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Power System Protection
 IEEE Press
445 Hoes Lane
Piscataway, NJ 08854

IEEE Press Editorial Board

Ekram Hossain, Editor in Chief

Jón Atli Benediktsson Xiaoou Li Jeffrey Reed

Anjan Bose Lian Yong Diomidis Spinellis
David Alan Grier Andreas Molisch Sarah Spurgeon
Elya B. Joffe Saeid Nahavandi Ahmet Murat Tekalp

Technical Reviewers
Vijay Vittal, Arizona State University
Ralph Barone, Consultant
Power System Protection

Second Edition

Paul M. Anderson†

Charles Henville
Henville Consulting Inc.

Rasheek Rifaat
Rifaat Engineering Inc.

Brian Johnson
University of Idaho

Sakis Meliopoulos
Georgia Institute of Technology

†
Deceased.
Copyright © 2022 by The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc. All rights reserved.

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data applied for:

ISBN: 9781119513148

Cover design by Wiley

Cover image: © INTERMOUNTAIN AC SWITCHYARD BY A.P “SAKIS” MELIOPOULOS

Set in 9.5/12.5pt STIXTwoText by Straive, Chennai, India

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
 v

Contents

Author Biographies xxv

Preface to the Second Edition xxvii
List of Symbols xxix

Part I Protective Devices and Controls 1

1 Introduction 3
1.1 Power System Protection 3
1.2 Prevention and Control of System Failure 3
1.2.1 Reactionary Devices 4
1.2.2 Safeguard Devices 5
1.2.3 Protective Device Operation 6
1.3 Protective System Design Considerations 8
1.4 Definitions Used in System Protection 9
1.5 System Disturbances 11
1.6 Book Contents 12
Problems 14
References 15

2 Protection Measurements and Controls 17

2.1 Graphic Symbols and Device Identification 17
2.2 Typical Relay Connections 19
2.3 Circuit Breaker Control Circuits 22
2.4 Instrument Transformers 23
2.4.1 Instrument Transformer Selection 24
2.4.2 Instrument Transformer Types and Connections 30
2.5 Relay Control Configurations 37
2.6 Optical Communications 38
Problems 42
References 44

3 Protective Device Characteristics 47

3.1 Introduction 47
3.2 Fuse Characteristics 48
vi Contents

3.2.1 Distribution Fuse Cutouts 48

3.2.2 Fuse Types 50
3.2.3 Fuse Time–Current Characteristics 53
3.2.4 Fuse Coordination Charts 56
3.3 Relay Characteristics 61
3.3.1 Relay Types 62
3.3.2 Electromechanical Relay Characteristics 66
3.3.3 Static Analog Relays 74
3.3.4 Differential Relays 74
3.3.5 Digital Relays 76
3.3.6 Digital Overcurrent Relays 84
3.4 Power Circuit Breakers 87
3.4.1 Circuit Breaker Definitions 87
3.4.2 Circuit Breaker Ratings 88
3.4.3 Circuit Breaker Design 91
3.5 Automatic Circuit Reclosers 93
3.5.1 Recloser Ratings 94
3.5.2 Recloser Time–Current Characteristics 95
3.6 Automatic Line Sectionalizers 98
3.7 Circuit Switchers 100
3.8 Digital Fault Recorders 101
Problems 103
References 103

4 Relay Logic 109

4.1 Introduction 109
4.2 Electromechanical Relay Logic 110
4.2.1 The Overcurrent Relay 110
4.2.2 The Distance Relay 110
4.3 Electronic Logic Circuits 111
4.3.1 Analog Logic Circuits 111
4.3.2 Digital Logic Circuits 116
4.4 Analog Relay Logic 125
4.4.1 An Instantaneous Overcurrent Relay 125
4.4.2 Phase Comparison Distance Relay 126
4.4.3 A Directional Comparison Pilot Relay 127
4.4.4 Conclusions Regarding Solid-State Analog Logic 128
4.5 Digital Relay Logic 128
4.5.1 Digital Signal Processing 129
4.5.2 The Data Window Method 133
4.5.3 The Phasor Method 134
4.5.4 Digital Relaying Applications 136
4.5.5 Example of a Digital Relay System 138
4.6 Hybrid Relay Logic 139
4.7 Relays as Comparators 140
4.7.1 Relay Design 140
4.7.2 Phase and Amplitude Comparison 141
 Contents vii

4.7.3 The Alpha and Beta Planes 142

4.7.4 The General Comparator Equations 142
4.7.5 The Amplitude Comparator 146
4.7.6 The Phase Comparator 147
4.7.7 Distance Relays as Comparators 149
4.7.8 General Beta Plane Characteristics 151
Problems 153
References 157

5 System Characteristics 163

5.1 Power System Faults 163
5.1.1 System Fault Characteristics 164
5.1.2 Fault Currents Near Synchronous Machines 167
5.1.3 Saturation of Current Transformers 175
5.2 Station Arrangements 176
5.2.1 Single Bus, Single Breaker Arrangement 176
5.2.2 Main and Transfer Arrangement 177
5.2.3 Double Bus, Single Breaker Arrangement 178
5.2.4 Double Bus, Double Breaker Arrangement 179
5.2.5 Ring Bus Arrangement 179
5.2.6 Breaker-and-a-Half Arrangement 180
5.2.7 Other Switching Arrangements 180
5.3 Overhead Line Impedances 182
5.4 Computation of Available Fault Current 184
5.4.1 Three-Phase (3PH) Faults 186
5.4.2 Double Line-to-Ground (2LG) Faults 186
5.4.3 Line-to-Line (LL) Fault 186
5.4.4 One-Line-to-Ground (1LG) Fault 187
5.4.5 Summary of Fault Currents 188
5.5 System Equivalent for Protection Studies 188
5.5.1 The Open-Circuit Impedance Matrix 189
5.5.2 Computation of the Two-Port Representation 190
5.5.3 A Simple Two-Port Equivalent 192
5.5.4 Tests of the Equivalent Circuit 193
5.5.5 System Equivalent from Two-Port Parameters 193
5.5.6 Equivalent of a Line with Shunt Faults 194
5.5.7 Applications of the Equivalent to Series Faults 195
5.5.8 Conclusions Regarding Two-Port Equivalents 198
5.5.9 Multiport Equivalents 199
5.6 The Compensation Theorem 202
5.6.1 Network Solution Before Changing Y 3 203
5.6.2 Network Solution After Changing Y 3 203
5.6.3 The Incremental Change in Current and Voltage 204
5.6.4 The Compensation Theorem in Fault Studies 205
5.7 Compensation Applications in Fault Studies 205
5.7.1 Prefault Conditions 205
5.7.2 The Faulted Network Condition 206
viii Contents

5.7.3 The Fault Conditions Without Load Currents 208

5.7.4 Summary of Load and Fault Conditions 208
Problems 210
References 214

Part II Protection Concepts 215

6 Fault Protection of Radial Lines 217

6.1 Radial Distribution Systems 217
6.2 Radial Distribution Coordination 219
6.2.1 Supply System Information 219
6.2.2 Distribution Substation Information 220
6.2.3 Distribution System Information 220
6.2.4 Protective Equipment Information 221
6.2.5 Step-by-Step Study Procedure 221
6.3 Radial Line Fault Current Calculations 222
6.3.1 General Considerations for Radial Faults 222
6.3.2 Main Line Feeder Faults 223
6.3.3 Branch Line Faults 230
6.4 Radial System Protective Strategy 233
6.4.1 Clearing Temporary Faults 234
6.4.2 Isolating Permanent Faults 235
6.5 Coordination of Protective Devices 236
6.5.1 Recloser–Fuse Coordination 236
6.5.2 Recloser–Relay Coordination 239
6.6 Relay Coordination on Radial Lines 241
6.6.1 Coordination Procedure 242
6.6.2 Procedure for Phase and Ground Relays 245
6.6.3 Procedure for Instantaneous Relay Settings 252
6.7 Coordinating Protective Devices Measuring Different Parameters 258
6.7.1 Combined Time–Current Characteristics 259
6.7.2 Coordinating Time–Current Characteristics Across Transformers 265
6.7.3 Coordinating Two Overcurrent Relays Not Measuring the Same Currents 268
Problems 269
6.7.4 Time–Current Characteristics for Problem Solving 275
References 276

7 Introduction to Transmission Protection 277

7.1 Introduction 277
7.2 Protection with Overcurrent Relays 278
7.2.1 Loops with One Current Source 280
7.2.2 Loops with Multiple Current Sources 282
7.3 Distance Protection of Lines 285
7.3.1 Distance Relay Characteristics 285
7.3.2 Zoned Distance Relays 291
7.3.3 Effect of Fault Resistance 293
 Contents ix

7.3.4 Summary of Distance Relay Concepts 299

7.4 Unit Protection 299
7.5 Ground Fault Protection 301
7.5.1 Importance of Ground Fault Protection 301
7.5.2 Unique Characteristics of Ground Faults 302
7.5.3 Polarization of Ground Relays 303
7.5.4 Types of Ground Relays 309
7.6 Summary 310
Problems 311
References 315

8 Complex Loci in the Z and Y Planes 317

8.1 The Inverse Z Transformation 317
8.2 Line and Circle Mapping 320
8.2.1 The Half Z Plane: a = c = 0 321
8.2.2 The Half Z Plane: R ≤ − k2 323
8.2.3 The Half Plane: a = b = 0 323
8.2.4 The Half Plane: a = 0 324
8.2.5 The Half Plane: d = 0 325
8.3 The Complex Equation of a Line 327
8.4 The Complex Equation of a Circle 328
8.5 Inversion of an Arbitrary Admittance 330
8.5.1 Inversion of Y with |Y K | Constant and 𝜓 Variable 331
8.5.2 Inversion of Y with 𝜓 Constant and |Y K | Variable 332
8.5.3 Summary of Y Inversion Equations 332
8.6 Inversion of a Straight Line Through (1, 0) 333
8.7 Inversion of an Arbitrary Straight Line 335
8.8 Inversion of a Circle with Center at (1, 0) 336
8.9 Inversion of an Arbitrary Circle 338
8.10 Summary of Line and Circle Inversions 340
8.11 Angle Preservation in Conformal Mapping 341
8.12 Orthogonal Trajectories 342
8.13 Impedance at the Relay 346
Problems 348
References 350

9 Impedance at the Relay 351

9.1 The Relay Apparent Impedance, Z R 351
9.2 Protection Equivalent M Parameters 353
9.2.1 Network Test with EU Shorted 354
9.2.2 Network Test with ES Shorted 355
9.3 The Circle Loci Z = P/(1 ± Y K ) 356
9.4 Z R Loci Construction 357
9.4.1 k Circles 359
9.4.2 𝜓 Circles 360
9.5 Relay Apparent Impedance 363
9.5.1 The Unfaulted System 365
x Contents

9.5.2 ABCD Parameters for a Faulted System 367

9.6 Relay Impedance for a Special Case 371
9.7 Construction of M Circles 375
9.7.1 Short-Circuit Test with EU Shorted 375
9.7.2 Short-Circuit Test with ES Shorted 376
9.7.3 Summary of Short-Circuit Test Results 378
9.8 Phase Comparison Apparent Impedance 378
Problems 384
References 388

10 Admittance at the Relay 391

10.1 Admittance Diagrams 391
10.2 Input Admittance Loci 392
10.2.1 Y I Loci For Constant m 393
10.2.2 Y I Loci for Constant 𝜓 393
10.3 The Relay Admittance Characteristic 395
10.4 Parallel Transmission Lines 400
10.5 Typical Admittance Plane Characteristics 404
10.6 Summary of Admittance Characteristics 407
Problems 408
Reference 411

Part III Transmission Protection 413

11 Analysis of Distance Protection 415

11.1 Introduction 415
11.2 Analysis of Transmission Line Faults 415
11.2.1 Sequence Network Reduction 417
11.2.2 Phase Faults at F 418
11.2.3 Ground Faults at F 424
11.3 Impedance at the Relay 429
11.3.1 Relay Impedances when C1 = C2 430
11.3.2 Apparent Relay Impedance Plots 434
11.4 Distance Relay Settings 439
11.5 Ground Distance Protection 447
11.6 Distance Relay Coordination 449
Problems 452
References 454

12 Transmission Line Mutual Induction 457

12.1 Introduction 457
12.2 Line Impedances 458
12.2.1 Self- and Mutual Impedance 458
12.2.2 Estimation of Mutually Coupled Voltages 461
12.2.3 Example of Transmission Line Impedances 462
12.3 Effect of Mutual Coupling 469
 Contents xi

12.3.1 Selecting a Reference Phasor 469

12.3.2 Transmission System Without Mutual Coupling 471
12.3.3 Transmission System with Mutual Coupling 472
12.3.4 Other Examples of Mutual Coupling 474
12.4 Short Transmission Line Equivalents 476
12.4.1 General Network Equivalents for Short Lines 476
12.4.2 Type 1 Networks 478
12.4.3 Type 2 Networks 481
12.4.4 Type 3 Networks 481
12.4.5 Lines with Appreciable Susceptance 482
12.4.6 Other Network Equivalents 483
12.5 Long Transmission Lines 484
12.5.1 The Isolated Long Transmission Line 484
12.5.2 Mutually Coupled Long Transmission Lines 486
12.6 Long Transmission Line Equivalents 493
12.6.1 Reciprocity and the Admittance Matrix 493
12.6.2 The Long-line Type 3 Network Equivalent 497
12.6.3 Long-line Type 1 Network Equivalents 498
12.6.4 Long-line Type 2 Network Equivalents 499
12.7 Solution of the Long-line Case 501
12.7.1 Determination of the Sequence Impedances 502
12.7.2 Computation of Sequence Voltages and Currents 504
Problems 504
References 507

13 Pilot Protection Systems 509

13.1 Introduction 510
13.2 Physical Systems for Pilot Protection 512
13.2.1 General Concepts of Pilot Communications 513
13.2.2 Wire Pilot Systems 516
13.2.3 Power-Line Carrier Pilot Systems 517
13.2.4 Microwave Pilot Systems 518
13.2.5 Fiber-Optic Pilot Systems 520
13.2.6 Relay-to-Relay (Peer-to-Peer) Communications Systems 521
13.2.7 Guidelines for Pilot Communications Selection 521
13.2.8 Pilot Communications Problems 522
13.2.9 Pilot Protection Classifications 522
13.3 Non-unit Pilot Protection Schemes 523
13.3.1 Directional Comparison Schemes 523
13.3.2 Distance Schemes 523
13.3.3 Transfer Trip Pilot Protection 525
13.3.4 Blocking and Unblocking Pilot Protection 529
13.3.5 Selectivity in Directional Comparison Systems 532
13.3.6 Other Features of Directional Comparison 532
13.3.7 Hybrid Schemes 534
13.4 Unit Protection Pilot Schemes 536
13.4.1 Phase Comparison Schemes 536
xii Contents

13.4.2 Line Current Differential Schemes 544

13.5 An Example of EHV Line Protection 548
13.5.1 Considerations in EHV Protection 548
13.5.2 Description of the EHV Pilot Protection 549
13.6 Pilot Protection Settings 554
13.6.1 Instrument Transformer Settings 554
13.6.2 Characteristic (Maximum Torque) Angle 555
13.6.3 Distance Element Reach and Time Delay 555
13.6.4 Phase Overcurrent Element Settings 557
13.6.5 Residual Overcurrent Element Settings 558
13.6.6 Switch-onto-Fault Logic 559
13.6.7 Current Reversal Logic and Timers 559
13.6.8 Echo Keying 560
13.6.9 Weak Infeed Logic and Settings 560
13.6.10 Loss of Potential Logic 561
13.6.11 Conclusions Regarding Pilot Protection Settings 561
13.7 Traveling Wave Relays 561
13.8 Monitoring of Pilot Performance 567
Problems 567
References 569

14 Complex Transmission Protection 573

14.1 Introduction 573
14.2 Single-phase Switching of Extra-high-voltage Lines 573
14.2.1 Control of Secondary Arcs in Transposed Lines 574
14.2.2 Secondary Arcs in Untransposed EHV Lines 578
14.3 Protection of Multiterminal Lines 581
14.3.1 Distance Protection for a Three-terminal Line 584
14.3.2 Pilot Protection for a Three-terminal Line 587
14.4 Protection of Mutually Coupled Lines 590
14.4.1 Mutual Coupling of Parallel Lines 590
14.4.2 Ground Distance Protection of Type 1 Networks 591
14.4.3 Distance Protection of Type 2 Networks 612
14.4.4 Distance Protection of Type 3 Networks 612
Problems 613
References 617

15 Series Compensated Line Protection 619

15.1 Introduction 619
15.1.1 The Degree of Compensation 620
15.1.2 Voltage Profile on Series Compensated Lines 620
15.2 Faults with Unbypassed Series Capacitors 621
15.2.1 End-of-Line Capacitors – Bus Side Voltage 622
15.2.2 End-of-Line Capacitors – Line Side Voltage 628
15.2.3 Capacitors at the Center of the Line 629
15.2.4 Conclusions on Series Compensation Effects 633
15.3 Series Capacitor Bank Protection 634
 Contents xiii

15.3.1 Series Capacitor Bypass Systems 635

15.3.2 A Fundamental Frequency Varistor Model 641
15.3.3 Relay Quantities Including Varistor Bypass 644
15.3.4 Effect of System Parameters 647
15.4 Relay Problems Due to Compensation 653
15.4.1 The Effect of Transient Phenomena 654
15.4.2 The Effect of Phase Impedance Unbalance 655
15.4.3 Subsynchronous Resonance Effects 656
15.4.4 Voltage and Current Inversions 656
15.4.5 Problems Due to Voltage Inversions 665
15.4.6 Problems Due to Mutual Induction 667
15.4.7 Problems in Reach Measurement 668
15.5 Protection of Series Compensated Lines 674
15.5.1 Line Current Differential and/or Current Phase Comparison 674
15.5.2 Directional Comparison Schemes 675
15.5.3 Directional Overcurrent Ground Protection 677
15.6 Line Protection Experience 678
15.6.1 The Effect of Transient Phenomena on Protection 678
15.6.2 The Effect of Phase Impedance Unbalance 678
15.6.3 The Effect of Voltage and Current Inversions 678
15.6.4 The Effect of Fault Locator Error 679
15.6.5 The Effect of Transducer Error 679
15.6.6 Autoreclosing of Transmission Lines 679
15.6.7 Requirements for Protection System Studies 679
15.6.8 General Experience with Line Protection 680
Problems 680
References 683

Part IV Apparatus Protection 685

16 Bus Protection 687

16.1 Introduction 687
16.2 Bus Configurations and Faults 688
16.3 Bus Protection Requirements 689
16.4 Bus Protection by Backup Line Relays 691
16.5 Bus Differential Protection 692
16.5.1 Current Transformers for Bus Protection 692
16.5.2 Differential Protection Concepts and Problems 694
16.5.3 Differential Protection with Overcurrent Relays 696
16.5.4 Bus Protection with Percent Differential Relays 698
16.5.5 Bus Differential Protection with Linear Couplers 699
16.5.6 High-Impedance Bus Differential Protection 701
16.6 Other Types of Bus Protection 708
16.6.1 Zone-Interlocking/Blocking Bus Protection 708
16.6.2 Time-Coordinated Overcurrent or Distance Protection 709
16.6.3 Fault Bus Protection 709
xiv Contents

16.6.4 Combined Bus and Transformer Protection 710

16.6.5 Optical Arc Flash Bus Protection 711
16.6.6 Bus Protection Using Auxiliary CTs 711
16.6.7 Directional Comparison Bus Protection 716
16.7 Auxiliary Tripping Relays 716
16.7.1 Lockout Relays (Function 86) 716
16.7.2 Nonlockout Relays (Function 94) 716
16.8 Summary 717
Problems 717
References 719

17 Transformer and Reactor Protection 721

17.1 Introduction 721
17.2 Transformer Faults 722
17.2.1 External Faults 722
17.2.2 Internal Faults 723
17.2.3 Fault Protection Philosophy 729
17.3 Magnetizing Inrush 729
17.3.1 Magnetizing Current Magnitude 730
17.3.2 Magnetizing Inrush Current Harmonics 732
17.3.3 Sympathetic Inrush in Parallel Banks 732
17.4 Protection Against Incipient Faults 732
17.4.1 Protection Against External Incipient Faults 733
17.4.2 Protection Against Internal Incipient Faults 734
17.5 Protection Against Active Faults 735
17.5.1 Connections for Differential Protection 736
17.5.2 Differential Protection of Transformers 739
17.5.3 Overcurrent Protection of Transformers 744
17.5.4 Ground Fault Protection of Transformers 745
17.5.5 Transformer Protection Using Digital Multifunction Relays 746
17.6 Combined Line and Transformer Schemes 748
17.6.1 Nonunit Protection Schemes 749
17.6.2 Line and Transformer Unit Protection 749
17.7 Regulating Transformer Protection 750
17.8 Shunt Reactor Protection 752
17.8.1 Dry Type Reactors 752
17.8.2 Oil-Immersed Reactors 753
17.9 Static Var Compensator Protection 755
17.9.1 A Typical SVC System 756
17.9.2 SVC Protection Requirements 757
Problems 759
References 761

18 Generator Protection 763

18.1 Introduction 763
18.2 Generator System Configurations and Types of Protection 764
18.3 Stator Protection 766
 Contents xv

18.3.1 Phase Fault Protection 766

18.3.2 Ground Fault Protection 769
18.3.3 Turn-to-Turn Fault Protection 777
18.3.4 Stator Open Circuit Protection 777
18.3.5 Overheating Protection 778
18.3.6 Overvoltage Protection 778
18.3.7 Unbalanced Current Protection 778
18.3.8 Backup Protection 781
18.4 Rotor Protection 781
18.4.1 Shorted Field Winding Protection 781
18.4.2 Grounded Field Winding 782
18.4.3 Open Field Winding 784
18.4.4 Overheating of the Field Winding 784
18.5 Loss of Excitation Protection 785
18.5.1 Operation as an Induction Generator 785
18.5.2 Loss of Field Protection 786
18.6 Other Generator Protection Systems 789
18.6.1 Overspeed Protection 790
18.6.2 Generator Motoring Protection 791
18.6.3 Vibration Protection 791
18.6.4 Bearing Failure Protection 792
18.6.5 Coolant Failure Protection 792
18.6.6 Fire Protection 792
18.6.7 Generator Voltage Transformer Fuse Blowing 792
18.6.8 Inadvertent Energizing 793
18.6.9 Protection of Power Plant Auxiliaries 793
18.7 Summary of Generator Protection 794
18.7.1 Unit Generator-Transformer Protection 794
18.7.2 Unit Generator-Transformer Trip Modes 797
18.7.3 Breaker Failure Protection of the Generator 797
Problems 800
References 803

19 Motor Protection 805

19.1 Introduction 805
19.2 Induction Motor Analysis 806
19.2.1 Normalization of the Basic Equations 806
19.2.2 Induction Motor Equivalent Circuits 810
19.2.3 The Net Accelerating Torque 815
19.2.4 Motor Electrical and Mechanical Performance 817
19.3 Induction Motor Heating 824
19.3.1 Heat Transfer Fundamentals 824
19.3.2 A Motor Thermal Model 828
19.4 Motor Problems 837
19.4.1 Motor Problems Due to Internal Hazards 838
19.4.2 Motor Problems Due to External Hazards 839
19.5 Classifications of Motors 843
xvi Contents

19.5.1 Motors Classified by Service 843

19.5.2 Motors Classified by Location 844
19.5.3 Summary of Motor Classifications 845
19.6 Stator Protection 845
19.6.1 Phase Fault Protection 845
19.6.2 Ground Fault Protection 846
19.6.3 Locked Rotor Protection 846
19.6.4 Overload Protection 848
19.6.5 Undervoltage Protection 848
19.6.6 Reverse Phase Rotation Protection 849
19.6.7 Unbalanced Supply Voltage Protection 849
19.6.8 Loss of Synchronism in Synchronous Motors 850
19.6.9 Loss of Excitation in Synchronous Motors 850
19.6.10 Sudden Supply Restoration Protection 850
19.7 Rotor Protection 851
19.7.1 Rotor Heating 851
19.7.2 Rotor Protection Problems 851
19.8 Other Motor Protections 852
19.8.1 Bearing Protection 852
19.8.2 Complete Motor Protection 852
19.9 Summary of Large Motor Protections 853
Problems 854
References 858

Part V System Aspects of Protection 861

20 Protection Against Abnormal System Frequency 863

20.1 Abnormal Frequency Operation 863
20.2 Effects of Frequency on the Generator 864
20.2.1 Overfrequency Effects 864
20.2.2 Underfrequency Effects 864
20.3 Frequency Effects on the Turbine 866
20.3.1 Overfrequency Effects 869
20.3.2 Underfrequency Effects 869
20.4 A System Frequency Response Model 869
20.4.1 Effect of Disturbance Size, Pstep 874
20.4.2 Normalization 875
20.4.3 Slope of the Frequency Response 876
20.4.4 The Effect of Governor Droop, R 877
20.4.5 The Effect of Inertia, H 878
20.4.6 The Effect of Reheat Time Constant, T R 879
20.4.7 The Effect of High-Pressure Fraction, F H 880
20.4.8 The Effect of Damping, D 880
20.4.9 System Performance Analysis 881
20.4.10 Use of the SFR Model 882
20.4.11 Refinements in the SFR Model 883
 Contents xvii

20.4.12 Other Frequency Response Models 885

20.4.13 Conclusions Regarding Frequency Behavior 886
20.5 Off Normal Frequency Protection 886
20.6 Steam Turbine Frequency Protection 887
20.7 Underfrequency Protection 889
20.7.1 A Typical Turbine Protection Characteristic 890
20.7.2 Load Shedding Traditional Relay Characteristics 890
20.7.3 Load Shedding Relay Connections 902
Problems 903
References 905

21 Protective Schemes for Stability Enhancement 909

21.1 Introduction 909
21.2 Review of Stability Fundamentals 909
21.2.1 Definition of Stability 909
21.2.2 Power Flow Through an Impedance 910
21.2.3 Two-Port Network Representation 911
21.2.4 The Swing Equation 913
21.3 System Transient Behavior 918
21.3.1 Stability Test System 918
21.3.2 Effect of Power Transfer 919
21.3.3 Effect of Circuit Breaker Speed 923
21.3.4 Effect of Reclosing 924
21.3.5 Relay Measurements During Transients 924
21.4 Automatic Reclosing 929
21.4.1 The Need for Fast (High Speed) Reclosing 930
21.4.2 Disturbance Considerations in Reclosing 931
21.4.3 Reclosing Considerations 933
21.4.4 Reclosing Relays 937
21.4.5 Reclosing Switching Options 943
21.4.6 Reclosing at Generator Buses 945
21.5 Loss of Synchronism Protection 949
21.5.1 System Out-of-Step Performance 949
21.5.2 Out-of-Step Detection 952
21.5.3 Out-of-Step Blocking and Tripping 953
21.5.4 Circuit Breaker Considerations 956
21.5.5 Pilot Relaying Considerations 956
21.5.6 Out-of-step Relaying Practice 957
21.6 Voltage Stability and Voltage Collapse 957
21.7 System Integrity Protection Schemes (SIPS) 960
21.7.1 SIPS Characteristics 961
21.7.2 Disturbance Events 962
21.7.3 SIPS Design Procedure 963
21.7.4 Example of a System Integrity Protection Scheme 965
21.8 Summary 968
Problems 968
References 970
xviii Contents

22 Line Commutated Converter HVDC Protection 973

22.1 Introduction 973
22.2 LCC Dc Conversion Fundamentals 974
22.2.1 Rectifier Operation 974
22.2.2 Inverter Operation 981
22.2.3 Multibridge Converters 984
22.2.4 Characteristic LCC Converter Harmonics 988
22.2.5 Basic HVDC Control 989
22.3 Converter Station Design 992
22.3.1 A Typical Converter Station 992
22.3.2 HVDC Control Hierarchical Structure 993
22.3.3 General Philosophy of HVDC Protection 997
22.3.4 General Categories of HVDC Protection 998
22.4 Ac Side Protection 999
22.4.1 Ac Line Protection 999
22.4.2 Ac Bus Protection 1000
22.4.3 Converter Transformer Protection 1000
22.4.4 Filters and Reactive Support Protection 1001
22.4.5 Generator Protection 1001
22.5 Dc Side Protection Overview 1002
22.5.1 Valve Protection 1002
22.5.2 Other Dc Side Protective Functions 1007
22.6 Special HVDC Protections 1012
22.6.1 General Description 1012
22.6.2 Reverse Power Protection 1012
22.6.3 Torsional Interaction Protection 1013
22.6.4 Self-Excitation Protection 1014
22.6.5 Dynamic Overvoltage Protection 1014
22.7 HVDC Protection Settings 1015
22.8 Summary 1016
Problems 1016
References 1018

23 Voltage Source Converter HVDC Protection 1021

23.1 Introduction 1021
23.2 VSC HVDC Fundamentals 1022
23.2.1 Voltage Source Converter Topologies 1022
23.2.2 VSC HVDC System Topologies 1027
23.3 Converter Control Systems 1028
23.3.1 Synchronization 1029
23.3.2 Current Controllers 1029
23.3.3 Outer Controllers 1030
23.4 HVDC Response to Ac System Faults 1030
23.5 Ac System Protection 1031
23.5.1 Converter Station Ac Protection 1031
23.5.2 Ac Line Protection 1034
23.6 Dc Faults 1035
 Contents xix

23.6.1 Ac System Response to Dc Faults 1035

23.6.2 Dc Protection Schemes 1036
23.7 Multiterminal Systems 1037
23.8 Hybrid LCC–VSC Systems 1037
23.9 Summary 1038
Problems 1038
References 1039

24 Protection of Independent Power Producer Interconnections 1041

24.1 Introduction 1041
24.2 Renewable Resources 1042
24.3 Transmission Interconnections 1042
24.3.1 Interconnection Substations 1043
24.3.2 Transmission Tapped Interconnections 1045
24.3.3 Transmission Interconnection Protection 1052
24.4 Distribution Interconnections 1053
24.4.1 Distributed Resource Size 1054
24.4.2 Dedicated Interconnection Feeders 1055
24.4.3 Shared Interconnection Feeders 1056
24.5 Summary 1060
Problems 1061
References 1061

25 SSR and SSCI Protection 1063

25.1 Introduction 1063
25.2 SSR Overview 1063
25.2.1 Types of SSR Interactions 1068
25.2.2 A Brief History of SSR Phenomena 1070
25.3 SSR and SSCI System Countermeasures 1073
25.3.1 Network and Source Controls 1073
25.3.2 Generator and System Modifications 1078
25.4 SSR Source Countermeasures 1079
25.4.1 Filtering and Damping 1079
25.4.2 Relay Protection and Monitoring 1084
25.5 Summary 1093
Problems 1093
References 1095

Part VI Reliability of Protective Systems 1101

26 Basic Reliability Concepts 1103

26.1 Introduction 1103
26.2 Probability Fundamentals 1103
26.2.1 The Probability Axioms 1104
26.2.2 Events and Experiments 1104
26.2.3 Venn Diagrams 1105
xx Contents

26.2.4 Classes and Partitions 1106

26.2.5 Rules for Combining Probabilities 1107
26.3 Random Variables 1110
26.3.1 Definition of a Random Variable 1110
26.3.2 The Cumulative Probability Distribution Function 1111
26.3.3 The Probability Density Function 1111
26.3.4 Discrete Distributions 1112
26.3.5 Continuous Distributions 1113
26.3.6 Moments 1114
26.3.7 Common Probability Distribution Functions 1115
26.3.8 Random Vectors 1123
26.3.9 Stochastic Processes 1124
26.3.10 Power System Disturbances 1126
26.4 Failure Definitions and Failure Modes 1127
26.4.1 Failure Definitions 1127
26.4.2 Modes of Failure 1128
26.5 Reliability Models 1129
26.5.1 Definition of Reliability 1129
26.5.2 The Repair Process 1132
26.5.3 The Whole Process 1134
26.5.4 Constant Failure and Repair Rate Model 1138
Problems 1141
References 1143

27 Reliability Analysis 1145

27.1 Reliability Block Diagrams 1145
27.1.1 Series Systems 1146
27.1.2 Parallel Systems 1147
27.1.3 Series–Parallel and Parallel–Series Systems 1148
27.1.4 Standby Systems 1149
27.1.5 Bridge Networks 1151
27.1.6 Cut Sets 1152
27.2 Fault Trees 1154
27.2.1 Fault Tree Conventions 1154
27.2.2 System Analysis Methods 1155
27.2.3 System Components 1156
27.2.4 Component Failures 1157
27.2.5 Basic Fault Tree Construction 1158
27.2.6 Decision Tables 1162
27.2.7 Signal Flow Graphs 1165
27.3 Reliability Evaluation 1166
27.3.1 Qualitative Analysis 1166
27.3.2 Quantitative Analysis 1170
27.4 Other Analytical Methods 1174
27.4.1 Reliability Block Diagrams 1174
27.4.2 Success Trees 1176
27.4.3 Truth Tables 1176
 Contents xxi

27.4.4 Structure Functions 1179

27.4.5 Minimal Cut Sets 1181
27.4.6 Minimal Path Sets 1182
27.5 State Space and Markov Processes 1182
27.5.1 The Markov Process 1182
27.5.2 Stationary State Probabilities 1185
27.5.3 General Algorithm for Markov Analysis 1185
27.5.4 Model of Two Repairable Components 1187
27.5.5 Markov Models with Special Failure Modes 1188
27.5.6 Failure Frequency and Duration 1189
Problems 1190
References 1195

28 Reliability Concepts in System Protection 1197

28.1 Introduction 1197
28.2 System Disturbance Models 1197
28.2.1 A Probabilistic Disturbance Model 1197
28.2.2 Disturbance Distribution 1200
28.2.3 Disturbance Classifications 1202
28.2.4 Probabilistic Model of Disturbances 1203
28.2.5 Disturbance Joint Probability Density 1208
28.3 Time-Independent Reliability Models 1208
28.3.1 The Protection and the Protected Component 1209
28.3.2 System Reliability Concepts 1210
28.3.3 Coherent Protection Logic 1217
28.3.4 Protective System Analysis 1229
28.3.5 Specifications for Transmission Protection 1242
28.4 Time-Dependent Reliability Models 1246
28.4.1 Failure Distributions of Random Variables 1246
28.4.2 Composite Protection System 1252
Problems 1256
References 1259

29 Fault Tree Analysis of Protective Systems 1261

29.1 Introduction 1261
29.2 Fault Tree Analysis 1262
29.2.1 System Nomenclature 1262
29.2.2 Calculation of Component Parameters 1263
29.2.3 Computation of Minimal Cut Set Parameters 1267
29.2.4 Computation of System Parameters 1269
29.3 Analysis of Transmission Protection 1273
29.3.1 Functional Specification for the Protective System 1273
29.3.2 The Top Event 1278
29.3.3 Failure of the Circuit Breakers 1279
29.3.4 Protective System Failure 1284
29.4 Fault Tree Evaluation 1297
29.4.1 Breaker Failure Evaluation 1298
xxii Contents

29.4.2 Protective System Failure Evaluation 1300

29.4.3 Determination of Minimal Cut Sets 1302
29.4.4 Constant Failure Rate-Special Cases 1304
Problems 1306
References 1310

30 Markov Modeling of Protective Systems 1311

30.1 Introduction 1311
30.2 Testing of Protective Systems 1312
30.2.1 The Need for Testing 1314
30.2.2 Reliability Modeling of Inspection 1316
30.3 Modeling of Inspected Systems 1317
30.3.1 Optimal Inspection Interval 1317
30.3.2 Optimization for Redundant Systems 1323
30.3.3 Optimal Design of k-out-of-n:G Systems 1325
30.4 Monitoring and Self-testing 1331
30.4.1 Monitoring Techniques 1332
30.4.2 Self-Checking Techniques 1332
30.4.3 Monitoring and Self-Checking Systems 1333
30.4.4 Automated Testing 1335
30.4.5 Intelligent Monitoring and Testing 1336
30.5 The Unreadiness Probability 1337
30.6 Protection Abnormal Unavailability 1341
30.6.1 Assumptions 1342
30.7 Evaluation of Safeguard Systems 1350
30.7.1 Definitions and Assumptions 1351
30.7.2 The Unconditional Hazard Rate 1352
30.7.3 Expected Number of Failures 1352
Problems 1354
References 1356

Appendix A Protection Terminology 1359

A.1 Protection Terms and Definitions 1359
A.2 Relay Terms and Definitions 1361
A.3 Classification of Relay Systems 1363
A.4 Circuit Breaker Terms and Definitions 1366
References 1368

Appendix B Protective Device Classification 1371

B.1 Device Function Numbers 1371
B.2 Devices Performing More than One Function 1371
B.2.1 Suffix Numbers 1373
B.2.2 Suffix Letters 1373
B.2.3 Representation of Device Contacts on Electrical Diagrams 1374

Appendix C Overhead Line Impedances 1375

References 1387
 Contents xxiii

Appendix D Transformer Data 1389

Appendix E 500 kV Transmission Line Data 1393

E.1 Tower Design 1393
E.2 Unit Length Electrical Characteristics 1393
E.3 Total Line Impedance and Admittance 1394
E.4 Nominal Pi 1395
E.5 ABCD Parameters 1395
E.6 Equivalent Pi 1395
E.7 Surge Impedance Loading 1397
E.8 Normalization 1399
E.9 Line Ratings and Operating Limits 1399
References 1400

Index 1401
 xxv

Author Biographies

Charles Henville has more than 50 years of experience as a power system engineer, including
40 years as a protection engineer. He worked for 30 years as a commissioning engineer and protec-
tion engineer for a large Canadian utility before starting his own consulting engineering company.
He has been an active participant in the IEEE Power and Energy Society, Power System Relaying
and Control Committee (PSRCC). This committee is responsible for creating numerous IEEE stan-
dards and technical papers dealing with power system protection. Charles was the Chairman of
that Committee and one of its subcommittees and of several of its working groups.
He is also actively involved in teaching and training working engineers. He has presented several
short courses for continuing professional development and has served as an instructor at Gon-
zaga University, the University of Wisconsin, and the University of British Columbia. As a trainer
for utility engineers, he has had broad exposure to protection practices in North America and
worldwide.
Rasheek Rifaat (P.Eng., IEEE Life Fellow) graduated from Cairo University (Egypt), 1972, BSc
and McGill University, (Montreal, QC, Canada), 1979, Master Engineering. He has over 45 years
of experience with industrial and utility electrical power systems in Canada, North America, and
overseas. His experience extends to renewable and traditional power generation, cogeneration,
industrial plants, power transmission, sub-transmission and distribution systems, and large system
interconnections. His long time experience encompasses power system protection design, coordi-
nation and settings, and power system studies including transient studies, insulation coordination,
surge protection, power system reliability, and operational requirements.
He authored and presented over 40 peer-reviewed technical papers and publications and pre-
sented many tutorials on power system protection and transient studies. He is also the current Chair
of the Work Group looking after the IEEE Standards for Protection and Coordination of Industrial
and Commercial Power Systems (formerly known as the Buff Book, Reproduced as Standards Series
3004). He has been involved with the Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers Inc. (IEEE)
for over 40 years and became a Life Fellow Member since 2016. He has been awarded the year 2020,
R. H. Tanner Award for industry leadership for the Canadian Region (Region 7).
He is presently registered as a P.Eng. in Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Ontario and is a member of
the Energy Industry Electrical Engineering Association.
Brian Johnson is a University Distinguished Professor and the Schweitzer Engineering Labora-
tories Endowed Chair in Power Engineering in the University of Idaho Department of Electrical
and Computer Engineering. He received BS, MS, and PhD degrees in electrical engineering from
the University of Wisconsin-Madison. He has worked at the University of Idaho for over 25 years,
where he was chair of the Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering from 2006 to 2012.
xxvi Author Biographies

His teaching and research interests include power system protection, HVDC transmission, power
electronic applications in power systems, and resilience controls for critical infrastructure systems.
He is active with the IEEE Power and Energy Society, where he was the chair of the Power and
Energy Education Committee from 2014 to 2015 and of the IEEE HVDC and FACTS subcommit-
tee in 2018–2020. He is currently a member of the editorial board for IEEE Power and Energy
Magazine. He is a registered professional engineer in the State of Idaho.
Sakis Meliopoulos obtained a Diploma in Electrical and Mechanical Engineering from the
National Technical University in Athens, Greece, in 1972 and a Master in EE (1974) and a PhD
degree (1976) from the Georgia Institute of Technology in Atlanta, Georgia, USA. He joined the
faculty of the Georgia Institute of Technology as an Assistant Professor (1976), Associate Professor
(1982–1988) and full professor (1989 to present). In 2006 he was named the Georgia Power
Distinguished Professor. He is actively involved in education and research for improved safety
and electromagnetic compatibility of electric power installations, protection, and control of power
systems and the application of new technology in these areas. Since 1999 he is the Georgia Tech
Site Director of PSERC, an NSF I/URC. Since 2016 he is the associate director for cyber-physical
security of the Georgia Tech Institute for Information Security and Privacy (IISP). He has pioneered
several new analysis and design techniques for bulk power reliability analysis, safety, protection,
and electromagnetic compatibility of electric power systems. Most well-known is the EPRI trans-
mission reliability program TRELLS (now renamed TransCARE), the GPS-synchronized harmonic
state measurement system for transmission systems (first [1993] wide area measurement system
on NYPA), the distributed dynamic state estimation method (SuperCalibrator), the setting-less
relay, the CYMSA software (Cyber-Physical Modeling and Simulation for Situational Awareness),
his invention of the Smart Ground Multimeter, the EPRI grounding analysis programs, and the
WinIGS (Integrated Grounding System analysis and design). He has modernized many power
system courses at Georgia Tech, initiated the power system certificate program for practicing
engineers, and he co-developed the Master of Science Cybersecurity, Energy Systems degree. He
is a Fellow of the IEEE. He holds three patents, and he has published three books, and over 430
technical papers. He has received a number of awards, including the Sigma Xi Young Faculty
award (1981), the outstanding Continuing Education Award, Georgia Institute of Technology
(twice 2002 and 2014), the 2017 D. Scott Wills ECE Distinguished Mentor Award, the 2020 ECE
Distinguished Faculty Achievement Award, he received the 2005 IEEE Richard Kaufman Award
and the 2010 George Montefiore international award. In 2019 he received the Doctor Honoris
Causa from his alma matter, NTUA.
 xxvii

Preface to the Second Edition

In the First Edition, Paul Anderson built a solid foundation of analytical study of electric power
system protection. Most of the analytical techniques are still applicable. During the 23 years since
the first publication, there have been many advances in the technology that are now incorporated
in the second publication. Such advances included two fronts. The first front has been associated
with the gradual reformatting of the overall system with more renewable generation, high efficiency
components, and increased interests in safe and secure operations of the power system. The sec-
ond front has been associated with the applications of numeric multifunction relays with further
intelligence and abilities in recognizing fault occurrence, and in developing protection operational
decisions. With the continuation of such advances, protection engineers and specialist need a solid
understanding of the correlated concepts discussed in the book.
The first edition was a massive work for a single author. This second edition needed the combined
efforts of four the authors to bring the book up to date.
Most of the review work was provided by internal review between various authors other than
the initial author/updater. However, we gratefully acknowledge additional thoughtful and helpful
reviews by Vijay Vittal and Ralph Barone.
In addition to updating references and standards and correcting a few typographical errors, the
second edition now includes the following:
In Part 1, Protective Devices and Controls, issues such as power quality and regulatory require-
ments are updated. New technologies such as phasor measurements and proliferation of precise
time applications are noted. The impact of IEC standards on fuse ratings and peer-to-peer commu-
nications is discussed. Six generations of protective relays are now noted in Chapter 3 instead of the
four in the First Edition. These additional generations are discussed in appropriate later chapters.
The standardization of digital overcurrent relays is described, together with migration from using
graphical time current characteristics to calculated ones. Inverter based resources now have an
impact on network faults.
In Part 2, Protection Concepts, we add discussion of different measuring principles such as
negative sequence overcurrent, new methods of polarizing directional ground overcurrent relays,
coordinating overcurrent relays measuring currents at different voltages, and transmission line
protection using quadrilateral distance relays. Analytical techniques for distance relays in Chapters
8–10 remain largely unchanged.
In Part 3, Transmission Protection, we add discussion of issues that have arisen since the first
edition. These include the following:
● A detailed settings example for a three zone quadrilateral distance relay

● Impact of frequency changes on the security of distance relays

● New definitions of short and long lines

Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
square block of snow was placed on the stone, and, as the hot
smoke circled round it, the seal-skin saucer caught the water that
dripped from the edge. They had no vessel for boiling; what they did
not eat raw they baked upon a hot stone. A solitary coil of walrus-
line, fastened to a movable lance-head (noon-ghak), with the well-
worn and well-soaked clothes on their backs, completed the
inventory of their effects.”
The Eskimos entertained Dr. Kane and his companions with a
choral performance, singing their rude, monotonous song of “Amna
Ayah” till the unfortunate white men were almost maddened by the
discord. They improvised, moreover, a special chant in their honour,
which they repeated with great gravity of utterance, invariably
concluding with the sonorous and complimentary refrain of “Nalegak!
nalegak! nalegak-soak!”—“Captain! captain! great captain!” The
chant ran as follows:—

Am-na-yah! Am-na-yah! Am-na-yah! Am-na-yah!

[Listen]
In the early spring the Eskimos resume their hunting expeditions,
and their snow-covered huts are transformed into scenes of the
liveliest activity. Stacks of jointed meat, chiefly walrus, are piled upon
the ice-foot; the women stretch the hide for sole-leather, and the men
collect a store of harpoon-lines for the winter. Tusky walrus heads
stare at the spectacle from the snowbank, where they are stowed for
their ivory; the dogs are tethered to the ice; and the children, each
one armed with the curved rib of some big walrus or seal, play ball
and bat among the snow-drifts.
The quantity of walrus meat which the Eskimos accumulate
during a season of plenty should certainly raise them above all risk
of winter want; but other causes than improvidence render their
supplies scanty. They are never idle; they hunt incessantly without
the loss of a day. When the storms prevent the use of the sledge,
they occupy themselves in stowing away the spoils of previous
hunts. For this purpose they dig a pit either on the mainland, or,
which is preferred, on an island inaccessible to foxes, and the jointed
meat is stacked inside, and covered with heavy stones.
The true explanation of the scarcity from which these people so
frequently suffer is the excessive consumption in which they indulge
during the summer season. By their ancient laws all share in
common; and since they migrate in numbers when their necessities
press them, the tax on each separate settlement is excessive. The
quantity which the members of a family consume seems excessive
to a stranger; yet it is not the result of inconsiderate gluttony, but due
to their peculiarities of life and organization. In active exercise, and
under the influence of exposure to a severe temperature, the waste
of carbon must be enormous.
When in-doors, and at rest, engaged upon their ivory harness-
rings, fowl-nets, or other household gear, they eat, as many eat in
more civilized lands, for mere animal enjoyment, and to pass away
the time. But when engaged in the chase, they take but one meal a
day, and that not until the day’s labour is ended. They go out upon
the ice without breakfast, and seldom eat anything until their return.
Dr. Kane estimates the average ration of an Eskimo in a season of
plenty at eight to ten pounds of meat a day, with soup and water to
the extent of half a gallon. Such an allowance might almost have
satisfied the appetite of Gargantua!

Dr. Hayes, in the course of his adventurous Arctic boat-journey,

held much intercourse with the Eskimos, and his impressions, on the
whole, would seem to have been highly favourable.
His sketch of a couple whom he met in the neighbourhood of the
Eskimo colony of Netlik is very amusing.
He describes them as a most unhuman-looking pair. Everything
on and about them told of the battle they fought so gallantly and
patiently with the elements. From head to foot they were invested in
a coat of ice and snow. Shapeless lumps of whiteness, they
resembled the snow-kings or statues which boys delight in making,
except that they possessed the faculty of motion. Their long, heavy
fox-skin coats, reaching nearly to the knees, and surmounted by a
hood, covering, like a round lump, all of the head but the face, the
bear-skin pantaloons and boots and mittens were saturated with
snow. Their long, black hair, which fell from beneath their hoods over
their eyes and cheeks, their eyelashes, the few hairs growing upon
their chins, the rim of fur around their faces, all glittered with white
frost—the frozen moisture of their breath. Each carried in his right
hand a whip, and in his left a lump of frozen meat and blubber. The
meat they flung down on the floor of Dr. Hayes’ hut; then, without
pausing for an invitation, they thrust their whipstocks under the
rafters, and divesting themselves of their mittens and outer
garments, hung them thereon. Underneath their frosty coats they
wore a warm, close shirt of bird-skins.
In the same bold explorer’s narrative of his voyage of discovery in
1860, two other Eskimos figure very conspicuously; and one of
these, named Hans, would seem to have been a very fair type of the
Eskimo character. Hans, we may observe, had originally served in
Dr. Kane’s expedition, and had then gained the confidence of Dr.
Hayes; so that when the latter undertook his own memorable
voyage, he became anxious to secure the Eskimo’s services.
When his ship had crossed Melville Bay, and lay in the grim
shadows of Cape York, Dr. Hayes bethought himself of the Eskimo
hunter. He remembered to have heard that Hans had fallen in love,
and taken a wife, and repaired, with her at his side, to share the
fortunes of the wild Eskimos who inhabit the remote northern shores
of Baffin Bay.
But Dr. Hayes felt confident that the hunter, having known
something of the superior comfort and happiness of the social life of
civilization, would soon weary of his voluntary banishment, and of
the penury and hardships of the existence of the Eskimo nomads.
He made up his mind that Hans would return to Cape York, and
there take up his residence, in the hope of being picked up by some
passing ship.
 So Dr. Hayes stood close in-shore, to find that his conjectures
were completely realized. As he sailed along the coast he
discovered a group of human beings eagerly endeavouring by signs
and gestures to attract attention. Heaving the schooner to, he and
his second in command, Mr. Sountag, went ashore in a boat, and
there was Hans! The Eskimo recognized both of them immediately,
and called them by name.

DR. HAYES FALLS IN WITH HANS THE HUNTER.

 We may adopt the remainder of Dr. Hayes’ interesting little
episode, because it illustrates the ingrained selfishness, or self-
concentration, of the Eskimo character.
Hans had deteriorated greatly during his residence with the wild
Eskimos, and he had sunk to their level of filthy ugliness. He was
accompanied by his wife, who carried her first-born in a hood upon
her back; his wife’s brother, a quick-eyed boy of twelve years; and
his wife’s mother, “an ancient dame with voluble and flippant
tongue.” They were all attired in the usual Eskimo dress of skins;
objects of interest and curiosity, but not “things of beauty.”
Hans led his visitors, over rough rocks and through deep drifts of
snow, to his rude hut, which stood on the cold hill-top, about two
hundred feet above the sea-level. An excellent position for a “look-
out,” but as inconvenient for a hunter as can well be imagined. Here
he had watched and waited for many a dreary month; surveying the
sea day after day, in the faint hope of discovering some European
vessel. But none came; summer passed into winter, and winter
lengthened into summer; and still Hans watched and waited,
yearning after his southern home and the friends of his youth.
His tent—for it was rather a tent than a hut—was made of seal-
skins, and its capacity was scarcely sufficient to accommodate his
little family.
Dr. Hayes asked him if he would accompany the expedition.
“Yes.”
Would he take his wife and baby?
“Yes.”
Would he go without them?
“Yes.”
This last answer reveals the curious unimpressionableness of the
Eskimo, who endures with calmness, nay, even with indifference,
those partings which try the heartstrings of the European. It is,
perhaps, a result of the constant warfare he maintains against an
uncongenial and austere Nature that he comes to regard himself as
his first and chief, as almost his only concern. So long as his wife
and children surround him, he shows no evident want of affection;
but he has no objection to part from them, if the separation will prove
to his individual interest.
As Dr. Hayes had no leisure to examine critically into the state of
his mind, and as he cherished a conviction that the permanent
separation of husband and wife was to be regarded as a painful
event, he determined on giving the Eskimo mother the benefit of this
conventional suspicion. Both husband and wife, therefore, were
carried on board the schooner, as well as their baby, their tent, and
all their household goods. The bright-eyed boy and the ancient dame
cried to accompany them; but Dr. Hayes had no further room, and
was compelled to leave them to the care of their tribe, who, about
twenty in number, had discovered the schooner, and with a merry
shout had come across the hill. After bestowing upon them some
useful gifts, Dr. Hayes returned to his vessel.
He adds that Hans was the only unconcerned person in the party.
At a later period the thought crossed his commander’s mind that he
would by no means have been displeased had wife and child been
left to the charity of their savage kin: while Dr. Hayes had abundant
reason, during the course of the expedition, to wish that he had left
the selfish and indolent Eskimo to linger in his seal-skin tent among
the hills and rocks of Cape York.

The same traveller describes the hunting equipment of a party of

Eskimos setting out in pursuit of bears.
First, the dogs. These were picketed, each team separately, on a
convenient area of level ground; and on the approach of Dr. Hayes
and his companions they sprang up from the knotted heap, in which
they had been lying through the night, with a wild, fierce yell, which
died away into a low whine and impatient snarl. They evidently were
hungry, and their masters seemed desirous of feeding them; for,
going to their sledges, each one brought up a flat piece of something
which looked singularly like plate-iron, but, upon examination, was
found to be walrus-hide, three-quarters of an inch thick, and frozen
intensely hard. Throwing it upon the snow a few feet in advance of
their respective teams, they drew their knives from their capacious
boots, and attempted to cut up the skin; but its hardness defied all
their efforts, and Dr. Hayes had to fetch hatchet and saw before the
work of division could be completed.
During the few minutes thus occupied, the dogs had become
almost frantic. They endeavoured to break loose; pulling on their
traces, running back and springing forward, straining and choking
themselves until their eyes shot fire, and the foam flew from their
mouths. The sight of food had stimulated their wolfish passions, and
they seemed ready to eat each other. Not a moment passed that two
or more of them were not flying at each other’s throats, and,
grappling together, rolled, and tossed, and tumbled over the snow.
The Eskimos looked on apparently unconcerned, except when
there appeared a risk of one of the dogs being injured, and then they
secured a temporary calm by uttering an angry nasal “Ay! Ay!”
When at length the food was thrown, the dogs uttered a greedy
scream, which was followed by a moment’s silence while the pieces
were falling, then by a scuffle, and the hard, frozen chunks had
vanished. How they were swallowed, or how they were digested,
was, to the spectator, inexplicable! Enough to say that “the jaws of
darkness did devour them up,” and calm instantaneously succeeded
to the storm.
The Eskimo dog is of medium size, and squarely built; in fact, he
is a reclaimed wolf, and exhibits that variety of colour which, after a
few generations, generally characterizes tame animals. Gray, which
is often seen, was probably at one time the predominating colour.
Some of the dogs are black, with white breasts; some are wholly
white; others are reddish or yellowish; but, indeed, almost every
shade may be seen amongst them. Their skin is covered with a
coarse, compact fur, and is much valued by the natives for the
purposes of clothing. In the form of the animals the variety is
considerable; but the general characters would seem to be a pointed
nose, short ears, a cowardly, treacherous eye, and a hanging tail.
But exceptions occasionally occur, and one figures in Dr. Hayes’
narrative under the name of Toodlamik, or, more briefly, Toodla.
He differed from his kind in having a more compact head, a less
pointed nose, an eye denoting affection and reliance, and an erect,
bold, fearless carriage. Dr. Hayes, however, expresses some doubt
as to his purity of blood. From the beginning to the end of the cruise
he was master of all the dogs that were brought to the ship. In this
connection it is worthy of remark, that in every pack one dog
invariably attains the mastership of the whole—a kind of major-
generalship; and in each team, one who is master of his comrades, a
general of brigade. Once master, always master; but the post of
honour is gained at the cost of many a lame leg and ghastly wound,
and is held only by doing daily battle against all comers. These could
easily gain the ascendancy in every case, but for their own petty
jealousies, which often prevent their union for such a purpose. If a
combination, however, does happen to be brought about, and the
leader is hopelessly beaten, he is never worth anything afterward;
his spirit is completely prostrated, the poor fellow pines away, and
dies at last of a broken heart.
 ESKIMO DOGS.
Toodla, says Dr. Hayes, was a character in his way. He was a
tyrant of no mean pretension. Apparently he thought it his special
duty to attack every dog, great or small, that was added to the pack:
if the animal was a large one, in order, probably, that he might at
once be forced to feel that he had a master; if a small one, in order
that the others might hold him in the greater awe. It was sometimes
quite amusing to see him set off in pursuit of a strange dog, his head
erect, his tail curled gracefully over his back; slowly and deliberately
he went straight at his mark, with the confident, defiant air of one
who recognizes the power and importance of his office. Leagues and
conspiracies were not unfrequently formed against him, induced, no
doubt, by a feeling of despair; but he always succeeded in
overthrowing them,—not, it is true, without occasional assistance
from “without;” for the sailors, who petted him greatly, would
sometimes take his part when the struggle was manifestly unequal.

But we must leave the dogs, and turn to the sledge.

This was, in very truth, an ingenious specimen of native
mechanical skill. It was made wholly of bone and leather. The
runners, which were square behind and rounded upward in front,
and about five feet long, seven inches high, and three-fourths of an
inch thick, were slabs of bone; not solid, but made up of a number of
pieces of various shapes and sizes, dexterously fitted and tightly
lashed together. Some of these were not larger than one’s two
fingers; some were three or four inches square; others were as large
as one’s hand, and triangular in shape; others, again, were several
inches in length, and two or three in breadth. They all fitted into their
several places as exactly as the blocks of a Chinese puzzle. Near
their margins ran rows of little holes, and through these strings of
seal-skin were inserted, by which the blocks were fastened together,
until the whole was as firm as a board.
The marvel of the thing is that all these pieces are flattened and
cut into the required shape, not with nicely contrived instruments and
tools, but with stones. The labour must be immense. The grinding
needed to make a single runner must be the work of months. The
construction of an entirely new sledge would probably occupy the
lifetime of a generation; and hence a vehicle of this kind becomes a
family heirloom, and is handed down from father to son, and son to
grandson, and is constantly undergoing repair and restoration; a new
piece here, another there, until as little remains of the original
structure as of the sailor’s old knife, when it had had a new blade
and a new handle! The origin of some of the Eskimo sledges is lost
in the mists of a remote antiquity.
 The runners are usually shod with ivory from the tusk of the
walrus. The said ivory had likewise been ground flat, and its corners
made square, with stones; and it was fastened to the runner by a
string looped through two counter-sunk holes. The pieces of which it
was composed were numerous; but the surface was wonderfully
uniform, and as smooth as glass.
The runners stood about fourteen inches apart, and were
fastened together by bones, tightly lashed to them; the bones used
being the femur of the bear, the antlers of the reindeer, and the ribs
of the narwhal. Two walrus-ribs, lashed one to the after-end of each
runner, served as upstanders, and were braced by a piece of
reindeer antler, secured across the top.

Having thus disposed of the team and the sledge, we now come
to the equipment.
First, one of the Eskimo hunters spread a piece of seal-skin over
the sledge, fastening it securely by little strings attached to its
margin. On this he placed a small piece of walrus-skin, as a
provision for the dogs; a piece of blubber for fuel; and of meat for his
own lunch. During his absence he would cook no food, but he would
want water; and therefore he carried his kotluk, or lamp—namely, a
small stone dish; a lump of mannek or dried moss, designed for the
wick; and some willow-blossoms (na-owinals) for tinder. To ignite the
tinder, he had a piece of iron-stone and a small sharp fragment of
flint.
 ESKIMO SLEDGE AND TEAM.
We may follow him on his route, and ascertain the use he makes
of these appliances. When he grows thirsty, he halts; scrapes away
the snow until he lays bare the solid ice beneath; and painfully
scoops in it a small cavity. Next, he fetches a block of fresh-water ice
from a neighbouring berg, lights his lamp, and, using the blubber for
fuel, proceeds to place the block on the edge of the cavity. As it
slowly thaws, the water trickles down into the hole; and when the
Eskimo thinks the quantity collected is sufficient to quench his thirst,
he removes the rude apparatus, and, stooping down, drinks the soot-
stained fluid. If he feels hungry, he breaks off a few chips from his
lump of frozen walrus-beef, cuts a few slices from the blubber, and
enjoys his unsatisfactory meal. The inhabitant of the Arctic desert
knows nothing of epicurean tastes; and if he did, he has no means of
gratifying them.
 To return to the equipment. The hunter carried with him an extra
pair of boots, another of dog-skin stockings, and another of mittens,
to be used in case he should be unfortunate enough to get on thin
ice, and the ice should break through.
The entire equipment being placed upon the sledge, he threw
over them a piece of bear-skin, which was doubled, so that, when
opened, it would be large enough to wrap about his body and protect
it from the snow, if he wished to lie down and rest. Then he drew
forth a long line, fastened an end of it through a hole in the fore part
of one of the runners, ran it across diagonally to the opposite runner,
passed it through a hole there, and so continued, to and fro, from
side to side, until he reached the other end of the sledge. There he
made fast the line, and thus the cargo was secured against all risk of
loss from an upset. Next he hung to one upstander a coil of heavy
line, and to the other a lighter coil, tying them fast with a small string.
The former was his harpoon-line for catching walrus; the latter, for
catching seal. His harpoon staff was made from the tusk of the
narwhal; measured five feet in length, and two inches in diameter at
one end, tapering to a point at the other.
All being ready, the team, consisting of seven dogs, was brought
up. The harness was of a very primitive description. It consisted of
two doubled strips of bear-skin, one of which was placed on either
side of the animal’s body, the two being fastened together on the top
of the neck and at the breast, so as to form a collar. Thence they
passed inside of the dog’s fore legs and up along his flanks to the
tail, where the four ends meeting together were attached to a trace
eighteen feet in length.
The trace was connected with the sledge by a line four feet long,
of which one end was attached to each runner. And to the middle of
the line a stout string was fastened, running-through bone rings at
the ends of the traces, and secured by a slip-knot, easily untied—an
arrangement designed with the view of ensuring safety in bear-
hunting. The bear is hotly pursued until the sledge arrives within
about fifty yards; the hunter then leans forward and slips the knot;
the dogs, set loose from the sledge, quickly bring the brute to bay. If
the knot gets fouled, serious accidents are not unlikely to occur. The
hunter vainly endeavours to extricate it, and before he can draw his
knife to cut it—supposing he is fortunate enough to have such an
instrument—man, and dogs, and sledge are all among the bear’s
legs, in a huddled and tangled heap, and at the mercy of the
enraged monster.
The dogs were cold, and eager to start. In a moment they were
yoked to the sledge; the hunter with his right hand threw out the coils
of his long whip-lash, with his left he seized an upstander, and
propelling the sledge a few paces, he uttered at the same moment
the shrill starting-cry, “Ka! ka!—ka! ka!” which sent the dogs in a
bound to their places, and away they dashed over the rugged ice.
The hunter skilfully guided his sledge among the hummocks,
moderating the impetuosity of his team with the nasal “Ay! ay!” which
they perfectly understand. On reaching the smooth ice, he dropped
upon the sledge, allowed his whip-lash to trail after him on the snow,
shouted “Ka! ka!—ka! ka!” to his savage team, and disappeared in
as wild a gallop as ever was taken by the demon huntsman of
German legend!

It does not appear that the Eskimos have magistrates or laws, yet
the utmost good order prevails in their communities, and quarrels are
rare. When these do occur, one or other of the dissatisfied parties
collects his little store, and migrates to a different settlement. The
constitution of their society is rightly described as patriarchal, but the
ruler does not seem to be elected: he attains his post by proving his
possession of superior strength, address, and courage. As soon as
his physical powers give way, or old age enfeebles his mind, he
deposes himself, takes his seat in the oomiak, or woman’s boat, and
is relegated by common consent to female companionship. Like all
savage tribes, the Eskimos have their mystery-men, or angekoks,
who resort to the usual deceptions to acquire and retain supremacy,
swallowing knives, resorting to ventriloquial artifices, and conversing
in a mysterious jargon, unintelligible to “the common herd.” They
profess to hold intercourse with certain potent spirits, and to employ
their agency in rewarding or punishing their dupes; and even the
influence of the Christian missionaries has hardly rooted out the
belief in the superstitions originated and fostered by these men.
Notwithstanding the hard conditions of their life, and the
dreariness of the region which they inhabit, the Eskimos are a
cheerful people. They are keenly sensible of the charms of music,
though their own vocalization is inconceivably melancholy; and they
are partial to many rude pastimes, mostly of a gymnastic character.
Their good nature has been praised by many travellers; but they
show the usual inhumanity of the savage towards the aged and
infirm. Weakness is no title to the sympathy of the Eskimo; he
respects strength, but he utterly disregards and cruelly oppresses
the feeble. He is ungrateful towards his benefactors, and in his
intercourse with strangers his fidelity can be relied upon only so long
as he knows that any breach of faith will be severely punished. He
does not steal from his own people, and “Tiglikpok,” “he is a thief,” is
a reproach among the Eskimos as among ourselves; but no shame
attaches to him if he robs the white man, though the latter may have
loaded him with favours.
If we add that they display a strong affection for their children,
and that the children are singularly docile and obedient to their
parents, we shall have said enough to assist the reader in forming an
accurate conception of the characteristics of the inhabitants of the
Eskimo Land.
 CHAPTER VIII.
LAPLAND AND THE LAPPS.

apland, or the Land of the Lapps, which the Lapps themselves

call Sameanda or Somellada, forms the north and north-
eastern portions of the Scandinavian peninsula, and is divided
between Sweden and Russia. Norwegian Lapland includes the
provinces of Norrland and Finmark; Swedish, of North and South
Bothnia; and Russian, of Kola and Kemi. The last-named has an
area of 11,300 square miles, with a population of 9000; Swedish
Lapland, an area of 50,600 square miles, with 4000 inhabitants; and
Norwegian, an area of 26,500 square miles, with a population of
5000. We are here referring to the number of true Lapps; in each
division the population would be largely increased if we included
Finns, Russians, Swedes, Norwegians.
Lapland, for nine months in the year, is blighted by the rigour of a
winter climate. The summer months, when the sun does not set for
several weeks, are July and August; and these are preceded by a
brief spring, and followed by even a briefer autumn. Cereals do not
thrive higher than the sixty-sixth parallel, with the exception of barley,
which is cultivated as far north as the seventieth. The greater part of
the country comes within that wooded zone which we described in
an earlier chapter, and the forests, consisting of birch, pine, fir, and
alder, spread over a very extensive area. On the mosses and lichens
which grow abundantly in their shelter, are fed the immense herds of
reindeer which constitute the principal wealth of the inhabitants.
The Lapps may almost be regarded as a nation of Lilliputians.
Their men seldom exceed five feet in height, while the majority are
some inches below that very moderate stature; and the women are
even shorter. They are, however, a robust race, with muscular limbs,
and unusual girth of body, the circumference of their chest being
nearly equal to their height. Their complexion is dark, tawny, or
copper-coloured; their dark, piercing, deep-sunken eyes are set very
wide apart, so as to communicate a peculiar character to the
physiognomy. The wild, strange effect is further increased by the
unkempt masses of dark, lank, straight hair which droop on either
side of the whiskerless, beardless face. The cheek-bones are
prominent, like those of a Celtic Highlander; the nose is flat; the
mouth wide, with thin compressed lips. It may be supposed that the
Lapps, from these indications, are not models of masculine or
feminine beauty; and Dr. Clarke asserts that, when aged, many of
them, if exposed in a menagerie, might be mistaken for the long-lost
transitional form intermediate between man and ape. And, certainly,
there is something repulsive in the constant blinking of eyes
rendered sore by the pungent smoke of their huts, or the white glare
of the snow, as well as in the expression of obstinacy and low
cunning which one reads in every feature.
An aristocrat might be proud of their small and finely-shaped
hands; but their arms, like their legs, are disproportionately short,
clumsy, and thick. Clumsy, we mean, in shape; certainly not in
movement, for the extraordinary flexibility of their limbs is one of the
traits by which a Lapp is easily distinguished.
Of the dress of the Lapps it is needless to say much. In winter it
consists of bears’ skins, in which both male and female wrap
themselves up, with the fur outward. In summer the men wear a sort
of tunic, the poesk, made of coarse light-coloured woollen cloth,
depending to the knee, but bound about the waist with a belt or
girdle. Their head-gear consists of a kind of fez, made of wool, and
adorned with a red worsted band round the rim, and a bright red
tassel. Their boots or shoes are cut from the raw skin of the reindeer,
with the hair outwards, and they are peaked in shape. They are thin,
and they have no lining; but the Lapp defends his feet and ankles
from the cold by stuffing the vacant space of the boot with the broad
leaves of the Carex vesicaria, or Cyperus grass, which he cuts in
summer, rubs in his hands, and dries before using. The female
costume resembles that of the males, but their girdles are gayer with
rings and chains.
The Lapps are a superstitious race. Like all the Norse tribes, they
believe in witchcraft; and of old the Lapland witches had a reputation
which extended to England, for being able to ward off rain or
disperse storms. The English seamen trading to Archangel
frequently visited their coast in order to buy a favourable wind.
Many of the Lapps claim the ability to foretell future events, and
fall, or pretend to fall, into a trance or ecstasy, during which they see
visions, utter prophecies, and unlock the secrets of those who trust
to their divination. They also read the fortunes of inquiring dupes by
means of a cup of liquor, or by the vulgarest jargon of palmistry.
Superstition is the daughter of Ignorance. It is also the sister of Fear,
for the superstitious are invariably prone to see supernatural signs
and wonders in the appearances of the heavens, or to hear
unearthly voices borne upon the midnight wind, and in everything
they cannot understand to imagine the presence of some
antagonistic power. As the American natives were panic-stricken at
the occurrence of an eclipse, so the Lapps are filled with dread when
the sky glows with the coruscations of the aurora.
These superstitions prevail in spite of the exertions of priests and
schoolmasters. They are nourished in secret even when they are not
openly proclaimed; and the Lapp, after listening devoutly to the
harangue of his pastor, will return home to offer homage to his
saidas, or wooden idols; to cower at the name of Trolls, the evil spirit
of the forest; and to be deluded by the artifices of any so-called witch
or fortune-teller.
There are Lapps, and Lapps; each, according to the region he
inhabits, bearing his distinctive characteristics, and preserving his
individual habits. Thus, there are the Fjälllappars, or Mountain
Lapps; the Skogslappars, or Wood Lapps; and the Fisherlapps.
From the nature of the country the reader will expect, and will be
right in expecting, that the Fjälllappars form the most numerous
section. They are the nomads of Lapland, and their mode of life is
entirely pastoral. As the Arabs with their flocks move from one oasis
to another, or the Tartars with their cattle, so the Lapps migrate from
place to place, compelled by the necessity of finding sustenance for
their herds of reindeer. The mosses and lichens on which these
animals feed are soon exhausted, and some time elapses before the
half-frozen soil replaces them. The same cause operates to prevent
the Lapps from assembling in large communities. Seldom more than
three, four, or five families encamp in the same neighbourhood.
It will not be supposed that the temporary abode of a nomad
exhibits any architectural completeness. Their tuguria, or huts, are of
the rudest construction. They raise a conical framework, composed
of the flexible stems of trees, and this they cover with a coarse kind
of canvas, and in winter with the skins of reindeer and other animals.
No doorway is required, and egress and ingress are provided for by
turning up a portion of the canvas at the bottom, so as to form a
triangular gap; and the portion so turned up is let down again at
night. In the centre of the interior some large stones are piled
together for a fireplace, and a square opening in the roof above
carries off the smoke, and lets in the light and air—not to say rain,
snow, and fog, when these prevail.
The tent or hut we have described generally measures about six
feet in diameter, and eighteen to twenty in circumference. It does not
exceed ten feet in height. There is no floor, but the ground is covered
with reindeer skins, and upon these the inhabitants sit or crouch by
day, and huddle themselves up at night. The household utensils,
implements, and weapons are suspended from the sides of the hut;
and the clothing of the family, no very extensive stock, is preserved
in a chest.
On a shelf or platform, raised high above the reach of dogs and
wolves, between two neighbouring trees, the Lapp keeps his store of
dried reindeer flesh, and cheese, and curds; for his diet is as plain as
his general habit of living. His herd of reindeer he puts up at night, or
when they are required for milking, in a large enclosure, about four
hundred to five hundred feet in circuit, formed by a barrier of posts
and stumps of trees, supporting a row of horizontal poles. Against
the latter birch poles and branches of trees are placed diagonally,
forming a kind of abattis, which is found to be a sufficient security
against the attacks of wolves.
It is said that the milking of a herd of reindeer affords a lively and
picturesque spectacle. When they have been driven within the area,
and all the outlets closed, a Lapp, selecting a long cord or thong,