected from freezing in the frigid temperatures found on Mars depended—and which had taken millions of years to accumu-
and from evaporating in the planet’s low air pressures. These late. Organic molecules in free solution (that is, not inside a cell)
findings further raise the possibilities of finding life on Mars.
became more and more scarce, and competition began. Under the oceans and lakes reacted with dissolved iron and precipitated
pressure of this competition, cells that could make efficient use of as iron oxides (Figure 1–6). From about 2.7 to 2.2 billion years
the limited energy sources now available were more likely to sur- ago, oxygen began gradually to accumulate in the atmosphere.
vive than cells that could not. In the course of time, by the long, By about 700 million years ago, atmospheric levels of oxygen
slow process of elimination of the most poorly adapted, cells increased markedly, and began to approach modern levels dur-
evolved that were able to make their own energy-rich molecules ing the Cambrian period (570–510 million years ago).
out of simple inorganic materials. Such organisms are called This increase in oxygen level had two important conse-
autotrophs, “self-feeders.” Without the evolution of these early quences. First, some of the oxygen molecules in the outer layer
autotrophs, life on Earth would soon have come to an end. of the atmosphere were converted to ozone (O3) molecules.
The most successful of the autotrophs were those in which When there is a sufficient quantity of ozone in the atmosphere,
a system evolved for making direct use of the sun’s energy— it absorbs the ultraviolet rays—rays highly destructive to living
that is, the process of photosynthesis (Figure 1–5). The earli- organisms—from the sunlight that reaches the Earth. By about
est photosynthetic organisms, although simple in comparison 450 million years ago, the ozone layer apparently protected or-
with plants, were much more complex than the primitive het- ganisms sufficiently so they could survive in the surface layers
erotrophs. Use of the sun’s energy required a complex pigment of water and on the shores, and life emerged on land for the
system to capture the light energy and, linked to this system, a first time.
way to store the energy in an organic molecule.
Evidence of the activities of photosynthetic organisms
has been found in rocks 3.4 billion years old, about 100 mil-
lion years after the first fossil evidence of life on Earth. We can
be almost certain, however, that both life and photosynthetic
organisms evolved considerably earlier than the evidence sug-
gests. In addition, there seems to be no doubt that heterotrophs
evolved before autotrophs. With the arrival of autotrophs, the
flow of energy in the biosphere (that is, the living world and its
environment) came to assume its modern form: radiant energy
from the sun channeled through the photosynthetic autotrophs
to all other forms of life.
20 μm
1–8 Stomata Open stomata on the surface of a Apical meristem
of shoot
tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) leaf. Each stoma in the aerial
parts of the plant is regulated by two guard cells.
Leaflets
(a) (b)
(e) (f)
the study of cell structure, function, and life histories; genet- mycorrhizal fungi) form important, mutually beneficial sym-
ics, the study of heredity and variation; genomics, the study of biotic relationships with their plant hosts. Virology, bacteriol-
the content, organization, and function of genetic information ogy, phycology (the study of algae), and mycology (the study
in whole genomes; molecular biology, the study of the struc- of fungi) are well-established fields in their own right, but they
ture and function of biological molecules; economic botany, the still fall loosely under the umbrella of botany.
study of past, present, and future uses of plants by people; eth-
nobotany, the study of the uses of plants for medicinal and other
purposes by indigenous peoples; ecology, the study of the rela-
A Knowledge of Botany Is Important for Dealing
tionships between organisms and their environment; and paleo- with Today’s—and Tomorrow’s—Problems
botany, the study of the biology and evolution of fossil plants. In this chapter, we have ranged from the beginnings of life on
Included in this book are all organisms that have tradi- this planet to the evolution of plants and ecosystems to the de-
tionally been studied by botanists: not only plants but also velopment of agriculture and civilization. These broad topics
prokaryotes, viruses, fungi, and autotrophic protists (algae). are of interest to many people other than botanists, or plant bi-
Nonphotosynthetic eukaryotes and protists have tradition- ologists. The urgent efforts of botanists and agricultural scien-
ally been the province of zoologists. Although we do not re- tists will be needed to feed the world’s rapidly growing human
gard algae, fungi, prokaryotes, or viruses as plants, and shall population (Figure 1–12), as discussed in Chapter 21. Modern
not refer to them as plants in this book, they are included here plants, algae, and bacteria offer the best hope of providing a re-
because of tradition and because they are normally considered newable source of energy for human activities, just as extinct
part of the botanical portion of the curriculum, just as botany plants, algae, and bacteria have been responsible for the mas-
itself used to be considered a part of medicine. Moreover, both sive accumulations of gas, oil, and coal on which our modern
prokaryotes (e.g., nitrogen-fixing bacteria) and fungi (e.g., industrial civilization depends. In an even more fundamental
1–12 Growth of the human population Over the last 10,000 years, the human population has grown from
several million to approximately 6.5 billion. A significant increase in the rate of population growth occurred as
a result of the cultivation of plants as crops, and an even more dramatic increase began with the advent of the
Industrial Revolution, which started in the middle of the eighteenth century and continues to the present.
The consequences of the rapid growth of the human population are many and varied. In the United States
and other parts of the developed world, they include not only the sheer numbers of people but also heavy
consumption of nonrenewable fossil fuels and the resulting pollution—both as the fuels are burned and as a
result of accidents such as oil spills at drilling sites and during transport. In less developed parts of the world,
the consequences include malnutrition and, all too often, starvation, coupled with a continuing vulnerability to
infectious diseases. The consequences for other organisms include not only the direct effects of pollution but
also—and most important—the loss of habitat.
12 C h a p te r 1 Botany: An Introduction
sense, the role of plants, along with that of algae and photo- has been seriously depleted by the use of chlorofluorocarbons
synthetic bacteria, commands our attention. As the producers (CFCs), and damaging ultraviolet rays penetrating the depleted
of energy-containing compounds in the global ecosystem, these layer have increased the incidence of skin cancer in people
photosynthetic organisms are the route by which all other liv- all over the world. Moreover, it has been estimated that, by
ing things, including ourselves, obtain energy, oxygen, and the the middle of this century, the average temperature will have
many other materials necessary for their continued existence. increased between 1.5° and 4.5°C due to the greenhouse ef-
As a student of botany, you will be in a better position to assess fect. This global-warming phenomenon—the trapping of heat
the important ecological and environmental issues of the day radiating from the Earth’s surface out into space—is intensi-
and, by understanding, help to build a healthier world. fied through the increased amounts of carbon dioxide, nitrogen
In this second decade of the twenty-first century, it is clear oxides, CFCs, and methane in the atmosphere resulting from
that human beings, with a population of 6.5 billion in 2010 and human activities. And most seriously, a large portion of the
a projected population of 9 billion by 2050, are managing the total number of species of plants, animals, fungi, and micro-
Earth with an intensity that would have been unimaginable a organisms is disappearing during our lifetime—the victims of
few decades ago. Every hour, manufactured chemicals fall on human exploitation of the Earth—resulting in a loss of biodi-
every square centimeter of the planet’s surface. The protec- versity. All of these trends are alarming, and they demand our
tive stratospheric ozone layer formed 450 million years ago utmost attention.
(a) (b)
(a) (b)
1–15 Greening of abandoned industrial sites (a) The High Line in New York City is built on an
abandoned railroad track elevated above a newly resurrected neighborhood of restaurants, galleries,
and shops. Remnants of the original track can be seen among the shrubs, perennials, grasses, and trees
planted along the popular promenade. (b) A recently created wetlands situated on a former airbase
at Magnuson Park in Seattle, Washington, offers a rich habitat of native plants and various species of
wildlife, including dragonflies, frogs, ducks, owls, hawks, shorebirds, and warblers.
of all kinds of plants—as individual species and as components Heterotrophic Organisms Evolved before Autotrophic
of the life-support systems into which we all have evolved— Organisms, Prokaryotes before Eukaryotes, and
depend on our knowledge and ability to critically assess the in- Unicellular Organisms before Multicellular Organisms
formation we are given. Thus, this book is dedicated not only
Heterotrophs, organisms that feed on organic molecules or on
to the botanists of the future, whether teachers or researchers,
other organisms, were the first life forms to appear on Earth.
but also to the informed citizens, scientists, and laypeople alike,
Autotrophic organisms, those that could produce their own food
in whose hands such decisions lie.
by photosynthesis, evolved no less than 3.4 billion years ago.
Until about 2.1 billion years ago, the prokaryotes—archaea and
bacteria—were the only organisms that existed. Eukaryotes, with
larger, much more complex cells, evolved at that time. Multicel-
Summary lular eukaryotes began to evolve at least 650 million years ago,
Photosynthesis Is the Process by Which the Sun’s Energy and they began to invade the land about 450 million years ago.
Is Captured to Form Organic Molecules With the advent of oxygen-producing photosynthesis, in
Only a few kinds of organisms—plants, algae, and some bacte- which water molecules are split and oxygen is released, oxygen
ria—have the capacity to capture energy from the sun and use began to accumulate in the atmosphere. The presence of this
it to form organic molecules by the process of photosynthesis. free oxygen enabled organisms to break down the energy-rich
Almost all life on Earth depends, directly or indirectly, on the products of photosynthesis by aerobic respiration.
products of this process.
Colonization of the Land Was Associated with the
The Chemical Building Blocks of Life Accumulated in the Evolution of Structures to Obtain Water and Minimize
Early Oceans Water Loss
The planet Earth is some 4.6 billion years old. The oldest Plants, which are basically a terrestrial group, have achieved
known fossils date back 3.5 billion years and resemble today’s a number of specialized characteristics that suit them for life
filamentous bacteria. Although the process by which living or- on land. These characteristics are best developed among the
ganisms arose is a matter of speculation, there is general agree- members of the dominant group known as the vascular plants.
ment that life as we know it probably emerged on Earth only Among these features are a waxy cuticle, penetrated by special-
once—that is, all living things share a common ancestor. ized openings known as stomata through which gas exchange
Questions 15
Elisabetta.
Count.
[Crosses to chair.
[Sits in chair.
Elisabetta.
Count.
Elisabetta.
Count.
Elisabetta.
Elisabetta.
Count.
Elisabetta.
Count.
Not yet!
Elisabetta.
Count.
Ay, if
She knew the giver; but I bound the seller
To silence, and I left it privily
At Florence, in her palace.
Elisabetta.
Count.
Madman anywhere.
Speak freely, tho’ to call a madman mad
Will hardly help to make him sane again.
Enter Filippo.
Filippo.
Ah, the women, the women! Ah, Monna Giovanna, you here
again! you that have the face of an angel and the heart of a—
that’s too positive! You that have a score of lovers and have not
a heart for any of them—that’s positive-negative: you that have
not the head of a toad, and not a heart like the jewel in it—that’s
too negative; you that have a cheek like a peach and a heart
like the stone in it—that’s positive again—that’s better!
Elisabetta.
Sh—sh—Filippo!
Elisabetta.
Count.
Filippo.
No, my lord, I never spare your lordship to your lordship’s
face, nor behind your lordship’s back, nor to right, nor to left, nor
to round about and back to your lordship’s face again, for I’m
honest, your lordship.
Count.
Filippo.
Shelves and hooks, shelves and hooks, and when I see the
shelves I am like to hang myself on the hooks.
Count.
No bread?
Filippo.
Count.
Milk?
Filippo.
Count.
Cheese?
Filippo.
A supper for twelve mites.
Count.
Eggs?
Filippo.
Count.
No bird?
Filippo.
Count.
Filippo.
Count.
Elisabetta.
Lady Giovanna.
Elisabetta.
Ay, my lady, but won’t you speak with the old woman first, and
tell her all about it and make her happy? for I’ve been on my
knees every day for these half-dozen years in hope that the
saints would send us this blessed morning; and he always took
you so kindly, he always took the world so kindly. When he was
a little one, and I put the bitters on my breast to wean him, he
made a wry mouth at it, but he took it so kindly, and your
ladyship has given him bitters enough in this world, and he
never made a wry mouth at you, he always took you so kindly—
which is more than I did, my lady, more than I did—and he so
handsome—and bless your sweet face, you look as beautiful
this morning as the very Madonna her own self—and better late
than never—but come when they will—then or now—it’s all for
the best, come when they will—they are made by the blessed
saints—these marriages.
Lady Giovanna.
Lady Giovanna.
Elisabetta.
Just gone
To fly his falcon.
Lady Giovanna.
Holy mother!
To breakfast! Oh sweet saints! one plate of prunes!
Well, Madam, I will give your message to him.
[Exit.
Lady Giovanna.
O my sick boy!
My daily fading Florio, it is thou
Hath set me this hard task, for when I say
What can I do—what can I get for thee?
He answers, “Get the Count to give me his falcon,
And that will make me well.” Yet if I ask,
He loves me, and he knows I know he loves me!
Will he not pray me to return his love—
To marry him?—(pause)—I can never marry him.
His grandsire struck my grandsire in a brawl
At Florence, and my grandsire stabb’d him there.
The feud between our houses is the bar
I cannot cross; I dare not brave my brother,
Break with my kin. My brother hates him, scorns
The noblest-natured man alive, and I—
Who have that reverence for him that I scarce
Dare beg him to receive his diamonds back—
How can I, dare I, ask him for his falcon?
Count.
Filippo.
Count.
Do what I said!
Lady Giovanna.
Count.
Lady Giovanna.
To make amends
I come this day to break my fast with you.
Count.
I am much honour’d—yes—
[Turns to Filippo.
Filippo.
[Exit.
Count.
Lady Giovanna.
Count.
Lady Giovanna.
Yet I come
To ask a gift.
Lady Giovanna.
But my boy—
(Aside.) No, no! not yet—I cannot!
Count.
Lady Giovanna.
Count.
Lady Giovanna.
Count.
My bird? a hundred
Gold pieces once were offer’d by the Duke.
I had no heart to part with her for money.
Lady Giovanna.
Count.
Lady Giovanna.
Count.
Lady Giovanna.
Lady Giovanna.
Count.
Count.
Lady Giovanna.
When I was married you were at the wars.
Count.
Lady Giovanna.
Count.
Lady Giovanna.
Happily, however,
I see you quite recover’d of your wound.
Count.
Re-enter Filippo.
Filippo.
Count.
Pray, pardon me!
Filippo.
Count.
Spoons!
Filippo.
Count.
Filippo.
Count.
Filippo.
I trod upon him even now, my lord, in my hurry, and broke
him.
Count.
Filippo.
Sold! but shall I not mount with your lordship’s leave to her
ladyship’s castle, in your lordship’s and her ladyship’s name,
and confer with her ladyship’s seneschal, and so descend again
with some of her ladyship’s own appurtenances?
Count.
[Exit Filippo.
Lady Giovanna.
Count.
Lady Giovanna.
Count.
Lady Giovanna.
Count.
Lady Giovanna.
Elisabetta.
Count (singing).
“O mountain flowers!”
Elisabetta.
Count (sings).
“Dead flowers!”
Elisabetta.
Count.
What is it?
Elisabetta.
My lord, we have but one piece of earthenware to serve the
salad in to my lady, and that cracked!
Count.
Elisabetta.
I did take it, my lord, but what with my lady’s coming that had
so flurried me, and what with the fear of breaking it, I did break
it, my lord: it is broken!
Count.
Count.
And yet to speak white truth, my good old mother, I have seen
it like the snow on the moraine.
Elisabetta.
[Lays cloth.