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For our children—Solomon and Ruth; Claire, Ava, and Carl
Brief Contents
1 The Globalization of International Relations 1

2 Realist Theories 37

3 Liberal and Social Theories 67

4 Conflict, War, and Terrorism 115

5 Trade and Finance 174

6 International Organization, Law, and Human Rights 222

7 North-South Relations 278

8 Environment and Technology 331

vi
Contents
Prefacexi Power Distribution 49
About the Authors xvii Hegemony51
To the Student xviii Alliances53
A Note on Nomenclature xix Purposes of Alliances 53
Mapxx NATO54
Other Alliances 57

1 The Globalization of Strategy58

Statecraft58
International Relations 1
Policy Perspectives Prime Minister
Globalization, International Relations, of India, Narendra Modi 59
and Daily Life 2 Rationality61
Core Principles 3 The Prisoner’s Dilemma 62
IR as a Field of Study 9
Actors and Influences 11 3 Liberal and Social Theories 67
State Actors 11
Liberal Traditions 68
Nonstate Actors 14
The Waning of War 68
Levels of Analysis 15
Kant and Peace 69
Policy Perspectives Overview16
Liberal Institutionalism 70
Globalization18
International Regimes 72
Global Geography 20
Collective Security 73
The Evolving International System 25 The Democratic Peace 75
The Cold War, 1945–1990 25
Domestic Influences 77
The Post–Cold War Era,
Bureaucracies77
1990–201529
Interest Groups 78

2
Public Opinion 79
Realist Theories 37
Policy Perspectives Prime Minister
Realism38 of Japan, Shinzo Abe 81
Power40 Legislatures82
Defining Power 40 Making Foreign Policy 83
Estimating Power 42 Models of Decision Making 84
Elements of Power 42 Individual Decision Makers 86
The International System 43 Group Psychology 89
Anarchy and Sovereignty 44 Crisis Management 90
Balance of Power 46 Social Theories 92
Great Powers and Middle Powers 47 Constructivism92

Note: Each chapter ends with a summary, key terms, and critical thinking questions.
vii
viii Contents

Postmodernism95 Chemical and Biological

Marxism96 Weapons163
Peace Studies 99 Proliferation165
Gender Theories 102 Nuclear Strategy and Arms
Control167
Why Gender Matters 102
States and Militaries 169
The Masculinity of Realism 104
Military Economics 169
Gender in War and Peace 105
Control of Military Forces 170
Women in IR 106
Difference Feminism Versus
Liberal Feminism?
Postmodern Feminism
109
111
5 Trade and Finance 174
Theories of Trade 175
Liberalism and Mercantilism 176
4 Conflict, War, Comparative Advantage 179
and Terrorism 115 Political Interference in Markets 180
The Wars of the World 116 Protectionism182
Types of War 116 Trade Regimes 185
Theories of the Causes of War 120 The World Trade Organization 185
Conflicts of Ideas 123 Bilateral and Regional Agreements 187
Nationalism123 Cartels190
Ethnic Conflict 125 Industries and Interest Groups 191
Religious Conflict 128 Enforcement of Trade Rules 193
Policy Perspectives President Economic Globalization 195
of Liberia, Ellen Johnson-Sirleaf 129 The World Economy, 1750 to
the Present 195
Ideological Conflict 138
Resistance to Trade 199
Conflicts of Interest 139
Globalization, Financial Markets,
Territorial Disputes 139
and the Currency System 200
Control of Governments 145
The Currency System 202
Economic Conflict 145
International Currency Exchange 202
Conventional Military Forces 147
Why Currencies Rise or Fall 206
Land Forces: Controlling Territory 149
Policy Perspectives President
Naval Forces: Controlling
of China, Xi Jinping 207
the Seas 150
Air Forces: Controlling Central Banks 209
the Skies 152 The World Bank and the IMF 210
Coordinating Forces: Logistics State Financial Positions 211
and Intelligence 153 National Accounts 211
Evolving Technologies 154 International Debt 212
Terrorism156 Multinational Business 213
Weapons of Mass Destruction 160 Multinational Corporations 213
Nuclear Weapons 160 Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) 215
Ballistic Missiles and Other Host and Home Government
Delivery Systems 162 Relations216
 Contents ix

6 International Organization, Rural and Urban Populations

Women in Developing Countries
286
287
Law, and Human Rights 222
Migration and Refugees 288
Globalization and Integration 223 Theories of Accumulation 291
Roles of International Organizations 224 Economic Accumulation 291
The United Nations 226 The World-System 292
The UN System 227 Imperialism293
The Security Council 232 Effects of Colonialism 295
Peacekeeping Forces 235 Postcolonial Dependency 296
The Secretariat 239 Development Experiences 299
The General Assembly 240 The Newly Industrializing Countries 300
UN Programs 241 The Chinese Experience 302
Autonomous Agencies 242 India Takes Off 304
The European Union 243 Other Experiments 306
Integration Theory 244 Import Substitution and
The Vision of a United Europe 246 Export-Led Growth 307
The Treaty of Rome 247 Concentrating Capital for
Structure of the European Union 248 Manufacturing308
The Single European Act 250 Corruption309
The Maastricht Treaty 251 North-South Capital Flows 310
Monetary Union 252 Foreign Investment 310
Expanding the European Union 254 North-South Debt 312
The Lisbon Treaty 255 IMF Conditionality 314
International Law 258 The South in International
Economic Regimes 315
Sources of International Law 258
Enforcement of International Law 259 Policy Perspectives Prime Minister
of Turkey, Recep Tayyip Erdogan 316
The World Court 260
International Cases in National Courts 261 Foreign Assistance 317
Laws of Diplomacy 264 Patterns of Foreign Assistance 318
Just-War Doctrine 265 Types of Foreign Assistance 320
Human Rights 266 The Politics of Foreign Assistance 323
Individual Rights Versus Sovereignty 266 The Impact of Foreign Assistance 326
Human Rights Institutions 268
War Crimes 271 8 Environment
Policy Perspectives International and Technology 331
Criminal Court Chief Prosecutor,
Fatou Bensouda 273 Interdependence and the Environment 332
Sustainable Development 334

7 North-South Relations 278

Managing the Environment
The Atmosphere
334
335
The State of the South 279 Biodiversity340
Basic Human Needs 281 Forests and Oceans 341
World Hunger 285 Pollution343
x Contents

Policy Perspectives Prime Minister Information as a Tool of Governments 364

of Ireland, Enda Kenny 345 Information as a Tool Against
Natural Resources 347 Governments365
World Energy 348 Telecommunications and Global
Culture366
Minerals351
Water Disputes 352 Conclusion368

Population353
The Demographic Transition 354 Appendix: Jobs and Careers in
Population Policies 355 International Relations 374
Disease357 Glossary378
The Power of Information 360 Photo Credits 391
Connecting the World 361 Index392
Preface

W
e live in an increasingly interconnected world. These connections bring
great benefits to our everyday lives: the ability to communicate instan-
taneously around the world and share our cultures and beliefs; the
possibility of directly helping a person affected by an earthquake through a global
network of charities; the ability to purchase a product made from parts manufac-
tured in a dozen different countries, each using its specialized knowledge to create
a better product—these are some of the potential benefits of the interconnected
world. Yet these connections may also worsen existing problems: Terrorist net-
works use telecommunications to carry out attacks, global commerce can put
undue strain on our natural environment, and millions of people still live with
few of the global connections that are enjoyed by citizens of wealthier countries.
Despite these increasing connections and their implications for everyday life,
many students begin college misinformed about basic facts of international rela-
tions (IR), such as the extent of poverty in and levels of foreign assistance to the
developing world, and the trend toward fewer wars over the past two decades.
An introductory textbook plays a key role in students’ education about interna-
tional affairs, and we have worked hard to make the Brief Seventh Edition of
International Relations timely, accurate, visually appealing, and intellectually
engaging. We hope this textbook can help a generation develop knowledge and
critical thinking in order to find its voice and place in the changing world order.
IR is not only an important topic but also a fascinating one. The rich complexity
of international relationships—political, economic, and cultural—provides a puzzle
to try to understand. The puzzle is not only an intellectual challenge but also emo-
tionally powerful. It contains human-scale stories in which the subject’s grand
themes—war and peace, intergroup conflict and community, integration and divi-
sion, humans and their environment, poverty and development—play out.

New to the Seventh Edition

The Brief Seventh Edition of International Relations includes important revisions
throughout to keep the text current in a time of historic changes in the interna-
tional system.

Chapter 1:
• Completely updated economic and demographic data
• Updates on Middle East conflicts, including Syria, Libya, Yemen, and Iranian
nuclear negotiations
xi
xii Preface

• Updates on East Asian maritime tensions

• Discussion of the Ebola health crisis in West Africa

Chapter 2:
• New Policy Perspectives box feature
• Updates on the North Atlantic Treaty Organization’s (NATO’s) withdrawal
from Afghanistan
• Discussion of Russian annexation of Crimea

Chapter 3:
• Revised discussion of Women in IR
• Updates on Arab Spring transitions and violence in the Middle East
• Discussion of congressional debate over Iran nuclear deal

Chapter 4:
• Revised listing of wars of the world and updated data on military forces
worldwide
• Revised discussion of Islamic groups, including the rise of the Islamic State
in Iraq and Syria (ISIS)
• Updated discussion of civil wars in Syria and Yemen
• New discussion of Ukrainian-Russian tensions and violence
• Revised discussion of maritime tensions in East Asia
• New discussion of Iran nuclear negotiations and the 2015 nuclear agreement

Chapter 5:
• Updated data and discussion on the continuing slow recovery from the global
economic crisis of 2008–2009
• Discussion of controversial Transatlantic and Trans-Pacific trade agreements
• Updated discussion on continued struggles to complete the Doha Round of
trade negotiations over new World Trade Organization mandates
• Updated discussions of state economic positions in the global economy,
including Russian economic struggles
• Discussion of Chinese currency devaluations
• New discussion of virtual currencies such as bitcoin
 Preface xiii

Chapter 6:
• Completely updated data and discussion of current UN peacekeeping efforts
• Discussion of new UN Disabilities Treaty
• Updated discussion of International Criminal Court
• Updated discussion of the economic difficulties in Greece, including the pos-
sibility of the country’s exit from the Eurozone
• Revised discussion of Eurozone countries

Chapter 7:
• Completely updated data on progress toward the UN Millennium Develop-
ment Goals
• Discussion of European immigration crisis
• More focus on developments in BRIC countries (Brazil, Russia, India, and
China)
• Updated discussion of foreign assistance based on updated data from 2014
and 2015
• Updated discussion of Chinese economic situation, including devaluations
and stock market slides
• Revised discussion of international debt, including updated data

Chapter 8:
• Updated discussion of negotiations for a comprehensive global warming
treaty
• Updates on attempts by China and the United States to move to smaller side
agreements on environmental issues
• New discussion of Ebola in West Africa
• Revised discussion on the global fight against HIV/AIDS
• Revised discussion of the global digital divide, including updated data

In each chapter, we have updated the tables and figures with the most recent
available data. This includes new data on gross domestic product (GDP), mili-
tary forces, migration and refugees, debt, remittances, foreign aid, the HIV/AIDS
epidemic, and UN peacekeeping operations, to name a few.
Finally, this Brief Seventh Edition of International Relations revises the photo
program substantially. Dozens of new photos, many of them from 2014 and
2015, draw visual attention to current events while reinforcing key concepts in
the text.
xiv Preface

REVEL™
Educational technology designed for the
way today’s students read, think, and learn
When students are engaged deeply, they learn more effectively and perform bet-
ter in their courses. This simple fact inspired the creation of REVEL: an immer-
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learn. Built in collaboration with educators and students nationwide, REVEL is
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REVEL enlivens course content with media interactives and assessments—
integrated directly within the authors’ narrative—that provide opportunities for
students to read about and practice course material in tandem. This immersive
educational technology boosts student engagement, which leads to better under-
standing of concepts and improved performance throughout the course.
Learn more about REVEL
www.pearsonhighered.com/revel/

Structure of the Text

This text aims to present the current state of knowledge in IR in a comprehen-
sive and accessible way—to provide a map of the subject covering its various
research communities in a logical order. Common core principles—dominance,
reciprocity, and identity—unify the text by showing how theoretical models
apply across the range of topics in international security and political economy.
The overall structure of this text follows substantive topics, first in interna-
tional security and then in international political economy (IPE). Chapter 1
introduces the study of IR; explains the collective goods problem and the core
principles of dominance, reciprocity, and identity; and provides some geograph-
ical and historical context for the subject. Chapters 2 and 3 lay out the various
theoretical approaches to IR: realist theories, liberal theories, and social theories
(constructivist, postmodern, Marxist, peace studies, and gender theories). Chap-
ter 4 introduces the main sources of international conflict and the conditions and
manner in which such conflicts lead to war, terrorism, and other forms of vio-
lence. Chapter 5 introduces theoretical concepts in political economy (showing
how theories of international security translate into IPE issue areas) and dis-
cusses trade relations and the politics of international money, banking, and mul-
tinational business operations. Chapter 6 shows how international organizations
and law, especially the United Nations and the European Union, have evolved
to become major global and regional influences and how human rights have
become increasingly important. Chapter 7 addresses global North-South rela-
tions and population growth, and considers alternatives for economic develop-
ment in the context of international business, debt, and foreign aid. Chapter 8
 Preface xv

shows how environmental politics, telecommunications, and cultural exchange

expand international bargaining and interdependence.

Pedagogical Elements
In a subject such as IR, in which knowledge is tentative and empirical develop-
ments can overtake theories, critical thinking is a key skill for college students to
develop. At various points in the text, conclusions are left open-ended to let stu-
dents reason their way through an issue and, in addition to the critical thinking
questions at the end of each chapter, the boxed features support deeper and
more focused critical thinking.
The Policy Perspectives feature in each chapter places students in the decision-
making perspective of a national leader. This feature bridges international relations
theory to policy problems while demonstrating the trade-offs often present in politi-
cal decision making and highlighting the interconnectedness of foreign and domes-
tic politics. The appendix, “Jobs and Careers in International Relations,” helps
students think about job possibilities in the field. These pages, devoted to careers in
nongovernmental organizations, government and diplomacy, international busi-
ness, and teaching and research, respond to the question, How will this class help
me find a job? and include books and internet sites to further pursue the issue.
Many people find information—especially abstract concepts—easier to
grasp when it is linked with pictures. Thus, the text uses color photographs
extensively to illustrate important points. Photo captions reinforce main themes
from the text and link them with the scenes pictured. Many of the photographs
in this edition were taken in 2014 and 2015.
Students use different learning styles. Students who are visual learners
should find not only the photos but also the many color graphics especially use-
ful. The use of quantitative data also encourages critical thinking. Basic data,
presented simply and appropriately at a global level, allow students to form
their own judgments and to reason through the implications of different policies
and theories. The text uses global-level data (showing the whole picture), rounds
off numbers to highlight what is important, and conveys information graphi-
cally where appropriate.

Jon C. W. Pevehouse
Joshua S. Goldstein

Supplements
Pearson is pleased to offer several resources to qualified adopters of the Brief
Seventh Edition International Relations and their students that will make teaching
and learning from this text even more effective and enjoyable. Several of the
xvi Preface

supplements for this text are available at the Instructor Resource Center (IRC),
an online hub that allows instructors to download quickly text-specific supple-
ments. Please visit the IRC welcome page at www.pearsonhighered.com/irc to
register for access.

INSTRUCTOR’S MANUAL/TEST BANK This resource includes chapter sum-

maries, learning objectives, lecture outlines, multiple-choice questions, true/
false questions, and essay questions for each chapter. Available for download
from the IRC.

PEARSON MYTEST This powerful assessment generation program includes

all of the items in the instructor’s manual/test bank. Questions and tests can be
easily created, customized, saved online, and then printed, allowing flexibility
to manage assessments anytime and anywhere. To learn more, please visit www.
mypearsontest.com or contact your Pearson representative.

POWERPOINT PRESENTATION Organized around a lecture outline, these

multimedia presentations also include photos, figures, and tables from each
chapter. Available for download from the IRC.

Acknowledgments
Many scholars, colleagues, and friends have contributed ideas that influenced
the various editions of this text. The text owes a special debt to the late Robert C.
North, who suggested many years ago that the concepts of bargaining and lev-
erage could be used to integrate IR theory across four levels of analysis. For
help with military data issues, we thank the late Randall Forsberg. For sugges-
tions, we thank our colleagues, and the students in our world politics classes.
For help with data research, we thank Tana Johnson, Felicity Vabulas, Inken
von Borzyskowski, Alex Holland, Lindsey Wagner, Monica Widmann, and
Natalia Canas. Thanks to Mark Lilleleht for his assistance on the appendix,
“Jobs and Careers in International Relations.” Finally, we appreciate the years
of support we received from our late colleague, teacher, and friend Deborah
“Misty” Gerner.
About the Authors
Jon C. W. Pevehouse is Vilas Distinguished Achievement Professor of Political
Science at the University of Wisconsin–Madison. He is an award-winning teacher
and scholar. His research interests focus on international political economy, for-
eign policy, and international organizations. He is currently the editor of the
leading professional journal in the field, International Organization. He received
his BA from the University of Kansas and his Ph.D. from Ohio State University.

Joshua S. Goldstein is Professor Emeritus of International Relations, American

University (Washington, DC) and Research Scholar, University of Massachusetts
Amherst. He is an award-winning scholar who has written and spoken widely
on war and society, including war’s effects on gender, economics, and psycho-
logical trauma. His book War and Gender won the International Studies Associa-
tion’s Book of the Decade award.

xvii
 To the Student

T
he topics studied by scholars are like a landscape with many varied loca-
tions and terrains. This textbook is a map that can orient you to the main
topics, debates, and issue areas in international relations. Scholars use
specialized language to talk about their subjects. This text is a phrase book that
can translate such lingo and explain the terms and concepts that scholars use to
talk about international relations. However, IR is filled with many voices speak-
ing many tongues. The text translates some of those voices—of presidents and
professors, free traders and feminists—to help you sort out the contours of the
subject and the state of knowledge about its various topics. In this seventh edi-
tion, we have especially tried to streamline and clarify this complex subject to
help you not just understand but deeply understand international relations. But
ultimately, the synthesis presented in this text is the authors’ own. Both you and
your professor may disagree with many points. Thus, this textbook is only a
starting point for conversations and debates.
With a combined map and phrase book in hand, you are ready to explore a
fascinating world. The great changes in world politics in the past few years have
made the writing of this textbook an exciting project. May you enjoy your own
explorations of this realm.

J. C. W. P.
J. S. G.

xviii
A Note on Nomenclature

I
n international relations, names are politically sensitive; different actors may
call a territory or an event by different names. This text cannot resolve such
conflicts; it has adopted the following naming conventions for the sake of
consistency. The United Kingdom of Great Britain (England, Scotland, Wales)
and Northern Ireland is called Britain. Burma, renamed Myanmar by its military
government, is referred to as Burma. The country of Bosnia and Herzegovina is
generally shortened to Bosnia (with apologies to Herzegovinians). The former
Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia is called Macedonia. The People’s Republic of
China is referred to as China. The Democratic Republic of the Congo (formerly
called the Belgian Congo and then Zaire) is here called Democratic Congo. We
refer to Cote D’Ivoire as Ivory Coast. Elsewhere, country names follow common
usage, dropping formal designations such as “Republic of.” We refer to the Sea
of Japan, which some call the East Sea, and to the Persian Gulf, which is also
called the Arabian Gulf. The 1991 U.S.-led multinational military campaign that
retook Kuwait after Iraq’s 1990 invasion is called the Gulf War, and the U.S. war
in Iraq after 2003 is called the Iraq War. The war between Iran and Iraq in the
1980s is called the Iran-Iraq War.

xix
Map
World States and Territories
U.S.A.
BAHAMAS
CUBA
HAITI DOMINICAN REPUBLIC

PUERTO RICO
VIRGIN ISLANDS

JAMAICA BARBUDA
BELIZE ANTIGUA
MEXICO
HONDURAS ST. KITTS AND NEVIS
DOMINICA
BARBADOS
NICARAGUA MARTINIQUE
ST. VINCENT AND
NETHERLANDS ANTILLES THE GRENADINES
GUATEMALA ST. LUCIA
GRENADA
EL SALVADOR TRINIDAD
AND
COSTA RICA TOBAGO
VENEZUELA
PANAMA COLOMBIA

ARCTIC OCEAN
GREENLAND
(DANISH)

ICELAND
U.S.

CANADA T

GEORGIA
ATLANTIC OCEAN

UNITED STATES TURKEY

ARMENIA
BERMUDA
PACIFIC OCEAN SYRIA
CYPRUS
LEBANON IRA
MOROCCO TUNISIA
ISRAEL
JORDAN
WESTERN SAHARA LIBYA
ALGERIA BAHR
MEXICO EGYPT
SA
SENEGAL MAURITANIA
MALI NIGER SUDAN
NIGER CAPE VERDE CHAD
MALI CENTRAL
GAMBIA AFRICAN
BURKINA GUINEA BISSAU REP. ERITREA
FASO SURINAME GUINEA SOUTH
SIERRA LEONE SUDAN ETHIOP
FRENCH
NIGERIA COLOMBIA GUIANA LIBERIA UGANDA
CÔTE ECUADOR RWANDA KENYA
D'IVOIRE GUYANA BURUNDI

DEM. CONGO TANZANIA

CAMEROON PERU
TOGO BRAZIL ANGOLA
BENIN
GHANA
ZAMBIA
SAO TOME AND PRINCIPE BOLIVIA
EQUATORIAL GUINEA GABON
PARAGUAY BOTSWANA
CHILE ATLANTIC OCEAN
CONGO NAMIBIA
PACIFIC OCEAN ZIMB
DEM. CONGO SOUTH
AFRICA SWAZILAN
LESOTHO
URUGUAY
ARGENTINA

ANGOLA

NAMIBIA

xx
 Map xxi

FINLAND
NORWAY RUSSIA

SWEDEN
ESTONIA

DENMARK LATVIA
NETHERLANDS RUSSIA LITHUANIA

BELGIUM BELARUS
POLAND
GERMANY
SLOVAKIA UKRAINE
IRELAND CZECH
REPUBLIC
LUXEMBOURG LIECHTENSTEIN
BRITAIN
AUSTRIA MOLDOVA
SWITZERLAND
HUNGARY
ROMANIA
SLOVENIA
ARCTIC OCEAN FRANCE
CROATIA
SERBIA
SAN BULGARIA MACEDONIA
MARINO ITALY
ANDORRA
MONACO MONTENEGRO
SPAIN BOSNIA-
HERZEGOVINA
GREECE TURKEY
ALBANIA
R U S S I A PORTUGAL
MALTA
UZBEKISTAN
TURKMENISTAN

A
KAZAKHSTAN
MONGOLIA NORTH
KOREA
KYRGYZSTAN SOUTH
TAJIKISTAN KOREA JAPAN
C H I N A
AZERBAIJAN
AQ KUWAIT AFGHANISTAN BURMA
IRAN NEPAL PACIFIC OCEAN
BHUTAN (MYANMAR)
QATAR PAKISTAN
LAOS
RAIN BANGLADESH
VIETNAM
UNITED TAIWAN
AUDI ARABIA ARAB INDIA HONG KONG
AN

EMIRATES
MACAU
OM

YEMEN GUAM/MARIANAS
THAILAND PHILIPPINES

DJIBOUTI CAMBODIA PALAU

BRUNEI
PIA SRI MALAYSIA MARSHALL
LANKA ISLANDS
SOMALIA MICRONESIA
MALDIVES NAURU
SINGAPORE PAPUA
SEYCHELLES NEW GUINEA KIRIBATI

INDONESIA SOLOMON
INDIAN OCEAN ISLANDS
MALAWI TUVALU
COMOROS ISLANDS EAST TIMOR AMERICAN
SAMOA

VANUATU
MAURITIUS SAMOA

MADAGASCAR FIJI TONGA

A U ST RA L IA
MOZAMBIQUE
BABWE
ND

NEW
ZEALAND

ANTARCTICA
This page intentionally left blank
Chapter 1
The Globalization
of International
Relations

INTERNATIONAL SPACE STATION, 2010.

Learning Objectives
1.1 Describe the properties of the collective action problem and
how each core principle addresses the problem.
1.2 Evaluate whether states are still the key actors in international
relations. 1
2 Chapter 1

1.3 Identify at least three commonalities between states in the

global North and states in the global South.
1.4 Explain at least two differences between the Cold War era and
the post–Cold War era.

Globalization, International Relations,

and Daily Life
1.1 Describe the properties of the collective action problem and how each
core principle addresses the problem.
International relations is a fascinating topic because it concerns peoples and cul-
tures throughout the world. The scope and complexity of the interactions among
these groups make international relations a challenging subject to master.
international rela- Narrowly defined, the field of international relations (IR) concerns the rela-
tions (IR) The rela- tionships among the world’s governments. But these relationships cannot be
tionships among the
understood in isolation. They are closely connected with other actors (such as
world’s state govern-
ments and the con-
international organizations, multinational corporations, and individuals), with
nection of those other social structures (including economics, culture, and domestic politics), and
relationships with with geographical and historical influences. These elements together power the
other actors (such as central trend in IR today—globalization.
the United Nations, Indeed, three key events of recent years reflect globalization. In 2014, an out-
multinational corpo-
break of the Ebola virus in Africa led to concerns of a global epidemic. Victims
rations, and individu-
als), with other social far from Africa—in Spain, the United States, and Great Britain—were quaran-
relationships (includ- tined, while new health-screening procedures to prevent the spread of the virus
ing economics, cul- were implemented at hospitals and health clinics throughout those countries.
ture, and domestic The young protesters of the Arab Spring who overthrew several governments in
politics), and with 2011–2012 used Facebook and cell phones to plan and coordinate their revolu-
geographic and his-
tions. And the global economic recession of 2008–2009, which began with a col-
torical influences.
lapse of the U.S. home mortgage market, spread quickly to other nations. Highly
integrated global financial markets created a ripple effect across the globe that is
still being felt today. Thus, three hallmarks of globalization—the ease of global
travel, expanding communications technology, and integrated markets—pro-
pelled events that affected our daily lives.
Not only large-scale events influence our lives. The prospects for getting
jobs after graduation depend on the global economy and international economic
competition. Those jobs also are more likely than ever to entail international
travel, sales, or communication. And the rules of the world trading system affect
the goods that students consume every day, such as electronics, clothes, and
gasoline.
Globalization has distinct positive impacts on our daily lives as well. As
technology advances, the world is shrinking year by year. Better communication
 The Globalization of International Relations 3

and transportation capabilities constantly expand the ordinary person’s contact

with people, products, and ideas from other countries. Globalization is interna-
tionalizing us.
In addition to feeling the influence of globalization and international rela-
tions on our daily lives, individual citizens can influence the world as well.
Often, international relations is portrayed as a distant and abstract ritual con-
ducted by a small group of people such as presidents, generals, and diplo-
mats. Although leaders do play a major role in international affairs, many
other people participate as well. College students and other citizens partici-
pate in international relations every time they vote in an election or work on a
political campaign, buy a product or service traded on world markets, and
watch the news. The choices we make in our daily lives ultimately affect the
world we live in.
The purpose of this book is to introduce the field of IR, to organize what is
known and theorized about IR, and to convey the key concepts used by political
scientists to discuss relations among nations. This first chapter defines IR as a
field of study, introduces the actors of interest, and reviews the geographical and
historical aspects of globalization within which IR occurs.

Core Principles
The field of IR reflects the world’s complexity, and IR scholars use many theo-
ries, concepts, and buzzwords in trying to describe and explain it. Underneath
this complexity, however, lie a few basic principles that shape the field. We will
lay out the range of theories and approaches in Chapters 2 and 3, but here we
will present the most central ideas as free
from jargon as possible.
IR revolves around one key problem:
How can a group—such as two or more
countries—serve its collective interests when
doing so requires its members to forgo their
individual interests? For example, every
country has an interest in stopping global
warming, a goal that can be achieved only
by many countries acting together. Yet each
country also has an individual interest in
burning fossil fuels to keep its economy
going. Similarly, all members of a military
alliance benefit from the strength of the alli-
ance, but each member separately has an
interest in minimizing its own contributions
in troops and money. Individual nations can
advance their own short-term interests by TOUCHED BY WAR IR affects our lives in many ways. This
seizing territory militarily, cheating on trade woman’s boyfriend died in Iraq in 2006.
4 Chapter 1

agreements, and refusing to contribute to international efforts such as peace-

keeping or vaccination campaigns. But if all nations acted this way, they would
find themselves worse off, in a chaotic and vicious environment where mutual
gains from cooperating on issues of security and trade would disappear.
This problem of shared interests versus conflicting interests among members
of a group goes by various names in various contexts—the problem of “collective
action,” “free riding,” “burden sharing,” the “tragedy of the commons,” or the
collective goods “prisoner’s dilemma.” We will refer to the general case as the collective goods
problem A tangible problem, that is, the problem of how to provide something that benefits all mem-
or intangible good, bers of a group regardless of what each member contributes to it.
created by the mem-
In general, collective goods are easier to provide in small groups than in
bers of a group, that
is available to all large ones. In a small group, the cheating (or free riding) of one member is
group members harder to conceal, has a greater impact on the overall collective good, and is
regardless of their easier to punish. The advantage of small groups helps explain the importance of
individual contribu- the great power system in international security affairs and of the Group of
tions; participants
Twenty (G20) industrialized countries in economic matters.
can gain by lowering
their own contribu-
The collective goods problem occurs in all groups and societies, but it is
tion to the collective particularly acute in international affairs because each nation is sovereign, with
good, yet if too many no central authority such as a world government to enforce on individual
participants do so, nations the necessary measures to provide for the common good. By contrast,
the good cannot be in domestic politics within countries, a government can force individuals to
provided.
contribute in ways that do not serve their individual self-interest, such as by
paying taxes or paying to install antipollution equipment on vehicles and facto-
ries. If individuals do not comply, the government can punish them. Although
this solution is far from perfect—cheaters and criminals sometimes are not
caught, and governments sometimes abuse their power—it mostly works well
enough to keep societies going.
Three basic principles—which we call dominance, reciprocity, and iden-
tity—offer possible solutions to the core problem of getting individuals to coop-
erate for the common good without a central authority to make them do so (see
Table 1.1). These three principles are fundamental across the social sciences and
recur in disciplines as diverse as the study of animal societies, child develop-
ment, social psychology, anthropology, and economics, as well as political

Table 1.1 Core Principles for Solving Collective Goods Problems

Principle Advantages Drawbacks

Order, Stability, Oppression,

Dominance Predictability Resentment

Incentives for Downward Spirals;

Reciprocity
Mutual Cooperation Complex Accounting

Sacrifice for Group, Demonizing an

Identity
Redefine Interests Out-Group
 The Globalization of International Relations 5

science. To explain each principle, we will apply the three principles to a small-
scale human example and an IR example.

DOMINANCE The principle of dominance solves the collective goods prob- dominance A prin-
lem by establishing a power hierarchy in which those at the top control those ciple for solving col-
below—a bit like a government but without an actual government. Instead of lective goods
problems by impos-
fighting constantly over who gets scarce resources, the members of a group can
ing solutions
just fight occasionally over position in the “status hierarchy.” Then social con- hierarchically.
flicts such as who gets resources are resolved automatically in favor of the
higher-ranking actor. Fights over the dominance position have scripted rules
that minimize, to some extent, the harm inflicted on the group members. Sym-
bolic acts of submission and dominance reinforce an ever-present status hierar-
chy. Staying on top of a status hierarchy does not depend on strength alone,
though it helps. Rather, the top actor may be the one most adept at forming and
maintaining alliances among the group’s more capable members. Dominance is
complex and not just a matter of brute force.
In international relations, the principle of dominance underlies the great
power system, in which a handful of countries dictate the rules for all the others.
Sometimes a so-called hegemon or superpower stands atop the great powers as
the dominant nation. The UN Security Council, in which the world’s five stron-
gest military powers hold a veto, reflects the dominance principle.
The advantage of the dominance solution to the collective goods problem is
that, like a government, it forces members of a group to contribute to the com-
mon good. It minimizes open conflict within the group. However, the disadvan-
tage is that this stability comes at a cost of constant oppression of, and resentment
by, the lower-ranking members in the status hierarchy. Also, conflicts over posi-
tion in the hierarchy can occasionally harm the group’s stability and well-being,
such as when challenges to the top position lead to serious fights. In the case of
international relations, the great power system and the hegemony of a super-
power can provide relative peace and stability for decades on end but then can
break down into costly wars among the great powers.

RECIPROCITY The principle of reciprocity solves the collective goods prob- reciprocity A
lem by rewarding behavior that contributes to the group and punishing behav- response in kind to
ior that pursues self-interest at the expense of the group. Reciprocity is very easy another’s actions; a
strategy of reciproc-
to understand and can be “enforced” without any central authority, making it a
ity uses positive
robust way to get individuals to cooperate for the common good. forms of leverage to
But reciprocity operates in both the positive realm (“You scratch my back promise rewards and
and I’ll scratch yours”) and the negative (“An eye for an eye, a tooth for a negative forms of
tooth”). A disadvantage of reciprocity as a solution to the collective goods prob- leverage to threaten
punishment.
lem is that it can lead to a downward spiral as each side punishes what it believes
to be negative acts by the other. Psychologically, most people overestimate their
own good intentions and underestimate the value of the actions of their oppo-
nents or rivals. To avoid tit-for-tat escalations of conflict, one or both parties
must act generously to get the relationship moving in a good direction.
6 Chapter 1

In international relations, reciprocity forms the basis of most of the norms

(habits; expectations) and institutions in the international system. Many central
arrangements in IR, such as World Trade Organization (WTO) agreements,
explicitly recognize reciprocity as the linchpin of cooperation. For instance, if
one country opens its markets to another’s goods, the other opens its markets in
return. On the negative side, reciprocity fuels arms races as each side responds
to the other’s buildup of weapons. But it also allows arms control agreements
and other step-by-step conflict-resolution measures, as two sides match each
other’s actions in backing away from the brink of war.

IDENTITY A third potential solution to the collective goods problem lies in the
identities of participants as members of a community. Although the dominance
and reciprocity principles act on the idea of achieving individual self-interest (by
identity A principle taking what you can, or by mutually beneficial arrangements), the identity prin-
for solving collective ciple does not rely on self-interest. On the contrary, members of an identity com-
goods problems by
munity care about the interests of others in the community enough to sacrifice
changing partici-
pants’ preferences
their own interests to benefit others. The roots of this principle lie in the family,
based on their shared the extended family, and the kinship group. But this potential is not limited to
sense of belonging to the close family; it can be generalized to any identity community that one feels a
a community. part of. As members of a family care about each other, so do members of an eth-
nic group, a gender group, a nation, or the world’s scientists. In each case, indi-
vidual members will accept solutions to collective goods problems that do not
give them the best deal as individuals because the benefits are “all in the fam-
ily,” so to speak. A biologist retiring from a rich American university may give
away lab equipment to a biologist in a poor country because they share an iden-
tity as scientists. A computer scientist from India may return home to work for
lower pay after receiving training in Canada in order to help the community he
or she cares about. Millions of people contribute to international disaster relief
funds after tsunamis, earthquakes, or hurricanes because of a shared identity as
members of the community of human beings.
In IR, identity communities play important roles in overcoming difficult col-
lective goods problems, including the issue of who contributes to development
assistance, world health, and UN peacekeeping missions. The relatively large
foreign aid contributions of Scandinavian countries, or the high Canadian par-
ticipation in peacekeeping, cannot be explained well by self-interest but arise
from these countries’ self-defined identities as members of the international
community. Even in military force and diplomacy (where dominance and reci-
procity, respectively, rule the day), the shared identities of military professionals
and of diplomats—each with shared traditions and expectations—can take the
edge off conflicts. And military alliances also mix identity politics with raw self-
interest, as shown by the unusual strength of the U.S.-British alliance, which
shared interests alone cannot explain as well as shared identity does.
Nonstate actors, such as nongovernmental organizations or terrorist net-
works, also rely on identity politics to a great extent. The increasing roles of
 The Globalization of International Relations 7

these actors—which include feminist organizations, churches, jihadists, and

multinational corporations—have brought the identity principle to greater
prominence in IR theory in recent years.

AN EVERYDAY EXAMPLE To sum up the three core principles, imagine that

you have two good friends, a man and a woman, who are in a romantic relation-
ship. They love each other and enjoy the other’s company, but they come to you
for help with a problem: When they go out together, the man likes to go to the
opera, whereas the woman enjoys going to boxing matches. (This is loosely based
on a game theory scenario called “Battle of the Sexes.”) Because of your training in
international relations, you quickly recognize this as a collective goods problem in
which the shared interest is spending time together and the conflicting individual
interests are watching opera and watching boxing. (Of course, you know that the
behavior of states is more complicated than that of individuals, but put that aside
for a moment.) You might approach this problem in any of three ways.
First, you could say, “Traditionally, relationships work best when the man
wears the pants. For thousands of years, the man has made the decision and the
woman has followed it. I suggest you do the same, and buy season tickets to the
opera.” This would be a dominance solution. It could be a very stable solution, if
the woman cares more about spending time with her true love than she cares
about opera or boxing. It would be a simple solution that would settle all future
conflicts. It would give one party everything he wants, and the other party some
of what she wants (love, company, a stable relationship). This might be better for
both of them than spending all their evenings arguing about where to go out. On
the other hand, this solution might leave the woman permanently resentful at
the manifestly unequal nature of the outcome. She might feel her love for her
partner diminish over time by a longing for respect and a nostalgia for boxing.
She might even meet another man who likes her and likes boxing.
Second, you could say, “Look, instead of fighting all the time, why don’t you
establish a pattern and trade off going to boxing one time and opera the next.” This
would be a reciprocity solution. You could set up agreements, accounting systems,
and shared expectations to govern the implementation of this seemingly simple
solution. For example, they could go to boxing on Friday nights and opera on Sat-
urday nights. But what if opera season is shorter than boxing season? Then perhaps
they would go to opera more often during its season and boxing more often when
opera is out of season. What if one of them is out of town on a Friday night? Does
that night count anyway or does it earn a credit for later? Or does the one who is in
town go out alone? What if the man hates boxing but the woman only mildly dis-
likes opera? Do you set up a schedule of two operas for each boxing match to keep
each side equally happy or unhappy? Clearly, reciprocity solutions can become
very complicated (just look at the world trade rules in Chapter 5, for example), and
they require constant monitoring to see if obligations are being met and cheating is
being avoided. Your friends might find it an irritant in their relationship to keep
close track of who owes whom a night at the opera or a boxing match.
8 Chapter 1

Third, you could say, “Who cares about

opera or boxing? The point is that you love
each other and want to be together. Get past
the superficial issues and strengthen the core
feelings that brought you together. Then it
won’t matter where you go or what you’re
watching.” This would be an identity solu-
tion. This approach could powerfully resolve
your friends’ conflict and leave them both
much happier. Over time, one partner might
actually begin to prefer the other’s favorite
activity after more exposure—leading to a
change in identity. On the other hand, after a
while self-interest could creep back in
because that loving feeling might seem even
TRAVEL COMPANIONS Collective goods are provided to all
happier with a boxing match or opera to
members of a group regardless of their individual contributions, watch. Indeed, one partner can subtly exploit
just as these migrant workers crossing the Sahara desert in Niger the other’s commitment to get past the super-
in 2006 all depend on the truck’s progress even while perhaps ficial conflicts. “What’s it matter as long as
jostling for position among themselves. In many issue areas, such we’re together,” she says, “and oh, look,
as global warming, the international community of nations is
there’s a good boxing match tonight!” Some-
similarly interdependent. However, the provision of collective
goods presents difficult dilemmas as players seek to maximize times the identity principle operates more
their own share of benefits. powerfully in the short term than the long
term: The soldier who volunteers to defend
the homeland might begin to feel taken advantage of after months or years on the
front line, and the American college student who gives money once to tsunami
victims may not want to keep giving year after year to malaria victims.

AN IR EXAMPLE Now consider the problem of nuclear proliferation. All coun-

tries share an interest in the collective good of peace and stability, which is hard
to achieve in a world where more and more countries make more and more
nuclear weapons. If individuals acquire dangerous weapons within a society,
the government can take them away to keep everyone safe. But in the society of
nations, no such central authority exists. In 2006, North Korea tested its first
nuclear bomb, and Iran continues uranium enrichment that could lead to a
nuclear bomb—defying UN resolutions in both cases.
One approach to nuclear proliferation legitimizes these weapons’ ownership
by just the few most powerful countries. The “big five” with the largest nuclear
arsenals hold veto power on the UN Security Council. Through agreements like the
Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) and the Proliferation Security Initiative, the exist-
ing nuclear powers actively try to keep their exclusive hold on these weapons and
prevent smaller nations from getting them. This is a dominance approach. In 2003,
when the United States thought Iraq’s Saddam Hussein might have an active
nuclear weapons program, as he had a decade earlier, it invaded Iraq and
 The Globalization of International Relations 9

overthrew its government. Similarly, in 1982, when Iraq had begun working
toward a nuclear bomb, Israel sent jets to bomb Iraq’s nuclear facility, setting back
the program by years. One drawback to these dominance solutions is the resent-
ment they create among the smaller countries. Those countries point to an unen-
forced provision of the NPT stating that existing nuclear powers should get rid of
their own bombs as other countries refrain from making new ones. And they ask
what gives Israel the right to bomb another country, or the United States the right
to invade one. They speak of a “double standard” for the powerful and the weak.
Reciprocity offers a different avenue for preventing proliferation. It is the
basis of the provision in the NPT about the existing nuclear powers’ obligation
to disarm in exchange for smaller countries’ agreement to stay nonnuclear. Reci-
procity also underlies arms control agreements, used extensively in the Cold
War to manage the buildup of nuclear bombs by the superpowers and used cur-
rently to manage the mutual reduction of their arsenals. Deterrence also relies
on reciprocity. The United States warned North Korea in 2006 against selling its
bombs (an action that would be in North Korea’s short-term self-interest), threat-
ening to retaliate against North Korea if any other actor used such a bomb
against the United States. And when Libya gave up its nuclear weapons pro-
gram in 2003, the international community gave it various rewards, including
the ending of economic sanctions, in exchange.
The identity principle has proven equally effective, if less newsworthy, against
nuclear proliferation. Many nations that have the technical ability to make nuclear
weapons have chosen not to do so. They have constructed their national identities
in ways that shape their self-interests and that make nuclear bombs undesirable.
Some, like Sweden, do not intend to fight wars. Others, like Germany, belong to
alliances in which they come under another nation’s nuclear “umbrella” and do
not need their own bomb. South Africa actually developed nuclear weapons in
secret but then dismantled the program before apartheid ended, keeping the
bomb out of the hands of the new majority-rule government. Nobody forced
South Africa to do this (as in dominance), nor did it respond to rewards and pun-
ishments (reciprocity). Rather, South Africa’s identity shifted. Similarly, Japan’s
experience of the catastrophic results of militarism, culminating in the destruction
of two of its cities by nuclear bombs in 1945, continues generations later to shape
Japan’s identity as a country that does not want nuclear weapons, even though it
has the know-how and even the stockpile of plutonium to make them.
Collective goods problems fascinate social scientists, and especially scholars
of IR, precisely because they have no easy solutions. In later chapters, we will
see how these three core principles shape the responses of the international com-
munity to various collective goods problems across the whole range of IR issues.

IR as a Field of Study
As part of political science, IR is about international politics—the decisions of gov-
ernments about foreign actors, especially other governments. To some extent,
10 Chapter 1

however, the field is interdisciplinary, relating international politics to econom-

ics, history, sociology, and other disciplines. Some universities offer separate
degrees or departments for IR. Most, however, teach IR in political science
classes, in which the focus is on the politics of economic relationships, or the poli-
tics of environmental management, to take two examples. (The domestic politics
of foreign countries, although overlapping with IR, generally makes up the sep-
arate field of comparative politics.)
Political relations among nations cover a range of activities—diplomacy,
war, trade relations, alliances, cultural exchanges, participation in international
organizations, and so forth. Particular activities within one of these spheres
issue areas Distinct make up distinct issue areas on which scholars and foreign policy makers focus
spheres of interna- attention. Examples of issue areas include global trade, the environment, and
tional activity (such specific conflicts such as the Arab-Israeli conflict. Within each issue area, and
as global trade nego-
across the range of issues of concern in any international relationship, policy
tiations) within
which policy makers makers of one nation can behave in a cooperative manner or a conflictual man-
of various states face ner—extending either friendly or hostile behavior toward the other nation. IR
conflicts and some- scholars often look at international relations in terms of the mix of conflict and
times achieve cooperation in relationships among nations.
cooperation.
The scope of the field of IR may also be defined by the subfields it encompasses.
conflict and cooper- Some scholars treat topics such as this text’s chapters (for example, international
ation The types of law or international development) as subfields, but here we will reserve the term
actions that states
for two macro-level topics. Traditionally, the study of IR has focused on questions
take toward each
other through time. of war and peace—the subfield of international security studies. The movements
of armies and of diplomats, the crafting of treaties and alliances, and the develop-
international secu-
rity A subfield of ment and deployment of military capabilities were subjects that dominated the
international rela- study of IR in the past, especially in the 1950s and 1960s, and they continue to hold
tions (IR) that a central position in the field. Since the Cold War, regional conflicts and ethnic vio-
focuses on questions lence have received more attention, while interdisciplinary peace studies programs
of war and peace. and feminist scholarship have sought to broaden concepts of “security” further.
international politi- The subfield of international political economy (IPE), a second main sub-
cal economy (IPE) field of IR, concerns trade and financial relations among nations, and focuses on
The study of the poli-
how nations have cooperated politically to create and maintain institutions that
tics of trade, mone-
tary, and other
regulate the flow of international economic and financial transactions. Although
economic relations these topics previously centered on relations among the world’s richer nations,
among nations, and the widening of globalization and multilateral economic institutions such as the
their connection to World Trade Organization has pushed IPE scholars to focus on developing states
other transnational as well. In addition, they pay growing attention to relations between developed
forces.
and developing nations (often labeled North-South relations), including topics
such as economic dependency, debt, foreign aid, and technology transfer. Also
newly important are problems of international environmental management and
of global telecommunications. The subfield of IPE is expanding accordingly.
The same principles and theories that help us understand international
security (in the first half of this text) also help us understand IPE (in the second
half). Economics is important in security affairs, and vice versa.
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and their Indian allies. On the resignation of his professorship, Mr. Jackson was
succeeded by Mr. Beveridge.

261. Dr. William Shippen, the younger, who first filled the
anatomical chair in the College of Philadelphia, (afterwards, the
University of Pennsylvania,) and which he continued to occupy for
almost forty-three years with great respectability, may be justly
considered as the founder of the medical department of that
institution. The establishment of a medical school in his native city,
had long been contemplated by this distinguished lecturer, as a most
desirable object: but, in the execution of such a plan, serious
difficulties were to be encountered at the commencement. In the
language of-his anonymous eulogist,[261a] “the enterprize, arduous in
itself, was rendered abundantly more so, in consideration of its
novelty: for, as yet, the voice of a public lecturer in medicine had
never been heard in the western world. In order, therefore, to test the
practicability of the measure, and to pave the way for a more regular
and extensive establishment, he determined to embark in the
undertaking himself, by delivering, in a private capacity, a course of
lectures on anatomy and surgery: this he did in the winter of 1762-3,
being the first winter after his return from his studies and travels in
Europe.”

Dr. Shippen’s success, as a private lecturer, demonstrated the

expediency of engrafting a medical school on the College; and, in
consequence, he was unanimously elected the professor of anatomy
and surgery, on the 17th of September, 1765. This able teacher held
that chair until his death,[261b] which occurred the 11th of July, 1808,
in the seventy-fifth year of his age.

261a. Said to be Dr. Caldwell, of Philadelphia. See the Port Folio.

261b. Casper Wister, M. D. Professor of Anatomy and Surgery in the

University of Pennsylvania, was, for some years before the death of Dr. Shippen,
his adjunct professor in the same chair; to which station, this eminent teacher in
those branches of medicine was appointed by the trustees of the university, at the
request of his late colleague.
 262. William Shippen, jun. M. D. just mentioned, was the professor
of anatomy; Adam Kuhn, M. D. a distinguished pupil of the
celebrated Linnæus, was professor of botany, united with the materia
medica; Benjamin Rush, M. D. a learned and able professor of the
theory and practice of physick, then held the chemical chair; and Dr.
Thomas Bond, an ingenious and eminent physician, gave clynical
lectures in the Pennsylvania Hospital. In the year 1789, the trustees
of the College of Philadelphia instituted a professorship of natural
history and botany; which was then conferred on Benjamin Smith
Barton, M. D. Dr. Kuhn had formerly delivered several courses of
lectures on botany, in the College of Philadelphia; but natural history
had never before been taught there. On the union of the College with
the University, in the year 1791, Dr. Barton’s former appointment was
confirmed by the trustees of the united institution; and in the year
1796, he was further appointed by them to the professorship of
materia medica; that chair having been then vacated by the
resignation of the late professor of that branch of medical science.

The other chairs, in the Medical Department of the University, are

filled as follows; viz. that of Anatomy, by Casper Wister, M. D.—of
the Theory and Practice of Physick, by Benjamin Rush, M. D.[262a]—
of Chemistry, by John Redman Coxe, M. D.—of Materia Medica,
Botany and Natural History, by Benjamin Smith Barton, M. D.—of
Surgery, by Philip Syng Physick, M. D. and John S. Dorsey, M. D.—
and of Midwifery, by Thomas Chalkley James, M. D.

Among these collegiate-chairs in medicine, appertaining to the

University of Pennsylvania, the only one which appears to be
deficient in a suitable appendage to its institution—and this, too,
such an appendage as may be considered almost indispensably
necessary to it—is the Professorship of Botany. To this chair, a
Botanical Garden ought to be appurtenant: and accordingly we find,
that this requisite for rendering a Botanical Professorship complete,
in most Universities, is the establishment of such a Garden, for the
use of the Teacher and his Pupils.
 The importance that is attached to institutions of this kind, in
foreign seminaries of learning, will be perceived from the following
sketches of those in three of the most celebrated universities of
Europe.

The Botanical Garden (called the “Physick Garden”) of the

university of Oxford, contains five acres of ground. It is surrounded
by a noble wall, with portals in the rustic style, at proper distances.
The passage to the grand entrance is through a small court: this
principal portal is of the Doric order, ornamented with rustic work,
and adorned with a bust of Henry Danvers, Earl of Danby, the
founder; besides statues of the kings Charles I. and II.

The ground is divided into four quarters. On each side of the

entrance, is a neat and convenient green-house, stocked with a
great variety of exotics. The quarters are filled with indigenous
plants, properly classed; and without the walls is an admirable hot-
house, filled with various plants, the production of warm climates.

These fine and spacious gardens were instituted by Lord Danby,

so early as the year 1632; and this nobleman having supplied them
with the necessary plants, for the use of the students of Botany in
the university, endowed the establishment with an annual revenue,
for its support. The Gardens were afterwards much improved by Dr.
Sherrard, who assigned a fund of 3000l. sterling, for the
maintenance of a professor of Botany. Over the grand entrance into
the Gardens is this inscription: “Gloriæ Dei Optimi, maximi honori
Caroli I. Regis, in usum Academieœ et Reipublicæ, Henricus Comes
Danby, anno 1632.”

The Botanic Garden, at Cambridge, consists of nearly five acres,

well watered. The ground, with a large house for the use of the
governors and officers of the Garden, was purchased at the expense
of about 1600l. sterling, by Dr. Richard Walker.

An handsome green-house, one hundred feet in length, and

having an hot-house (or, what is called a stove,) appurtenant to it,
were erected by subscription. These are furnished with an extensive
variety of curious exotics: the plants are all arranged according to the
Linnæan system, and a catalogue of them is printed.

These Gardens are under the government of the chancellor or

vice-chancellor of the university, the heads of three of the colleges,
and the regius professor of physick; and they are superintended by a
lecturer or reader, and a curator.

There is, besides, a Professorship of Botany, in this university; as

there is also at Oxford.

The Botanical Garden belonging to the university of Edinburgh, is

about a mile from the city, It consists of a great variety of plants,
exotic and indigenous. The Professor is botanist to the king, and
receives an annual salary of 120l. sterling, for the support of the
Garden. A monument to the memory of Linnæus was erected here,
by the late Dr. Hope, who first planted the Garden and brought it to
perfection.

The Garden of Plants, at Paris, now termed the Museum of

Natural History, comprises a space of many acres. It dates its origin
as far back as the year 1640, during the reign of Louis XIII. In 1665,
it bore the name of Hortus Regius, and exhibited a catalogue of four
thousand plants. From that period, it made but slow progress, until
Louis XV. placed it under the direction of the Count de Buffon, the
celebrated naturalist; to whose anxious care and indefatigable
exertions, it owes its present extent and magnificence: it is now
under the patronage of the government.

But this institution comprehends, in addition to the Botanical

Garden, an extensive chemical laboratory, a cabinet of comparative
anatomy, a cabinet of preparations in anatomy and natural history, a
large library, a museum of natural history, and a menagérie well
stocked. Besides the lectures delivered in the Amphitheatre, erected
in these Gardens, the Professors of Botany give their peripatetic
lessons, in good weather, to a numerous train of disciples.
 “When I have been seated at noon, on a fine day, in the month of
August, or in the commencement of May, under one of the majestic
ash of the Garden of Plants, with this Elysian scene before me, in
the midst of a most profound silence, and of a solitude interrupted
only by the occasional appearance of the Professor of Botany and
his pupils, I have almost fancied myself,” says the writer of Letters on
France and England—(see Am. Rev. No. ii.) “among the groves of
the Athenian Academy, and could imagine that I heard the lessons of
the “divine” Plato. Here, as well as in the spacious and noble works
and gardens of Oxford, which are so admirably calculated for the
exercises both of the mind and body, the fancy takes wing, and
readily transports the student of antiquity to those venerable seats of
knowledge, where the sublime Philosophy of the Greeks was taught,
and the masters of human reason displayed their incomparable
eloquence:”—

——“the green retreats

[262b]
Of Academus, and the thymy vale,
Where, oft enchanted with Socratic sounds,
Ilyssus,[262c] pure, devolv’d his tuneful stream
In gentle murmur.”
Akenside’s Pleasures of Imagination.

The importance of establishing a Botanical Garden at Philadelphia

is obvious: it has, in fact, become a necessary institution, towards
completing a medical education; according to the system of teaching
medicine, pursued in the medical department of the University of
Pennsylvania. In this respect, New-York has taken the lead of
Philadelphia. Dr. David Hosack, professor of botany in the Medical
School of New-York, established a Botanic Garden of about twenty
acres, called the Elgin Botanic Garden, in the vicinity of that city, in
the year 1801. This Garden is skirted around by forest-trees and
shrubs, within the substantial enclosure of a stone wall; and on these
grounds are erected extensive, commodious, and well constructed
conservatories and hot-houses, which are furnished with a variety of
plants, exotic and indigenous. The whole of this establishment was
purchased from Dr. Hosack, by the state, in the year 1810: It is now
under the direction of the regents of the University of that state.

Six years ago, the general assembly of Pennsylvania made some

provision for such an institution: By a law passed the 19th of March,
1807, towards the close of Governor M‘Kean’s administration, three
thousand dollars were granted to the trustees of the University of
Pennsylvania, “out of the monies they owe the state; for the purpose
of enabling them to establish a Garden for the improvement of the
science of Botany, and for instituting a series of experiments to
ascertain the cheapest and best food for plants, and their medical
properties and virtues.” But no application of this fund has yet been
made, to the purposes contemplated by the legislature in their
appropriation of it.

Mr. John Bartram, F. R. S. a distinguished botanist, though self-

taught, is understood to have been the first anglo-American who
executed the design of a Botanic Garden in this country. He laid out,
and planted with his own hands, on his farm, pleasantly situated on
the west bank of the Schuylkill and about four miles below
Philadelphia, a garden of five or six acres; which he furnished with a
great variety of curious, useful and beautiful vegetables, exotic as
well as American. He acquired the greater part of the latter, in
travelling through many parts of the continent, from Canada to the
Floridas. His proficiency in his favourite science was, at a pretty early
period, so great, that Linnæus pronounced him, in one of his letters,
to be the greatest natural botanist in the world. This Garden is now in
the tenure and under the management of his son, the ingenious Mr.
William Bartram, a well known cultivator of Natural History and
Botany. Although this respectable man is above seventy years of
age, he continues the most sedulous attention to his favourite
pursuits. For a further account of Mr. John Bartram, see Dr. Barton’s
Medical Journal.

Mr. Bartram was born near Darby, in the (then) county of Chester,
Pennsylvania, in the year 1701. He held the appointment of Botanist,
for America, to King George III. until his death, which occurred in
September, 1777, in the seventy-sixth year of his age.
262a. Since deceased.

262b. Academus was an Athenian hero, from whom the original Academists,
or that sect of philosophers who followed the opinion of Socrates, as illustrated
and enforced by Plato, derived their name; Plato having taught his disciples in a
grove, near Athens, consecrated to the memory of that hero.

262c. The Ilyssus is a rapid, but, when not swollen by rains, a small stream, of
pure and limpid water, in the vicinity of Athens; and near the margin of which, in a
vale at the foot of Mount Hymettus, is supposed to have stood the Grove,
dedicated to Academus, in which the Socratic Philosophy was taught in its
greatest purity.

263. This highly important and well conducted institution owes its
rise to the liberal contributions of several humane, charitable and
public-spirited persons, aided by a legislative grant of two thousand
pounds, Pennsylvania currency, (equivalent to $5333⅓ in the
beginning of the year 1751: the first design, it is believed, was
suggested by the late Dr. Thomas Bond, long an eminent physician
in Philadelphia; and heretofore an active and useful member of the
Philosophical Society, as well as sometime one of the vice-
presidents of that body. By a law passed the 11th of April, 1793, the
general assembly liberally granted ten thousand pounds ($26,666,)
out of the funds accruing to the loan office of February 26, 1773; to
enable the managers of the Hospital to make additions to their
buildings, conformably to the original plan; and so to extend it as to
comprehend a Lying-in and a Foundling Hospital,[263a] so soon as
specific funds for those purposes should be obtained.

The first twelve managers (whose names deserve to be held in

remembrance, as prominent benefactors to their country,) were
Joshua Crosby, Benjamin Franklin, Dr. Thomas Bond, Samuel
Hazard, Richard Peters, Israel Pemberton, (then styled junior,)
Samuel Rhoads, Hugh Roberts, Joseph Morris, John Smith, Evan
Morgan and Charles Norris; and John Reynell officiated as treasurer:
all of these were gentlemen of most respectable characters.
 In order to obviate some objections, that were at first made, to the
contemplated expense of the medical department of the institution,
and which it was apprehended might obstruct the passage of the bill
then depending in the legislature, by which the grant of the two
thousand pounds, before mentioned, was obtained from the public,
Dr. Thomas Bond, together with his brother Dr. Phineas Bond, and
Dr. Lloyd Zachary, generously offered to attend the Hospital,
gratuitously, for the term of three years.

The Hospital establishment is now very complete, according to the

original plan of this valuable institution; and, indeed, much beyond
what was at first contemplated, in some respects: yet its utility might
be much increased, by a further extension of the design. In its
present condition, however, it reflects great honour on Pennsylvania,
justly celebrated, as she is, for her charitable, literary, scientific, and
other useful institutions; and the conduct of the managers has been
uniformly such, as to entitle them to the gratitude of the community.

The Students in the Medical School of the University pay ten

dollars per annum, for the privilege of attending the Hospital-
practice, which is of very important advantage to them: and the
physicians, with the managers, have generously appropriated a fund
out of the monies, thus obtained, for the purpose of founding a
Medical Library, and of purchasing the late Dr. Abraham Chovet’s
most curious anatomical preparations.[263b] By these means, in
addition to Dr. John Fothergill’s valuable present, and other
donations, this Hospital, with little expense of its more immediate
funds, already possesses the most useful as well as ornamental
collection, of the kind, that is to be found any where in America: and
when the superbly magnificent painting, representing Christ healing
the sick, (now in a train of execution by Mr. West, in London, and
intended to be a donation from him to this Hospital,) shall have been
received, this chef-d’œuvre of the sublime artist will constitute there,
not only a noble monument of his liberality, benevolence, and
attachment to his native country, but a splendid and admirably well-
suited ornament to the institution possessing it. It is scarcely sixteen
years since the hospital-tickets of the medical pupils amounted to
only about three hundred dollars per annum. This fund has been
since increasing; the annual income to it being at present estimated
at fifteen hundred dollars: it is now amply sufficient to supply the
library belonging to the Hospital with new books, and to keep in good
preservation the anatomical casts, &c.

As Dr. Franklin was eminently instrumental in promoting the

establishment of the Pennsylvania Hospital, so he likewise bore a
conspicuous part in the formation of the Library-Company of
Philadelphia; an institution which holds a distinguished rank, for its
usefulness, among the many that do honour to the capital of
Pennsylvania. A public Library was first set on foot in Philadelphia by
Franklin, about the year 1731; at which time he was scarcely twenty-
six years of age. Fifty persons then subscribed forty shillings each,
and agreed to contribute ten shillings annually, for that purpose.
Some other companies for similar purposes had been formed in that
city, after the one here mentioned; but these were soon after united
with “The Library Company of Philadelphia.” This Company now
possess many thousand valuable books; and their stock is
continually deriving accessions from donations, as well as from
purchases. Besides the marble statue of Dr. Franklin, presented to
the company by the late William Bingham, Esq. of Philadelphia,
(which decorates the front of the Library-edifice,) and many other
considerable benefactions to the institution, from time to time, “the
Penn family” (as the late ingenious Dr. Henry Stuber, the continuator
of the Life of Franklin, has remarked,) “distinguished themselves by
their donations” to it. The Loganian Library was, a few years since,
placed under the same roof with that of the Philadelphia Company;
though in a distinct apartment. It consists of an extensive collection
of curious, rare and valuable books, in various branches of ancient
and modern learning: and for this noble benefaction to his native
country, the public are indebted to James Logan, Esq. many years
an eminent citizen of Philadelphia, and well known, not only
throughout America, but in the old world, for his erudition and talents.

Dr. Rittenhouse’s intimate connexion with the College, and

afterwards with the University of Pennsylvania, rendered it improper,
in the opinion of the Memorialist, not to notice those institutions in
the manner he has done: and in doing this, he could not without
injustice omit a similar mention of the Hospital, so nearly allied to
them through the Medical School of the former; nor of the
Philadelphia Library Company, which bears a close affinity to them
all.

The name of Mr. West having been introduced on this occasion,

the writer conceives it will not be thought foreign to the design of
these Memoirs (though only incidentally connected with the present
article), to make some further mention of a native American, whose
name must ever hold a most conspicuous place in the history of the
fine arts, in relation to this country.

This celebrated Artist is the youngest of ten children of John West,

a person descended from very respectable ancestors, and a native
of England. John early embraced the tenets of the people called
Quakers. Migrating, in the year 1714, to Pennsylvania, where some
members of the same family had arrived with William Penn about
fifteen years before, he married and settled in the vicinity of
Philadelphia; and there his son Benjamin was born.

This gentleman’s residence has been in England, during the last

forty-five years: but he left his native country some considerable time
prior to that period; having first visited Italy, and some other schools
of painting on the continent. When a Society of Artists was instituted
in London, a few years after the accession of the present king to the
throne, Mr. West (who had then recently arrived in England, on his
return from Italy,) became a member of that body. Their exhibitions of
painting, sculpture and architectural designs, became objects of
attention to men of taste in the fine arts;—“the young Sovereign,”
says Mr. West (in a letter to Mr. C. W. Peale, written in 1809,[263c])
“was interested in their prosperity.” After the dissolution of that
society, the king desired Mr. West and three other artists to form a
plan for a Royal Academy; which having been approved by his
majesty, he directed that it should be carried into execution. “Thus,”
continues Mr. West, “commenced the institution of the Royal
Academy of London[263d]:” And again, speaking of this patronage, he
says;—“his majesty, by his regard for the arts, gave a dignity to
them, unknown before in the country.” Referring to this meritorious
patronage of the fine arts by the present king of England, Mr. Latrobe
(in his Anniversary Oration before the Society of Artists in
Philadelphia, in May, 1811,) makes this just remark: “Nor ought we to
omit mention of the name of George III. by whose patronage, our
illustrious countryman, West, has become the first historical painter
of the age.”
263a. Towards the incorporation of either one or the other of these institutions
with the present establishment of the Pennsylvania Hospital, the managers
possess, also, sixteen shares of stock in the Bank of Pennsylvania, bestowed by
the First Troop of Cavalry in Philadelphia. The product of this noble and very
valuable donation, and which is considered as being equivalent to a capital stock
of $8503.33, will, most probably, be wholly applied to the support of a Lying-in
Hospital, as part of the great institution.

263b. Thirty pounds a year were payable to Mrs. Abington, a daughter of Dr.
Chovet, during her life, on account of this purchase. That annuity has very recently
been extinguished, by the death of the annuitant.

263c. See the Port Folio, for January, 1810.

263d. When this Academy was first established, the celebrated Dr. Samuel
Johnson was appointed ‘Professor of Ancient Literature’ in the institution; an office
merely honorary.

264. Of these, Francis Alison, D. D. a learned and worthy

presbyterian clergyman, was vice-provost, and professor of moral
philosophy; the Rev. Ebenezer Kinnersley, M. A. an eminent
electrician and an amiable man, was professor of English and
oratory; John Beveridge, M. A. an excellent scholar in the learned
languages (some of whose Latin epistolary writings, in metrical
language, after the manner of Horace, possess a considerable
portion of merit and discover much classical purity of style,) was
professor of languages; and Hugh Williamson, M. A. (now M. D.) a
gentleman of distinguished talents, was professor of mathematics.
 The last mentioned of these eminently meritorious characters is
yet living. He enjoys the respect and esteem due to a man who, in
the course of a long life, devoted much of his time and talents to the
promotion of learning, useful knowledge, and the welfare of his
country. Of the other three, who have, long since, passed on to “that
bourn from which no traveller returns,” the following circumstances
are worthy of being preserved in remembrance, by those who shall
hereafter record the history of literature and science, in this country.

Dr. Alison was one of the first persons in the middle colonies, who,
foreseeing the ignorance into which this part of the country seemed
inclined to fall, set up a regular school of education here. He was
long employed in the education of youth at New-London Cross-
roads, in Pennsylvania, before his appointment to the vice-
provostship of the college of Philadelphia; and many persons, who
afterwards made a distinguished figure in this country, were bred
under his tuition. The University of Glasgow, being well informed of
the pious and faithful labours of this valuable man, in propagating
useful knowledge in these then untutored parts of the world, created
him a Doctor of Divinity: He was honoured with this degree, without
any solicitation whatever on his part.

Mr. Kinnersley possessed great merit, in the estimation of the

learned world, “in being the chief inventor of the Electrical Apparatus,
as well as author of a considerable part of those discoveries in
Electricity, published by Mr. Franklin, to whom he communicated
them. Indeed Mr. Franklin himself mentions his name with honour;
though he has not been careful enough to distinguish between their
particular discoveries. This, perhaps, he may have thought needless,
as they were known to act in concert. But, though that circumstance
was known here, it was not so in remote parts of the world, to which
the fame of these discoveries has extended.” The passage here
quoted, is copied from an account of the college and academy of
Philadelphia, published in October, 1758.

Dr. Franklin’s experiment with the electrical kite—which

established the theory on which the metallic conductors of lightning
were introduced, for the security of buildings, and those within them,
from injury by that element—was made in June, 1752; and his letter,
giving an account of it, is dated the 19th of October following. But Mr.
de Romas, a Frenchman, to whom his countryman the Abbé
Bertholon ascribes the honour of the experiment with the kite, made
his first attempt on the 14th of May, 1753: he did not succeed, until
the 7th of the next month; a year after Dr. Franklin had completed his
experiments, and then generally known in Europe. It is noticed by
the late ingenious Dr. Stuber, of Philadelphia, in his continuation of
the Life of Franklin, that “his (Dr. Franklin’s) friend, Mr. Kinnersley,
communicated to him a discovery of” (what Dr. Stuber terms) “the
different kinds of electricity, excited by rubbing glass and sulphur.”
This, it is said, was first observed by Mr. Du Faye; though afterwards
not attended to, for many years. It seems, however, that the
electricians of Europe, with Du Faye himself, had conceived a
mistaken notion on this subject; and that Franklin had, at first,
adopted their doctrine. “But,” says the continuator of his Life, “upon
repeating the experiments, he perceived that Mr. Kinnersley was
right; and the vitreous and the resinous electricity of Du Faye were
nothing more than the positive and negative states which he had
before observed; that the glass globe charged positively, or
encreased the quantity of electricity on the prime conductor,—whilst
the globe of sulphur diminished its natural quantity, or charged
negatively.”

Mr. Beveridge, who was appointed by the trustees of the college

and academy of Philadelphia, in June, 1758, professor of languages
in that institution, was one of the ablest masters of the Latin tongue;
and wrote many poetical pieces in that language, in a style of
superior purity and elegance. This excellent Latin scholar originally
taught a grammar-school in Edinburgh, under the patronage of the
celebrated Mr. Ruddiman. While in that station, he taught the Latin to
Mr. Thomas Blacklock, the well-known blind poet; and it was during
this time, that Blacklock wrote his fine paraphrase of Psalm CIV.
which his friend Beveridge afterwards rendered into Latin verse. A
collection of Mr. Beveridge’s poetical pieces, under the title of
Epistolæ Familiares et alia quædam miscellanea, was published at
Philadelphia, in the year 1765.

265. A Law Professorship was instituted in the College of

Philadelphia, in the year 1790, and the Hon. James Wilson, LL.D.
(late one of the associate judges of the supreme court of the United
States,) was appointed the first professor: the first course of lectures,
under this appointment, was delivered in the winter of 1790-1. In
April, 1792, when the College and University became united into one
seminary, under the latter title, a Professorship of Law was erected
in the new seminary; when Judge Wilson was again appointed to fill
that chair: but no Law-lectures were afterwards delivered.

The lectures composed by the able and very learned Judge, for
this department of the institution, are given entire in his works,
published in three volumes octavo, in the year 1804, by his son Bird
Wilson, Esq. president of the seventh judicial district of
Pennsylvania.

It is much to be regretted, that this important chair in the University

has remained unoccupied, since the death of its late eminent
incumbent: For, as he has justly observed, in his Introductory
Lecture, “The science of Law should, in some measure and in some
degree, be the study of every free citizen, and of every free man.
Every free citizen and every free man has duties to perform, and
rights to claim. Unless, in some measure, and in some degree, he
knows those duties and those rights, he can never act a just and an
independent part.”

266. In an Account of Dr. Smith, prefixed to his posthumous works,

the respectable Editor observes—that “Dr. Smith was actuated by a
“zeal bordering on enthusiasm” (as he himself expressed it), in his
devotion to the dissemination of literature and science.”

267. This University was founded in the year 1480; it consists of

two colleges, called the Marischal and the King’s College, under the
name of the University of King Charles. The library belonging to this
ancient university is large; and in both the colleges, the languages,
mathematics, natural philosophy, divinity, &c. are taught by able
professors.

268. These prelates were, respectively, the Doctors—Secker,

Trevor, Thomas, Hume, and Egerton.

269. See his Eulogium on Rittenhouse.

270. His salary was two thousand dollars per annum.

271. A particular instance, of a similar kind, occurred within the

knowledge of the Memorialist. Mr. Peter Getz was, lately, a self-
taught mechanic of singular ingenuity, in the borough of Lancaster;
where he many years exercised the trade of a silver-smith and
jeweller, and was remarkable for the extraordinary accuracy,
elegance, and beauty of the workmanship he executed. This person
was a candidate for the place of chief coiner or engraver in the mint;
and, on that occasion, he offered to present to Dr. Rittenhouse, in
the summer of 1792, a small pair of scales—such as are commonly
called gold-scales—of exquisite workmanship as well as great
exactness, as a specimen of his skill as an artist. The Director
conceived, that an instrument equally well suited to the use for which
this was designed, though less ornamental, could be procured for
the mint, if desirable, for less money than this was worth as a matter
of curiosity; he would not, therefore, purchase it for the mint: but
being determined not to accept it as a present, and desirous at the
same time to make compensation to the artist for his work, he
insisted on his receiving twenty dollars for the instrument; on
payment of which, he retained it himself.

272. “Coinage is peculiarly an attribute of sovereignty: to transfer

its exercise into another country, is to submit it to another sovereign.”
See a Report made to congress, in the year 1790, by Thomas
Jefferson, Esq. then secretary of state, on certain Proposals for
supplying the United States with Copper Coinage, offered by Mr.
John H. Mitchell, a foreign artist.
 273. The plan of the Bank of North-America, which was submitted
to congress by their order, was approved by them on the 26th of
May, 1781.

274. When the question, respecting the incorporation of the Bank

of North-America was taken in congress, twenty members voted in
the affirmative and only four in the negative. But the votes were then
taken by states; and of these, the delegates from New-York and
Delaware were absent, Pennsylvania (having only two members of
her delegation present) was divided, Massachusetts (having also but
two members present) voted in the negative: all the southern states
were in the affirmative, with the single exception of Mr. Madison’s
vote, his three colleagues (from Virginia) being on the affirmative
side of the question.

275. Whatever failings (and these were of a venial nature) may

have appeared in the transactions of Mr. Morris, as a private citizen,
in the latter part of a life long devoted to honourable and useful
pursuits, yet the eminent services which he rendered to his country,
in times of her greatest peril, entitled him to the gratitude of his
compatriots; for, in his numerous and important official and other
public negotiations, his honour and integrity were alike
irreproachable. His merits ought not only to rescue his name from
oblivion, but they give him a just claim to be placed in the list of
American worthies; while his subsequent misfortunes —— —— ——
—— —— but,

“No further seek his merits to disclose,

Or draw his frailties from his dread abode,
(There they alike in trembling hope repose,)
The bosom of his Father and his God.”
Gray.

Mr. Morris, who was long distinguished for his talents and his
services in this country, was a native of Lancashire, in England. He
died in Philadelphia on the 8th of May, 1806.
 276. “The task of re-creating public credit,” (says Chief Justice
Marshal, in his Life of Washington,) “of drawing order and
arrangement from the chaotic confusion in which the finances of
America were involved, and of devising means which should render
the revenue productive, and commensurate with the demand, was
justly classed among the most arduous of the duties which devolved
on the new government[276a]. In discharging it, much aid was
expected from the head of the treasury. To Colonel Hamilton[276b] was
assigned this important, and at that time intricate department.

“This gentleman was a native of the island of St. Croix, and, at a

very early period of life, had been placed by his friends in New-York.
Possessing an ardent temper, he caught fire from the concussions of
the moment, and with all the enthusiasm of youth, engaged first his
pen, and afterwards his sword, in the stern contest between the
American colenies and their parent state. Among the first troops
raised by New-York was a corps of artillery, in which he was
appointed a captain. Soon after the war was transferred to the
Hudson, his superior endowments recommended him to the
attention of the commander in chief, into whose family, before
completing his twenty-first year, he was invited to enter. Equally
brave and intelligent, he continued in this situation to display a
degree of firmness and capacity which commanded the confidence
and esteem of his general, and of the principal officers in the army.

“After the capitulation at York-Town, the war languished throughout

the American continent, and the probability that its termination was
approaching daily increased.

“The critical circumstances of the existing government rendered

the events of the civil, more interesting than those of the military
department, and Colonel Hamilton accepted a seat in the congress
of the United States. In all the important acts of the day, he
performed a conspicuous part, and was greatly distinguished among
those distinguished characters whom the crisis had attracted to the
councils of their country. He had afterwards been active in promoting
those measures which led to the convention at Philadelphia, of which
he was a member, and had greatly contributed to the adoption of the
constitution by the state of New-York. In the distinguished part he
had performed, both in the military and civil transactions of his
country, he had acquired a great degree of well merited fame; and
the frankness of his manners, the openness of his temper, the
warmth of his feelings, and the sincerity of his heart, had secured
him many valuable friends.

“To talents of the highest grade, he united a patient industry, not

always the companion of genius, which fitted him in a peculiar
manner for the difficulties to be encountered by the man who should
be placed at the head of the American finances.”

The disastrous death of this celebrated man happened on the 12th

day of July, 1804, at the age of about forty-seven years.
276a. This was in the year 1789.

276b. Afterwards promoted to the rank of Major-General.

277. The deleterious, though—as it might almost be called—

fascinating influence, of the revolution undertaken by the people of
France, extended itself far and wide, prior to the murder of their king,
even in countries under the milder forms of government: many
characters of great worth were every where misled by the plausibility
of the avowed designs of its authors and supporters; and in no
country was the infatuation more general, than in the United States.
In England itself, it begat a kind of political frenzy; and, had not the
wise and salutary writings of the celebrated Burke arrested its
progress, in good time, the most fatal consequences must have
ensued. Among the literary and scientific men in Britain, who
became deeply infected by the revolution-mania of that day, was Dr.
Erasmus Darwin, Miss Anna Seward (one of his biographers)
remarks, that the Doctor has introduced into his Botanic Garden an
allegory, representing Liberty “as a great form, slumbering within the
iron cage and marble walls of the French Bastile, unconscious of his
chains; till, touched by the patriot flame, he rends his flimsy bonds,
lifts his colossal form, and rears his hundred arms over his foes; calls
to the good and brave of every country, with a voice that echoes like
the thunder of heaven to the polar extremities;

“Gives to the winds his banner broad, unfurl’d,

“And gathers in its shade the living world!”

In consequence of Darwin’s use of this grossly misapplied figure;

—as the issue of the French revolution too fatally proves it to have
been,—Miss Seward offers the following apology for the subject of
her friendly pen:

“This sublime sally of a too-confiding imagination, has made the

poet and his work countless foes. They triumphed over him,” says
his fair biographer, “on a result so contrary,—on the mortal wounds
given by French crimes to real Liberty. They forget, or choose to
forget, that this part of the poem (though published after the other)
appeared in 1791, antecedent to the dire regicide, and to all those
unprecedented scenes of sanguinary cruelty inflicted on France, by
three of her republican tyrants; compared to whom, the most
remorseless of her monarchs was mild and merciful.”
 278. Mr. Genet arrived in Philadelphia the 16th of May, 1793; and
in the evening of the same day a meeting of the citizens was held at
the state-house, when a committee was appointed to draw up an
address to this minister from the republic of France: Mr. Rittenhouse
was the first named on that committee. At a meeting of the citizens
held the next day, he, as chairman of that committee, reported an
address accordingly; which, being adopted by the persons then
assembled, was presented to the new minister, the ensuing morning.

The president’s proclamation of neutrality had then been issued

between three and four weeks:[278a] the addressers therefore say,
keeping this in their view; “Earnestly giving to the national exertions
(of France) our wishes and our prayers, we cannot resist the
pleasing hope, that although America is not a party in the existing
war, she may still be able, in a state of peace, to demonstrate the
sincerity of her friendship, by affording very useful assistance to her
sister republic.”—The “useful assistance,” here alluded to, and which
it was supposed France might derive from this country, “in a state of
peace,” did not contemplate any infringement of the neutrality of the
United States: Nor could Mr. Genet, himself, consider the language
of the address in any other than its true sense; for, in his extempore
answer, (a written one was also returned,) he says, “From the
remote situation of America, and other circumstances, France does
not expect that America should become a party in the war; but
remembering that she has already combated for your liberties, (and
if it was necessary, and she had the power, would cheerfully again
enlist in your cause,) we hope, (and every thing I hear and see
assures me our hope will be realized,) that her citizens will be
treated as brothers, in danger and distress.” This declaration of the
French minister, made immediately after his arrival at the seat of the
American government, forbad the addressers to believe, that either
he or any other agent of the French government would afterwards
undertake to violate the neutrality of the United States.

278a. It is dated the 22d of April, 1793.