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This International Student Edition is for use outside of the U.S.
Elementary
Eleventh Edition
Statistics
A STEP BY STEP APPROACH
ALLAN G. BLUMAN
ISTUDY
Elementary
E levent h Edition
Statistics
A STEP BY STEP APPROACH
ALLAN G. BLUMAN
PROFESSOR EMERITUS
COMMUNITY COLLEGE OF ALLEGHENY COUNTY
ISTUDY
ELEMENTARY STATISTICS
Published by McGraw Hill LLC, 1325 Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY 10019. Copyright ©2023 by
McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. No part of this publication may
be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without
the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC, including, but not limited to, in any network or other electronic
storage or transmission, or broadcast for distance learning.
Some ancillaries, including electronic and print components, may not be available to customers outside the
United States.
This book is printed on acid-free paper.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 LWI 27 26 25 24 23 22
ISBN 978-1-265-24812-3
MHID 1-265-24812-5
Cover Image: Design Pics/Alamy Stock Photo
All credits appearing on page or at the end of the book are considered to be an extension of the copyright page.
The Internet addresses listed in the text were accurate at the time of publication. The inclusion of a website does
not indicate an endorsement by the authors or McGraw Hill LLC, and McGraw Hill LLC does not guarantee the
accuracy of the information presented at these sites.
mheducation.com/highered
ISTUDY
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
Allan G. Bluman
Allan G. Bluman is a professor emeritus at the Community College of Allegheny County,
South Campus, near Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. He has taught mathematics and statistics
for over 35 years. He received an Apple for the Teacher award in recognition of his bring-
ing excellence to the learning environment at South Campus. He has also taught statistics
for Penn State University at the Greater Allegheny (McKeesport) Campus and at the
Monroeville Center. He received his master’s and doctor’s degrees from the University
of Pittsburgh.
He is also author of Elementary Statistics: A Brief Version and he was a coauthor of Math
McGraw Hill
in Our World. In addition, he is the author of four mathematics books in the McGraw Hill
DeMystified Series. They are Pre-Algebra, Math Word Problems, Business Math, and
Probability.
He is married and has two sons, a granddaughter, and a grandson.
Dedication: To Betty Bluman, Earl McPeek, and Dr. G. Bradley Seager, Jr.
ISTUDY
ISTUDY
CONTENTS
All examples and exercises in this textbook (unless cited) are hypothetical and are presented to enable students to achieve a basic understanding of the statistical concepts
explained. These examples and exercises should not be used in lieu of medical, psychological, or other professional advice. Neither the author nor the publisher shall be held
responsible for any misuse of the information presented in this textbook.
ISTUDY
vi Contents
ISTUDY
Contents vii
7–3 Confidence Intervals for the Mean When σ Is 9–5 Testing the Difference Between
Unknown 383 Proportions 523
7–4 Confidence Intervals and Sample Size 9–6 Testing the Difference Between Two
for Proportions 390 Variances 532
Confidence Intervals 392 Summary 544
Sample Size for Proportions 394
7–5 Confidence Intervals for Variances and
Standard Deviations 399
CHAPTER 10
Summary 406
Correlation and
CHAPTER 8 Regression 551
ISTUDY
viii Contents
CHAPTER 12 CHAPTER 14
Analysis of Sampling and
Variance 651 Simulation 753
Caiaimage/Glow Images Sonja Flemming/CBS
via Getty Images
Introduction 652
12–1 One-Way Analysis of Variance 652 Introduction 754
12–2 The Scheffé Test, Tukey Test, and Bonferroni 14–1 Common Sampling Techniques 754
Test 666 Random Sampling 755
Scheffé Test 666 Systematic Sampling 757
Tukey Test 667 Stratified Sampling 759
Bonferroni Test 668 Cluster Sampling 761
12–3 Two-Way Analysis of Variance 672 Other Types of Sampling Techniques 761
Summary 687 14–2 Surveys and Questionnaire Design 768
14–3 Simulation Techniques and the Monte Carlo
CHAPTER 13 Method 771
The Monte Carlo Method 771
14–4 Big Data 778
Nonparametric Summary 780
Statistics 697
APPENDICES
Andrew Resek/McGraw Hill
Introduction 698
A Tables 787
ISTUDY
PREFACE
Approach Elementary Statistics: A Step by Step Approach was written as an aid in the beginning
statistics course to students whose mathematical background is limited to basic algebra.
The book follows a nontheoretical approach without formal proofs, explaining concepts
intuitively and supporting them with abundant examples. The applications span a broad
range of topics certain to appeal to the interests of students of diverse backgrounds, and
they include problems in business, sports, health, architecture, education, entertainment,
political science, psychology, history, criminal justice, the environment, transportation,
physical sciences, demographics, and travel and leisure.
Reflecting the Diverse World Around Us
We believe in unlocking the potential of every learner at every stage of life. To accomplish
that, we are dedicated to creating products that reflect, and are accessible to, all the diverse,
global customers we serve. Within McGraw Hill, we foster a culture of belonging and we
work with partners who share our commitment to equity, inclusion, and diversity in all forms.
The eleventh edition of this text received an extensive and thorough audit to ensure
that the examples, applications, and topics referenced throughout support a welcoming
and sensitive experience for all learners and uphold McGraw Hill’s commitment to
equity, inclusion, and diversity.
About This While a number of important changes have been made in the tenth edition, the learning
system remains untouched and provides students with a useful framework in which to
Book learn and apply concepts. Some of the retained features include the following:
• Over 1800 exercises are located at the end of major sections within each chapter.
• Hypothesis-Testing Summaries are found at the end of Chapter 9 (z, t, χ 2, and
F tests for testing means, proportions, and variances), Chapter 12 (correlation,
chi-square, and ANOVA), and Chapter 13 (nonparametric tests) to show students
the different types of hypotheses and the types of tests to use.
• A Data Bank containing real data listing various attributes
(educational level, cholesterol level, sex, etc.) for 100 people
and several additional data sets using real data are included and
referenced in various exercises and projects throughout the book.
Elementary
E levent h Edit ion
Statistics
A STEP BY STEP APPROACH
• End-of-chapter Summaries, Important Terms, and Important
Formulas give students a concise summary of the chapter topics
and provide a good source for quiz or test preparation.
• Review Exercises are found at the end of each chapter.
• Special sections called Data Analysis require students to work
with a data set to perform various statistical tests or procedures
and then summarize the results. The data are included in the
Data Bank in Appendix B.
• Chapter Quizzes, found at the end of each chapter, include
multiple-choice, true/false, and completion questions along with
exercises to test students’ knowledge and comprehension of
chapter content.
ALLAN G. BLUMAN • The Appendixes provide students with extensive reference
tables, a glossary, and answers to all quiz questions and
PROFESSOR EMERITUS
Design Pics/Alamy Stock Photo
COMMUNITY COLLEGE OF ALLEGHENY COUNTY
ISTUDY
x Preface
Chapter Changes
Chapter 1 ∙ New Statistics Today example.
∙ New statistical examples to introduce how statistics are used today.
Chapter 5 ∙ Section 5–3 now includes solving problems using the combination
formula in addition to the binomial formula.
Chapters 7, ∙ These chapters have been revised to allow professors who want to
8, and 9 teach proportions before means to do so. They should cover the first
sections of these chapters and then skip to the proportions sections,
and then do the means sections. For those who prefer to teach
means before proportions, just follow the sequence of the book.
Chapters 8, 9, ∙ These chapters allow professors to teach hypothesis testing using the
10, 11, and 12 P-value. It should be noted that some P-values obtained by technol-
ogy may differ from those in the book since the calculations of
P-values depend on the number of decimal places the technology
uses to compute the test values.
ISTUDY
Preface xi
Acknowledgments
It is important to acknowledge the many people whose contributions have gone into the
Eleventh Edition of Elementary Statistics. Very special thanks are due to Rachel Webb of
Portland State University, who updated the Index of Applications, wrote some new exer-
cises, made changes for inclusion and diversity, and updated the technology sections
throughout, and to Yolanda Parker of Tarrant County College, who accuracy checked the
manuscript.
Finally, at McGraw Hill, thanks to Caroline Celano, Director, Mathematics; Megan
Platt, Product Developer; Emily DiGiovanna, Marketing Manager; and Jane Mohr, Lead
Content Project Manager.
—Allan G. Bluman
Special thanks for their advice and recommendations for the Eleventh Edition go to:
Luis Beltran, Miami Dade College, Kendall Campus Ryan Kasha, Valencia College
Solomon Willis, Cleveland Community College Stephen Toner, Victor Valley College
Nicholas Bianco, Florida Gulf Coast University Alice Martinez, El Camino College
Larry L. Southard, Florida Gulf Coast University Michael Combs, Bunker Hill Community College
Simon Aman, Truman College Nigie Shi, Bakersfield College
Brenda Reed, Navarro College Christopher McCarthy, Borough of Manhattan
Dr. Toni Kasper, Bronx Community College (CUNY) Community College (CUNY)
Adam Molnar, Oklahoma State University Rachel Repyneck, Daytona State College
H Michael Lueke, St. Louis Community College Benjamin Etgen, American River College
Shannon Resweber, Houston Community College Eddie Bishop, Northwest Vista College
Stacey Culp, West Virginia University Jason Samuels, Borough of Manhattan Community
Tracy Leshan, Baltimore City Community College College (CUNY)
Jose Olivo, John Jay College Michael Kaye, Baltimore City Community College
Christine Davidson, Suffolk County Tracy Nguyen, Citrus College
Community College Nelson De La Rosa, Miami Dade College, Kendall
Lisa Crawford, Piedmont Technical College Campus
Genesis Alberto, John Jay College Robert Fusco, Broward College
Alvin Estrada, John Jay College Bridget Dart, Suffolk County Community College
Petal Sumner, Baltimore City Community College Jae Ki Lee, Borough of Manhattan Community
Said Ngobi, Victor Valley College College (CUNY)
Wesley Anderson, Northwest Vista College Kristin Hartford, Long Beach City College
Rebecca Head, Bakersfield College Jeffrey Zahnen, Daytona State College
Mohamad Ali Salim, Long Beach City College Diana Pell, Riverside City College
ISTUDY
A STEP BY STEP APPROACH
7
Confidence Intervals
and Sample Size
STATISTICS TODAY
Stress and the College Student Fuse/Getty Images
Chapte
r8 in Secti finding a confidence interval for the mean.
rule stated
The d ecision 3 Find the confidence interval for the mean
when σ is unknown.
e
P-Valu
sing a
hen U
4 Find the confidence interval for a
u le W th esis. proportion.
nR hypo
Decisio the null othesis.
e ≤ α, reject t th e n ull hyp 5 Determine the minimum sample size for
If P-va
lu
n o t rejec finding a confidence interval for a
, do
lue > α
proportion.
If P-va ur-year
s at a fo 6 Find a confidence interval for a variance
T u it io n ition and fee year public and a standard deviation.
o ll e g e o st o f tu 6 fo u r-
st of C c f3 .
6 Co average om sample o iation is $659
that the nd ev
PLE 8– e claim he selects a ra on standard d ethod.
EXAM th 7–1
s to te st 0. S ula ti e m
a rc her wishe ter than $570 950. The pop Use the P-valu
A rese llege is grea ean to be $5 t α = 0.05? Hundreds of examples with
co m a
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coll e g e s e to su p p rd . detailed solutions serve as models
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SOLU
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e se s and ide > $570 using a step by step explanation,
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ic . display of results.
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ubtr sting
4 in A th e s is Te
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d th e P-valu rmal distributi find the are t io n 8–1
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r
0 − 0 .9887 = to r is 0 .0114.)
1.000 the calc
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is le ss (Tr ix A.
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the P-v ce the P lems m. pend
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8
e T able in g Prob t h e clai l e i n Ap
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ISTUDY Note n io
Decis
31. Pollution By-products The standard deviation of 33. Find the 90% confidence interval of the mean in
the pollution by-products released in the burning of Exercise 15. Is μ contained in the interval?
1 gallon of gas is 2.3 ounces. A random sample of
20 automobiles tested produced a standard deviation
of 1.9 ounces. Is the standard deviation really less than 34. Find the 95% confidence interval for the mean in
previously thought? Use α = 0.05. Exercise 16. Is μ contained in the interval?
Critical
n
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l Dis
trib
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3 Th
of each chapter challenge students toSection 5 – specific value of the mean is hypothesized in the alternative of β.
hypothesis; for example, let H0: μ = 50 and let H1: μ = 52.
apply what they have learned to new To find the power
num
of
bera test, it is necessary to find the value
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the power of a test. See Figure 8 –41.
of β. This r thebe .3done
h focan by the following steps:
situations while deepening conceptual o n grap 4 if p =
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ibuti a lot of ariab
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understanding. ial distr sStep
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m o n = 30.
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struc omp omia of X, using z = ________ , where μ is the hypothesized
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34. e an for σ∕√n
pts o f d m e compute the power of the test. Generalize the
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r
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ISTUDY
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ISTUDY
INDEX OF APPLICATIONS
xvi
ISTUDY
Index of Applications xvii
Teacher Salaries, 124, 186 Manufacturing and Product Playing Video Games, 181 Prison Education, 210
Test Scores, 161, 162, 163, 184 Development Traveler Spending, 145 Reading to Children, 227
Textbooks in Professors’ Comparison of Outdoor Paint, Scholarships, 246, 253
Offices, 181 130, 131, 133 CHAPTER 4 Student Financial Aid, 225
Work Hours for College Printer Repairs, 182 Term Paper Selection, 244
Faculty, 148 Probability and Counting
Marketing, Sales, and Consumer
Behavior Rules Entertainment
Entertainment Casino Games, 203, 249
Earnings of Nonliving Average Cost of Smoking, 185 Buildings and Structures
Child’s Board Game, 228
Celebrities, 125 Average Cost of Weddings, 185 Building a New Home, 211 de Mere Dice Game, 191, 254
Households of Four Television Cost of a Man’s Haircut, 182 Construction Site Inspections, 239 Dominoes, 238
Networks, 181 Delivery Charges, 184 Business, Management, and Work Drawing Cards, 189, 192, 218,
Roller Coasters, 124, 140, 172 Diet Cola Preference, 127 Business Location, 231 222, 225, 227, 249, 299, 305
Super Bowl Commercials, 125 Magazines in Bookstores, 181 Claims Adjuster, 236 Movies, 235, 236, 237, 239,
Top Video Games, 125 Newspapers for Sale, 184 Debt Free, 224 249, 251
Price of Pet Fish, 148 Distribution of CEO Ages, 202 Odds, 203
Environmental Sciences, Earth,
Prices of Musical Employee Health Care Plans, 251 Poker Hands, 239, 245, 247
and Space
Instruments, 148 Job Applications, 246 Radio Show Guests, 232
Air Pollution, 135
Sale Price of Homes, 148 Manufacturing Tests, 237 Radio Station Call Letters, 236
Annual Precipitation, 146
Store Sales, 114 Personnel Classification, 251 Rolling Dice, 189, 192, 211, 225,
Areas of Islands, 175
Chloride Levels, 150 Medicine, Clinical Studies, and Promotions, 224 237, 247, 252
Clear Days in Omaha, Experiments Reasons for Being Fired, 226 School Musical Plays, 232
Nebraska, 124 Ages of Hospital Patients, 126 Reasons for Quitting a Job, 226 Selecting Colored Balls or Chips,
Distances of Stars, 125 Blood Pressure, 144, 153, Research and Development 215, 218, 225, 291
Farm Sizes, 148 181, 186 Employees, 205 State Lottery Number, 244
Hurricane Damage, 163, 175 Daily Caloric Intake, 161 Returning Workers, 209 Tossing a Coin, 199, 202, 215,
Licensed Nuclear Reactors, 118 Determining Dosages, 161, 186 Starting Salaries, 253 228. 255
Major Earthquakes, 119 Doctor Visits, 126 Types of Copy Paper, 250 Video Games, 227
Mean Range of Tides, 125 Hospital Emergency Waiting Unemployed Workers, 217 Wheel Spinner, 202
Named Storms, 182 Times, 147 Work and Weather, 253 Winning a Door Prize, 225
Number of Eclipses, 127 Multiple Births, 145 Demographics and Population Winning Tickets, 246
Number of Tornadoes, 176 Serum Cholesterol Levels, 148 Characteristics Yahtzee, 251
Oil Spills, 124 Sodium Levels, 158 Age and Smoking, 218 Environmental Sciences, Earth,
Size of Dams, 175 Psychology and Human Behavior Blood Types and Rh Factors, and Space
Size of U.S. States, 145 Trials to Learn a Maze, 148 201, 226 Air Pollution, 238
Solid Waste Production, 148 Public Health and Nutrition Children’s Obesity, 200 Apple Production, 211
Space Launches, 121, 140, 146 Calories in Bagels, 147 Distribution of Blood Types, Bad Weather, 250
Tornadoes in the United Cases of Meningitis, 182 196, 229 Endangered Species, 205,
States, 117 Fat Grams, 126 Doctorate Degrees and 209, 237
Unhealthy Smog Days, 176 Counselors, 224 Nuclear Power Plants, 238
Sports, Exercise, and Fitness
Widths of Solar Eclipses, 124 Education of Factory Oil Spill Locations, 201
Marathon Winners, 145
Wind Speeds, 118, 125 Employees, 253 Plant Selection, 247
Miles Run per Week, 138
Education Level and Sources of Energy Uses in the
Food and Dining Speeds of the Daytona 500
Smoking, 250 United States, 201
Citrus Fruit Consumption, 148 Winners, 146
Eye Color, 253
Fast-Food Expenditures, 161 Sugar Bowl Winner Scores, 145 Food and Dining
Family Size, 197
Hidden Chemicals in Beer, 171 Technology Banquet Meal Choices, 253
Gender of Children, 190, 192, 201
Pizza Delivery, 161 Internet Usage, 114, 131, 147 Breakfast Drink, 249
Living Arrangements for
Specialty Coffee Shops, 126 Texts Sent Daily, 146 Buffet Desserts, 238
Children, 202
Government, Taxes, Politics, Visitors to Websites, 117 Inspecting Restaurants, 237
Male Color Blindness, 216
Public Policy, and Voting Pizzas and Salads, 226
Transportation Marital Status of Women, 227
Cigarette Taxes, 145 Purchasing a Pizza, 211
Airplane Speeds, 162 Names for Boys, 251
Congressional Travel Snack Foods, 209
Annual Miles Driven, 162 Population of Midwestern
Expenses, 176 States, 210
Automobile Selling Prices, 126 Government, Taxes, Politics,
Medical Marijuana 2015 Sales Selecting a State, 201 Public Policy, and Voting
Congested Urban Areas, 175
Tax, 163 War Veterans, 250 Committee Selection, 235, 238
Cost of Car Rentals, 181
Taxes, 163 Federal Government Revenue, 202
Costs of Automobile Repairs, 162 Education and Testing
History Gas Prices for Rental Cars, 185 Mail Delivery, 210
College Courses, 202, 226
Children of U.S. Presidents, 126 How Long Are You Delayed by Municipality Partisanship, 246
College Debt, 201
Road Congestion?, 111, 183 Selecting Council Members, 239
Law and Order: Criminal Justice College Degrees Awarded, 208
Miles per Gallon, 184 Terms of Office, 226
Calls Received By a 911 College Enrollment, 228, 229, 251
Passenger Vehicle Deaths, 146 Territorial Selection, 251
Operator, 126 Computers in Elementary
Road Service Times, 146 Wild Fires, 224
Fire Calls, 146 Schools, 201
Police Calls, 182 Travel and Leisure Doctoral Assistantships, 227 Law and Order: Criminal Justice
Sentences for Crimes, 119 Airplane Seats, 125 High School Library, 236 Crimes Committed, 201
Traffic Violations, 155 eBooks, 161 Online Course Selection, 249 Guilty or Innocent?, 223
ISTUDY
xviii Index of Applications
People Who Did Not Show Up for Leisure Time Exercise, 226 Unmarried Women, 304 Sentencing Intoxicated Drivers,
Their Trials, 210 Playing Tennis, 206, 245 Economics and Investment 281
Prison Populations, 224, 225 Sports Teams, 237 Benford’s Law, 272 Study of Robberies, 298
Manufacturing and Product Surveys and Culture Bond Investment, 271 U.S. Police Chiefs and the Death
Development Child Care, 227 Penalty, 304
Education and Testing
Automobile and Truck Survey on Women and Household Children’s Behavior, 284 Manufacturing and Product
Repairs, 237 Tasks, 221 Dropping College Courses, Development
Automobiles Sold, 247 263, 308 Automobile Sales, 264
Technology
Defective Items, 225, 244, Extracurricular Activities, Defective Calculators, 299
Cell Phone Models, 237
246, 250 272, 273 Defective Compressor Tanks, 295
Software Selection, 249
Factory Output, 250 Lessons Outside of School, 300 Defective Computer
Flashlight Batteries, 225 Transportation Keyboards, 299
Mathematics Tutoring Center, 264
Garage Door Openers, 236 Automobile Color, 201 Defective Electronics, 299
People Who Have Some College
Shirt Package Inspection, 238 Automobile Insurance, 225 Defective USB Flash Drives, 305
Education, 283
Driving Time, 195 Quality Control Check, 306
Marketing, Sales, and Teachers and Summer
Driving While Intoxicated, 207 Water System Valves, 266
Consumer Behavior Vacation, 300
Fatal Accidents, 227
Appliance Ownership, 253 Entertainment Marketing, Sales, and Consumer
License Plates, 230, 250, 251
Background Color, 237 Amusement Park Game, 299 Behavior
Licensed Drivers in the United
Commercials, 228 Card Game, 304 Advertising, 283
States, 210
Customer Purchases, 226 Chuck-a-Luck, 307 Auto Repair Insurance, 299
Motor Vehicle Accidents, 202
Free-Sample Requests, 237 Coins, Births, and Other Random Bicycle Sales, 272
Motor Vehicle Producers, 249
Gift Baskets, 226 (?) Events, 262 Cans of Paint Purchased, 304
New Cars, 249
Lawnmower and Weed Wacker Grab Bags, 272 Car Sales, 305
Parking Tickets, 221
Ownership, 249 Lottery Numbers, 307 Color of Raincoats, 307
Railroad Accidents, 238
Neckties, 223 Lottery Prizes, 273 Company Mailing, 299
Riding to School, 209
New-Car Warranty, 253 Poker Chips, 270 Credit Cards, 303
Rural Speed Limits, 201
On-Time Arrivals, 227 Roulette, 273 Customers in a Bank, 304
Seat Belt Use, 224
Purchasing Sweaters, 249 Song Downloads, 264 Facebook Visits, 290
Types of Vehicles, 228
Sales, 225 Watching Fireworks, 284 Internet Purchases, 284
Test Marketing Products, 238 Travel and Leisure Life Insurance, 273
Winning a Prize, 299
Bowling and Club Music Purchases, 306
Medicine, Clinical Studies, Winning the Lottery, 273
Membership, 253 Online Ordering, 299
and Experiments Winning Tickets, 270
Carry-on Items, 250 Phone Customers, 304
Autism, 227 Environmental Sciences, Earth,
Country Club Activities, 225 Promotional Campaign, 273
Chronic Sinusitis, 250 and Space
Cruise Ship Activities, 253 Shoe Purchases, 303
Contracting a Disease, 254 Alternate Sources of Fuel, 284
Family Photograph, 231 Successful Sales, 267
Doctor Specialties, 226 Garbage Disposal, 272
Magazine Articles, 236
Effectiveness of a Vaccine, 250 Household Wood Burning, 304 Medicine, Clinical Studies, and
Travel over the Thanksgiving
Emergency Room and Medical Radiation Exposure, 271 Experiments
Holiday, 196
Tests, 210 Tornados, 264 Drug Prescriptions, 298
Health and Wellness, 255 Flu Shots, 304
Food and Dining
Heart Attacks, 253 CHAPTER 5 High Blood Pressure, 283
Coffee Shop Customers, 290
Heart Disease, 225 Pooling Blood Samples, 257, 305
Medical Patients, 211
Discrete Probability Coffee with Meals, 272
Sleep Disorders, 283
Distributions Dinner Beverage, 298
Medical Specialties, 209 Psychology and Human Behavior
Items Donated to a Food
Medical Treatment, 202 Business, Management, and Work Calls for a Crisis Hotline, 306
Bank, 305
Medication Effectiveness, 227 Accounting Errors, 305 Popping Bubble Wrap, 284
M&M’s Color Distribution, 298
Medications for Depression, 237 Assistant Manager
Pizza for Breakfast, 304 Sports, Exercise, and Fitness
Prescription Drugs, 201 Applicants, 294
Pizza Sales, 264 Catching Fish, 272
Which Pain Reliever Is Best?, 208 Employed College Students, 306
Unsanitary Restaurants, 282 Goals in Hockey, 264
Family Farming, 273
Psychology and Human Behavior Government, Taxes, Politics, Scoring Touchdowns. 272
Job Applicants, 299
Children’s Role Models, 209 Public Policy, and Voting Sports Score Hot Line Calls, 307
Job Elimination, 284
Selecting a Dog or Cat, 207 Accuracy Count of Votes, 305 Throwing Darts, 299
Successful Sales, 260
Smiling People, 224 Income Tax Errors, 306 Treadmill Mileage, 272
Typographical Errors, 292
Would You Bet Your Life?, Poverty and the Federal
Work versus Conscience, 300 Surveys and Culture
187, 251 Government, 284 Shower or Bath Preferences, 300
Demographics and Population
Public Health and Nutrition Characteristics History Survey on Bathing Pets, 284
Healthy Eating, 225 Alcohol Abstainers, 307 Rockets and Targets, 297 Survey on Employment, 278
Obesity, 216 American and Foreign-Born Law and Order: Criminal Justice Survey on Fear of Being Home
Sports, Exercise, and Fitness Citizens, 284 Calls for a Fire Company, 306 Alone at Night, 279
Baseball Players, 250 Blood Types, 296, 300, 307 Emergency Calls, 303 Survey on Pet Ownership, 278
Batting Order, 236 Language Spoken at Home by the Households Touched by Crime, 299 Survey on Pudgy Dogs, 295
Exercise Preference, 249 U.S. Population, 283 Prior Sentences, 269 Technology
Football Team Selection, 247 Left-Handed People, 293 Prison Inmates, 283, 284 Cell Phones per Household, 306
Health Club Membership, 250 Runaways, 284 School Violence, 283 Computer Assistance, 305
ISTUDY
Index of Applications xix
Computer Games, 264 Exam Scores, 336, 338, 339, Medicine, Clinical Studies, and Falling Asleep While
Internet Access via Cell Phone, 351, 366 Experiments Driving, 355
304 High School Competency Back Injuries, 359 Miles Driven Annually, 337
Toll-Free Telephone Calls, 292 Test, 338 Delivery Costs, 351 Parking Lot Construction, 360
Private Four-Year College Heart Rates, 337 Passengers on a Bus, 364
The Sciences
Enrollment, 362 Lengths of Hospital Stays, 338 Potholes, 337
Elm Trees, 307
Reading Improvement Liters of Blood in Adults, 327 Times to Travel to School, 350
Mendel’s Theory, 298
Program, 338 Migraine Headaches, 352
Transportation Travel and Leisure
Salary of Full Professors, 337 Normal Ranges for Vital
Arrivals at an Airport, 304 Mountain Climbing Safety, 358
School Enrollment, 359 Statistics, 309, 363
Carpooling, 306 Thickness of Library Books, 364
Smart People, 336 Per Capita Spending on Health
Driver’s Exam, 306 Care, 361
Teachers’ Salaries in North
Driving While Intoxicated, 280 Prescription Drug Abuse, 359 CHAPTER 7
Dakota, 351
Emissions Inspection Reducing Heart Disease, 359
Failures, 299
TIMSS Test, 352 Confidence Intervals and
Years to Complete a Graduate Systolic Blood Pressure, 332, Sample Size
Roadside Emergency, 307 338, 365
Program, 364
Self-Driving Automobile, 304 Weight of a Male Brain, 329 Buildings and Structures
Sports Utility Vehicles, 272 Entertainment Home Fires Started by
Box Office Revenues, 339 Psychology and Human Behavior Candles, 386
Traffic Accidents, 272
Drive-in Movies, 339 Dangerous Drinking, 338
Travel and Leisure Business, Management, and Work
Hours That Children Watch Pet Valentine’s Gifts, 351
Boating Accidents, 305 Dog Bites to Postal Workers, 408
Television, 346 Risky Driving Habits, 338
Bowling Team Uniforms, 306 Employee Pay, 396
Movie Ticket Prices, 351 Sleep Time, 339
Lost Luggage in Airlines, 305 Female Executives, 397
Netflix Decisions, 336 Unpleasant Shopping, 359
Outdoor Regatta, 304 Inflating Job Skills, 396
Slot Machine Earnings, 361 Public Health and Nutrition
Swimming Pool Services, 283 Monthly Income of D.C.
Slot Machines, 362 Calories in Fast-Food Sand-
Travel Opportunities, 283 Workers, 387
Environmental Sciences, Earth, wiches, 365 Number of Jobs, 379
Vacation Planning, 284
and Space Catching Up on Sleep, 351 Salaries for Web Designers, 404
Amount of Rain in a City, 364 Chocolate Bar Calories, 336
CHAPTER 6 Cholesterol Content, 352
Demographics and Population
Average Precipitation, 362 Characteristics
The Normal Distribution Electric Bills, 364 Sodium in Frozen Food, 362
Ages of Insurance
Buildings and Structures Heights of Active Volcanoes, 362 Sports, Exercise, and Fitness Representatives, 410
New Home Prices, 338 Monthly Precipitation for Number of Baseball Games Divorce Rates, 379
New Home Sizes, 338 Miami, 352 Played, 334 Marriages in the United States, 408
Monthly Recycling, 328 Number of Runs Made, 339
Business, Management, and Work Economics and Investment
Water Use, 351
Multiple-Job Holders, 362 Surveys and Culture Credit Union Assets, 376
Number of Bank Branches, 320 Food and Dining Sleep Survey, 364 Holiday Credit Card Bills, 404
Retirement Income, 362 Bottled Drinking Water, 338 Home Ownership Rates, 404
Technology
Salaries for Actuaries, 361 Confectionary Products, 362 Stock Prices, 388, 404
Computer Ownership, 364
Working Weekends, 348 Mistakes in Restaurant Bills, 359
Cost of Personal Computers, 338 Education and Testing
Uber Rides, 336 Skipping Breakfast, 374
Cost of Smartphone Repair, 361 Adult Educational Activities, 408
Unemployment, 364 Sports Drink Consumption, 364
Digital Content Viewing, 352 Child Care Programs, 408
Demographics and Population Government, Taxes, Politics, Email Times Spent by College Dropout Rates, 395
Characteristics Public Policy, and Voting Americans, 351 Cost of Texts, 410
Ages of Proofreaders, 352 Cigarette Taxes, 339 Household Online Connection, 364 Covering College Costs, 392
Eyeball Measurement, 338 Medicare Hospital Insurance, 352 Internet Browsers, 359 Day Care Tuition, 380
Heights of People, 364 Social Security Payments, 339 Internet Users, 339 Freshmen GPAs, 379
Home Robots, 359 Law and Order: Criminal Justice Monthly Spending for Paging and High School Graduates Who Take
Life Expectancies, 352 Larceny Thefts, 362 Messaging Services, 361 the SAT, 396
New Residences, 351 Police Academy Screen Time, 337 Hours Spent Studying, 410
Population of College Cities, 359 Qualifications, 331 Smartphone Ownership, 364 SAT Scores, 404
Residences of U.S. Citizens, 360 Population in U.S. Jails, 336 Wireless Sound System Student Discipline Problems, 379
U.S. Population, 362 Lifetimes, 362 Undergraduate GPAs, 380
Manufacturing and Product
Widows, 397 The Sciences
Development Entertainment
Economics and Investment Breaking Strength of Steel Cat Behavior, 337 Lengths of Children’s Animated
Financial Burden for a Cable, 353 Newborn Elephant Weights, 337 Films, 408, 409
Divorce, 337 Life of Smoke Detectors, 351 Ragweed Allergies, 356 Environmental Sciences, Earth,
Monthly Mortgage Payments, 336 Repair Cost for Microwave Weights of Florida Manatees, 338 and Space
Education and Testing Ovens, 364 Transportation Length of Growing Seasons, 380
Back to College Expenses, 353 Wristwatch Lifetimes, 338 Ages of Amtrak Passenger Named Storms, 402
Changing Majors, 357 Marketing, Sales, and Consumer Cars, 338 Number of Farms, 380
College Graduates’ Starting Behavior Automobile Insurance, 351 Thunderstorm Speeds, 388
Salaries, 337 Credit Card Debt, 336, 337 Commute Time, 337, 361 Travel to Outer Space, 396
Enrollment in Personal Finance Mail Order, 359 Commuter Train Passengers, 361 Unhealthy Days in Cities, 388
Course, 362 Technology Inventories, 333 Cost of Parking, 352 Water Temperature, 380
ISTUDY
xx Index of Applications
Food and Dining Indy 500 Qualifier Speeds, 388 Stocks and Mutual Fund Marketing, Sales, and
Cost of Pizzas, 380 U.S. Fitness Guidelines, 397 Ownership, 458 Consumer Behavior
Eating Times, 404 Surveys and Culture
Automobile Ownership, 436, 444
Education and Testing
Microwave Cooking, 396 Belief in Haunted Places, 396 Consumer Protection Agency
College Room and Board
Cat Owners, 408 Complaints, 479
Government, Taxes, Politics, Costs, 471
Public Policy, and Voting Does Success Bring Cost of Rolex Watches, 435
Cost of College Tuition, 432
Money Spent on Road Happiness?, 395 Shopper Purchases, 482
Costs of College Textbooks, 436
Repairs, 410 Political Survey, 410 Debt of College Graduates, 482 Medicine, Clinical Studies,
Parking Meter Revenue, 388 Shopping Survey, 408 Doctoral Students’ Salaries, 459 and Experiments
State Gasoline Taxes, 387 Survey on Politics, 397 Exam Grades, 471 Caesarean Babies, 455
Women Representatives in State How Much Better is Better on the Cost of Braces, 449
Technology
Legislature, 387 SAT?, 413, 483 Doctor Visits, 450
Home Computers, 395
History IQ Test, 465 Female Physicians, 458
Home Internet Access, 397
Ages of Presidents at Time Medical School Choices, 482 Hospital Infections, 444
Internet Viewing, 380
of Death, 403 SAT Tests, 429 Outpatient Surgery, 466
Land Line Phones, 394
Student Expenditures, 436 Response Times for EMS
Law and Order: Criminal Justice Smartphone Ownership, 396
Teaching Assistants’ Stipends, 450 Vehicles, 450
Assault Victims, 391 Social Networking Sites, 388
Undergraduate Enrollment, 458 Sunlight after Surgery, 448
Automobile Thefts, 378 Television Set Ownership, 411
Time Until Indigestion Relief, 482
Burglaries, 410 The Sciences Entertainment Waiting Times for Family
Gun Control, 397 Life Expectancy of Cats, 385 eBooks, 471 Physicians, 449
Retail Thefts, 404 Length of Songs, 471
Transportation Psychology and Human Behavior
Manufacturing and Product Ages of Automobiles, 402 Movie Admission Prices, 436, 483
Black and White Dreams, 454
Development Automobile Pollution, 411 Moviegoers, 435
Chewing Gum Use, 485
Baseball Diameters, 408 Manual Transmission Newspaper Reading Times, 480
Facebook Friends, 435
Calculator Battery Lifetimes, 404 Automobiles, 396 Television Set Ownership, 458
Money Arguments, 458
How Many Tissues Should Be in Miles Driven Per Day, 380 Television Viewing by Teens, 449
Quitting Smoking, 457
a Box?, 379 Motorcycle Noise, 379 Trifecta Winnings, 482
Returned Money, 458
Lifetimes of Snowmobiles, 409 Parking Costs in Dallas, 388 Environmental Sciences, Earth,
Public Health and Nutrition
MPG for Lawn Mowers, 408 Self-Driving Cars, 393 and Space
Caffeine in Tea Bags, 435
Marketing, Sales, and Consumer Truck Safety Check, 411 Farm Sizes, 437
Calories in Pancake Syrup, 471
Behavior Weights of Minivans, 410 Heights of Volcanoes, 471
Carbohydrates in Fast-Foods, 470
Christmas Presents, 380 High Temperatures in
Travel and Leisure Chocolate Chip Cookie
Costs for a 30-Second Spot on Best-Selling Books, 404 January, 471
Calories, 449
Cable Television, 388 Novel Pages, 411 Natural Gas Heat, 458
Cigarette Smoking, 449
Graduation Gifts, 387, 396 Overseas Travel, 397 Pollution By-products, 486
Eggs and Your Health, 426
Number of Credit Cards, 408 Vacation Days, 388, 408 Tornado Deaths, 471
Nicotine Content of Cigarettes,
Medicine, Clinical Studies, Vacation Sites, 408 Warming and Ice Melt, 435
448, 467
and Experiments Wind Speed, 433
Not Eating Breakfast, 431, 485
Blood Pressure, 408 CHAPTER 8 Food and Dining Vitamin C in Fruits and
Doctor Visit Costs, 410 Calories in Cheeseburgers, 470 Vegetables, 471
Emergency Room Patients, 410 Hypothesis Testing Soft Drink Consumption, 436 Youth Smoking, 459, 483
Eye Blinks, 408 Buildings and Structures Government, Taxes, Politics, Sports, Exercise, and Fitness
Hospital Noise Levels, 380, 388 Cost of Building a Home, 435 Public Policy, and Voting Exercise, 458
Psychology and Human Behavior Business, Management, and Work IRS Audits, 480 Exercise to Reduce Stress, 459
Checking on a Pet, 396 Copy Machine Use, 436 Lifetime of $1 Bills, 482 Football Injuries, 459
Emergency Escape Plan, 396 Hourly Wage, 437 Replacing $1 Bills with $1 Games Played by NBA Scoring
Stress and the College Student, Men Aged 65 and Over in the Coins, 455 Leaders, 483
369, 409 Labor Force, 483 Law and Order: Criminal Justice Golf Scores, 471
Public Health and Nutrition Number of Jobs, 450 Ages of Robbery Victims, 485 Joggers’ Oxygen Uptake, 447
Amount of Candy Consumed, 374 Sick Days, 437 Attorney Advertisements, 456 Treadmills, 540
Calories in a Standard Size Candy Times for a Bicycle Commute Bank Robberies, 475 Surveys and Culture
Bar, 404 to Work, 449 Car Thefts, 434 Caffeinated Beverage Survey, 485
Calories in Candy Bars, 387 Working at Home, 480 Federal Prison Populations, 483 Legalized Marijuana, 458
Carbohydrates in Yogurt, 404 Demographics and Population Police Officer Salaries, 450 Life Satisfaction, 459
Daily Cholesterol Intake, 404 Characteristics Prison Sentences, 436 Survey on Vitamin Usage, 485
Diet Habits, 397 Ages of Professional Women, 485 Prison Time, 480 Technology
Insomnia Sufferers, 388 Average Family Size, 450 Speeding Tickets, 437 Cell Phone Bills, 450
Overweight Men, 379 First-Time Births, 480 Manufacturing and Product Devel- Cell Phone Call Lengths, 450
Sick Co-workers, 397 First-Time Marriages, 485 opment Cell Phone Ownership, 483
Skipping Meals, 374, 411 Heights of 1-Year-Olds, 436 Breaking Strength of Cable, 437 Computer Repair Costs, 450
Sport Drink Decision, 386 Heights of Models, 485 Soda Bottle Content, 470 Internet Visits, 449
Sports, Exercise, and Fitness Economics and Investment Strength of Wrapping Cord, 486 Smartphone Ownership, 485
Dance Company Students, 388 Car Payments, 471 Weights on Men’s Soccer Telephone Calls, 436
Football Kicks, 404 Home Closing Costs, 485 Shoes, 482 Transferring Phone Calls, 470
ISTUDY
Index of Applications xxi
The Sciences Economics and Investment Hospital Chief Executives, 500 CHAPTER 10
Hog Weights, 476 Bank Deposits, 514 Hospital Stays for Maternity
Hours Dogs Sleep, 437 Daily Stock Prices, 541 Patients, 508
Correlation and Regression
Plant Leaf Lengths, 483 Non-Mortgage Debt, 504 Is More Expensive Better?, 527 Buildings and Structures
Seed Germination Times, 486 Length of Hospital Stays, 499 Heights of Buildings, 554, 558, 570
Education and Testing
Whooping Crane Eggs, 482 Ages of College Students, 500 Medical Supply Sales, 530 Business, Management, and Work
Transportation Attention Spans, 540 Noise Levels in Hospitals, 539, 546 Typing Speed and Word
Automobiles Purchased, 458 Average Earnings for College Obstacle Course Times, 520 Processing, 608
Car Inspection Times, 469 Graduates, 501, 545 Patient Times with Medical Demographics and Population
Daily Driving, 436 College Education, 530 Practitioners, 508 Characteristics
Experience of Taxi Drivers, 485 Essay Lengths, 507 Physical Therapy, 520, 545 Age and Cavities, 610
First-Class Airline Factory Worker Literacy Pulse Rates of Identical Age, GPA, and Income, 602
Passengers, 459 Rates, 548 Twins, 520 Children, 577
Fuel Consumption, 483 Grade Point Averages, 536 Vaccination Rates in Nursing
Economics and Investment
Hours in Traffic, 429 High School Graduation Homes, 489, 525, 546
Imports and Exports, 566, 575
Interstate Speeds, 471 Rates, 530 Working Breath Rate, 500
Education and Testing
One-Way Airfares, 480 Improving Study Habits, 519 Psychology and Human Behavior
Absences and Final Grades, 554,
Stopping Distances, 436 Lay Teachers in Religious Bedroom Sanctuary, 529
559, 571, 573, 577
Testing Gas Mileage Claims, 469 Schools, 546 Bullying, 531
Alumni Contributions, 566, 575
Tire Inflation, 483 Literacy Scores, 500 Love at First Sight, 529
Aspects of Students’ Academic
Transmission Service, 437 Mathematical Skills, 548 Marriage Difficulties, 529
Behavior, 603
Travel Times to Work, 482 Out-of-State Tuitions, 508 Self-Esteem, 500, 520
Class Size and Grades, 567, 576
Travel and Leisure Teachers’ Salaries, 498, 540 Smoking and Education, 528
Faculty and Students, 566, 575
Borrowing Library Books, 459 Test Scores, 501, 519, 541 Success of Parenting, 530
Final Exam Rates, 565, 575
Hotel Rooms, 485 Testing After Review, 546 Toy Assembly Test, 520
Hours Watching Videos and GPA,
Number of Words in a Novel, 449 Undergraduate Financial Aid, 530 Public Health and Nutrition 566, 575
Pages in Romance Novels, 485 Entertainment Calories in Ice Cream, 540 More Math Means More
Gambling, 546 Carbohydrates in Candy, 507, 540 Money, 602
Hours Spent Watching Television, Cholesterol Levels, 516, 547 SAT Scores, 576
CHAPTER 9 508, 529 Fast-Food Restaurants, 536 State Board Scores, 600, 601
Testing the Difference Movies, 530 Hypertension, 529
Entertainment
Between Two Means, Two Environmental Sciences, Earth, Sodium Content in Food, 495,
American Concert Tours, 567, 576
Proportions, and Two and Space 497, 498, 546
Commercial Movie Releases,
Air Quality, 519 Soft Drinks in School, 545
Variances 566, 575
Temperatures, 545 Sports, Exercise, and Fitness Television Viewers, 577
Buildings and Structures Waterfall Heights, 507 Batting Averages, 509
Ages of Homes, 508 Winter Temperatures, 540 College Sports Offerings, 496
Environmental Sciences, Earth,
Heights of Tall Buildings, 540 and Space
Government, Taxes, Politics, Heights of Basketball Players, 548 Coal Production, 576
Heights of World Famous Hockey’s Highest Scorers, 508
Public Policy, and Voting Deaths from Lightning, 608
Cathedrals, 546 Home Runs, 497, 509
Money Spent on Road Repair, 548 Farm Acreage, 576
Home Prices, 501 Miniature Golf Scores, 509
Monthly Social Security Forest Fires and Acres Burned,
Room Rental Fees, 547 Overweight Dogs, 520
Benefits, 499 566, 575
Business, Management, and Work Presidential Addresses, 507 PGA Golf Scores, 520 Nuclear Reactors, 567, 576
Animal Bites of Postal Tax-Exempt Properties, 507 Professional Golfers’ Wind Speeds, 555, 560
Workers, 529 Earnings, 508
Law and Order: Criminal Justice Food and Dining
Interview Errors, 530 Surveys and Culture
Victims of Violence, 529 Special Occasion Cakes, 602
Too Long on the Telephone, 506 Smoking Survey, 530
Workers with College Degrees, 529 Manufacturing and Product Devel- Government, Taxes, Politics,
opment
Valentine’s Day, 530
Public Policy, and Voting
Demographics and Population
Battery Voltage, 500 The Sciences State Debt and Per Capita Tax,
Characteristics
Recharging Batteries, 520 Egg Production, 548 566, 575
Ages of Gamblers, 507
Weights of Running Shoes, Wolf Pack Pups, 539
Census, 526 Law and Order: Criminal Justice
507, 540 Transportation Can Temperature Predict Crime?,
County Size in Indiana and
Iowa, 540 Marketing, Sales, and Consumer Airline On-Time Arrivals, 530 551, 609
Family Incomes, 548 Behavior Airport Passengers, 537 Manufacturing and Product
Heights of 9-Year-Olds, 499 Number of Cars a Person Automatic Transmissions, 538 Development
Male Head of Household, 548 Owns, 499 Commuting Times, 499, 500 Automobiles and Light Commercial
Medical School Enrollments, 508 Prices of a Used Car, 499 Gasoline Prices, 508 Vehicles, 567, 575
Never Married People, 530 Prices of Salad Dressings, 547 Highway Safety, 492 Copy Machine Maintenance
Per Capita Income, 499 Sales Training, 521 Urban Auto Traffic, 507 Costs, 592
Population and Area, 540 Shopping Times, 541 Travel and Leisure Marketing, Sales, and
Receptionists’ Salaries, 545 Store Sales, 501 Driving for Pleasure, 545 Consumer Behavior
Salaries of Salespeople, 547 Medicine, Clinical Studies, Jet Ski Accidents, 547 Advertisements, 639
Years Married before and Experiments Leisure Time, 529 Customer Satisfaction and
Divorce, 499 Can Video Games Save Lives?, 518 Museum Attendance, 541 Purchases, 608
ISTUDY
xxii Index of Applications
Internet Use and Isolation, 608 Food and Dining CHAPTER 12 Medicine, Clinical Studies,
Participation in Gambling, 639 Consumption of Takeout and Experiments
Product Sales, 611 Foods, 648 Analysis of Variance Can Bringing Your Dog to Work
Puppy Cuteness and Cost, 608 Fast-Food, 623 Buildings and Structures Reduce Stress?, 651, 690
Shipping, 567, 576 Favorite Ice Cream Flavor, 648 Home Building Times, 682 Diets and Exercise Programs, 692
Genetically Modified Food, 623 Lengths of Various Types of Effects of Different Types of
Medicine, Clinical Studies,
and Experiments Skittles Color Distribution, 650 Bridges, 688 Diets, 690
Air Pollution and Memory, Types of Pizza Purchased, 649 Tall Buildings, 657 Emergency Room Visits, 670
567, 576 Government, Taxes, Politics, Business, Management, and Work Sleeping and Medical Costs, 661
Blood Pressure and Sodium Public Policy, and Voting Days Called in Sick, 671 Psychology and Human Behavior
Content, 566, 575 Tax Credit Refunds, 649 Weekly Unemployment Adult Children of Alcoholics, 692
Fireworks and Injuries, 576 Voter Issues, 624 Benefits, 671 Colors That Make You Smarter,
Nursing Home Satisfaction, 602 Law and Order: Criminal Justice Demographics and Population 659, 670
Prescription Drug Prices, 610 Ages of Crime Victims, 624 Characteristics Public Health and Nutrition
Public Health and Nutrition Arrests for Crimes, 616 Ages of Late-Night TV Talk Calories in Fast-Food
Age, Cholesterol, and Crime Weapons, 624 Show Viewers, 691 Sandwiches, 661
Sodium, 603 Firearm Deaths, 619, 624 Maternity Leaves, 672 Carbohydrates in Cereals, 689
Fat and Cholesterol, 610 Gun Sale Denials, 646 Matrimonial Rings, 661 Fiber Content of Foods, 671
Protein and Diastolic Blood Kids and Guns, 623 Economics and Investment Grams of Fat per Serving of
Pressure, 608 Mall Crimes, 638 Alumni Gift Solicitation, 692 Pizza, 689
Water and Carbohydrates, 566, 575 Reasons for Workplace Debts of U.S. Citizens, 672 Iron Content of Foods and
Violence, 624 Drinks, 689
Sports, Exercise, and Fitness Education and Testing
Violent Crimes, 638 Sodium Content of Foods, 660
NHL Wins and Points, 567 Average Debt of College
Soccer, 577 Marketing, Sales, and Consumer Weight Gain of Athletes, 660
Graduates, 662
Behavior
Transportation Expenditures per Pupil, 660, 671 Transportation
Coffee Flavors, 624 Gasoline Consumption, 676
Accidents and Drivers’ Ages, 565, Number of Pupils in a Class, 671
Merchandise Returns, 624 Gasoline Prices, 691
574, 608, 610 Review Preparation for
Pennant Colors Purchased, 649 Hours Spent in Traffic, 660
Stopping Distances, 564, 574 Statistics, 690
Puzzle Books, 624 Hybrid Vehicles, 660
Soap Bubble Experiments
Medicine, Clinical Studies, and (and Math), 681 Miles per Gallon, 655
CHAPTER 11 Experiments Parking Prices, 671
Environmental Sciences, Earth,
Cardiovascular Procedures, 647
Other Chi-Square Tests Disabling Injuries, 638
and Space
Air Pollution, 691 CHAPTER 13
Business, Management, and Work Effectiveness of a New Drug, 639
CO2 Emissions, 689
Displaced Workers, 646 Fathers in the Delivery Room, 640
Increasing Plant Growth, 681
Nonparametric Statistics
Employment of High School Hospitals and Cesarean Delivery Buildings and Structures
Number of State Parks, 689
Females, 646 Rates, 639 Bridge Spans, 727
Temperatures in January, 689
Employment Satisfaction, 649 Hospitals and Infections, 631 Home Prices, 749
Job Loss Reasons, 648 Influenza and Age, 640 Government, Taxes, Politics,
Tall Buildings, 728, 740
Out of Work, 638 Organ Transplantation, 638 Public Policy, and Voting
Unemployment Time and Type Risk of Injury, 646 Lengths of Presidential Business, Management, and Work
Speeches, 661 Job Offers for Chemical
of Industry, 638 Type of Medicine, 639
Lifetime of Federal Reserve Engineers, 727
Demographics and Population Psychology and Human Behavior
Bills, 661 Job Satisfaction, 715
Characteristics Does Color Affect Your Weekly Earnings of Women, 706
Voters in Presidential
Accidents and Gender, 638 Appetite?, 641
Elections, 691 Demographics and Population
Blood Types, 623 Happiness and Income, 635
Law and Order: Criminal Justice Characteristics
Home Heating, 618 Sports, Exercise, and Fitness
Phone Scams, 660 Ages at First Marriage for
Living Arrangements, 637, 647 Athletic Status and Sports, 639
School Incidents Involving Women, 706
Media and News, 640 Youth Physical Fitness, 639
Police Calls, 689 Ages of Substance Abuse
Pet Owners, 638
Technology Program Participants, 736
Economics and Investment Satellite Dishes in Restricted Manufacturing and Product
Birth Registry, 750
Pension Investments, 646 Development
Areas, 637 Gender of Train Passengers, 736
Durability of Paint, 682
Education and Testing TikTok Visitors, 639 Number of Libraries, 715
Environmentally Friendly Air
Foreign Language Speaking The Sciences
Freshener, 682 Economics and Investment
Dorms, 639 Overweight Dogs, 640 Types of Outdoor Paint, 682 Gold Reserves, 707
Student Majors at Colleges, 638 Statistics and Heredity, 613, 647 Stock Market, 741
Marketing, Sales, and Consumer
Entertainment Transportation Behavior Education and Testing
State Lottery Numbers, 624 Automobile Ownership, 638 Age and Sales, 682 Classroom Absences, 721
Television Viewing, 648 Traffic Accident Fatalities, 646 Automobile Sales Exam Scores, 707, 747, 748
Type of Music Preferred, 646 Truck Colors, 623 Techniques, 680 Expenditures for Pupils, 727
Environmental Sciences, Earth,
Vehicle Leasing, 633 Leading Businesses, 659 Funding and Enrollment for Head
and Space Ways to Get to Work, 648 Microwave Oven Prices, 661 Start Students, 750
Old Tires, 623 Travel and Leisure Prices of Body Soap, 691 Hours Worked by Student
Tornadoes, 646 Thanksgiving Travel, 640 Sales for Leading Companies, 671 Employees, 747
ISTUDY
Index of Applications xxiii
ISTUDY
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ISTUDY
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ISTUDY
ISTUDY
The Nature
1
of Probability
and Statistics
STATISTICS TODAY
How Much Do You Owe? Monkey Business Images/Shutterstock
1–1
ISTUDY
2 Chapter 1 The Nature of Probability and Statistics
Introduction
You may be familiar with probability and statistics through radio, television, newspapers,
magazines, and the Internet. For example, you may have read statements like the follow-
ing found on social media.
If you work indoors, you need to work out 30 minutes longer to get the same benefits
of working outdoors.
Source: WebMD
A study by Wayne State University found that older drivers are much worse than
U n u s u a l Stats younger drivers when texting while driving.
Of people in the United A bipolar disorder results in, on average, 9.2 years’ reduction in the expected life span of
States, 14% said that those who have the disorder as compared to those who do not suffer from this disorder.
they feel happiest in
A recent study found that people who are in a close relationship may have a lower
June, and 14% said that
risk of heart disease than those who are in a negative relationship.
they feel happiest in
December. A survey by Cengage found that 43% of college students say that they have skipped
meals in order to afford the cost of college course materials.
Forty-nine percent of U.S. adults think that they could become a victim of identity theft.
Source: Experian Identity Works Survey
Statistics is used in almost all fields of human endeavor. In sports, for example, a
Interesting Fact statistician may keep records of the number of yards a running back gains during a foot-
Every day in the United ball game, or the number of hits a baseball player gets in a season. In other areas, such as
States about 120 golfers public health, an administrator might be concerned with the number of residents who
claim that they made a contract a new strain of flu virus during a certain year. In education, a researcher might
hole-in-one. want to know if new methods of teaching are better than old ones. These are only a few
examples of how statistics can be used in various occupations.
Furthermore, statistics is used to analyze the results of surveys and as a tool in scien-
tific research to make decisions based on controlled experiments. Other uses of statistics
include operations research, quality control, estimation, and prediction.
1–2
ISTUDY
Section 1–1 Descriptive and Inferential Statistics 3
Data are the values (measurements or observations) that the variables can assume.
HistoricalNote Variables whose values are determined by chance are called random variables.
Suppose that an insurance company studies its records over the past several years and
The 1880 U.S. Census
determines that, on average, 3 out of every 100 automobiles the company insured were
had so many questions
involved in accidents during a 1-year period. Although there is no way to predict the specific
on it that it took 10 years
automobiles that will be involved in an accident (random occurrence), the company can adjust
to publish the results.
its rates accordingly, since the company knows the general pattern over the long run. (That is,
on average, 3% of the insured automobiles will be involved in an a ccident each year.)
A collection of data values forms a data set. Each value in the data set is called a data
value or a datum.
In statistics it is important to distinguish between a sample and a population.
HistoricalNote
The origin of descriptive A population consists of all subjects (human or otherwise) that are being studied.
statistics can be traced to
data collection methods When data are collected from every subject in the population, it is called a census.
used in censuses taken For example, every 10 years the United States conducts a census. The primary purpose
by the Babylonians and of this census is to determine the apportionment of the seats in the House of Representatives.
Egyptians between The first census was conducted in 1790 and was mandated by Article 1, Section 2 of
4500 and 3000 b.c. the Constitution. As the United States grew, the scope of the census also grew. Today the
In addition, the Roman U.S. Census limits questions to populations, housing, manufacturing, agriculture, and
Emperor Augustus mortality. The U.S. Census is conducted by the Bureau of the Census, which is part of the
(27 b.c.–a.d. 17) Department of Commerce.
conducted surveys Most of the time, due to the expense, time, size of population, medical concerns, etc.,
on births and deaths it is not possible to use the entire population for a statistical study; therefore, researchers
of the citizens of the use samples.
empire, as well as the
number of livestock A sample is a group of subjects selected from a population.
each owned and the
crops each citizen If the subjects of a sample are properly selected, most of the time they should possess
harvested yearly. the same or similar characteristics as the subjects in the population. See Figure 1–1.
However, the information obtained from a statistical sample is said to be biased if the
results from the sample of a population are radically different from the results of a census
of the population. Also, a sample is said to be biased if it does not represent the population
OBJECTIVE 2
from which it has been selected. The techniques used to properly select a sample are ex-
Differentiate between the plained in Section 1–3.
two branches of statistics. The body of knowledge called statistics is sometimes divided into two main areas,
depending on how data are used. The two areas are
1. Descriptive statistics
FIGURE 1–1 2. Inferential statistics
Population and Sample
Descriptive statistics consists of the collection, organization, summarization, and
presentation of data.
Population
In descriptive statistics the statistician tries to describe a situation. Consider the national
census conducted by the U.S. government every 10 years. Results of this census give you
Sample the average age, income, and other characteristics of the U.S. population. To obtain this
information, the Census Bureau must have some means to collect relevant data. Once data
are collected, the bureau must organize and summarize them. Finally, the bureau needs a
means of presenting the data in some meaningful form, such as charts, graphs, or tables.
ISTUDY
4 Chapter 1 The Nature of Probability and Statistics
Here, the statistician tries to make inferences from samples to populations. Inferential
HistoricalNote statistics uses probability, i.e., the chance of an event occurring. You may be familiar
Inferential statistics with the concepts of probability through various forms of gambling. If you play cards,
originated in the 1600s, dice, bingo, or lotteries, you win or lose according to the laws of probability. Probability
when John Graunt pub- theory is also used in the insurance industry and other areas.
lished his book on pop- The area of inferential statistics called hypothesis testing is a decision-making pro-
ulation growth, Natural cess for evaluating claims about a population, based on information obtained from sam-
and Political Observa- ples. For example, a researcher may wish to know if a new drug will reduce the number
tions Made upon the of heart attacks in men over age 70 years of age. For this study, two groups of men over
Bills of Mortality. About age 70 would be selected. One group would be given the drug, and the other would be
the same time, another given a placebo (a substance with no medical benefits or harm). Later, the number of
mathematician/ heart attacks occurring in each group of men would be counted, a statistical test would be
astronomer, Edmond run, and a decision would be made about the effectiveness of the drug.
Halley, published the Statisticians also use statistics to determine relationships among variables. For ex-
first complete mortality ample, relationships were the focus of the most noted study in the 20th century, “Smoking
tables. (Insurance and Health,” published by the Surgeon General of the United States in 1964. He stated
companies use mortality that after reviewing and evaluating the data, his group found a definite relationship be-
tables to determine life tween smoking and lung cancer. He did not say that cigarette smoking a ctually causes
insurance rates.) lung cancer, but that there is a relationship between smoking and lung cancer. This con-
clusion was based on a study done in 1958 by Hammond and Horn. In this study, 187,783
men were observed over a period of 45 months. The death rate from lung cancer in this
group of volunteers was 10 times as great for smokers as for nonsmokers.
Finally, by studying past and present data and conditions, statisticians try to make
U n u s u a l Stat predictions based on this information. For example, a car dealer may look at past sales
Twenty-nine percent of records for a specific month to decide what types of automobiles and how many of each
Americans want their type to order for that month next year.
boss’s job.
EXAMPLE 1–1 Descriptive or Inferential Statistics
Determine whether descriptive or inferential statistics were used.
a. A study of 5000 diners found that people who used a menu printed with calorie
counts for meals reduced their caloric consumption by 45 calories per meal.
Source: National Bureau of Economic Research
b. One person in seven has diabetes and one-third of them don’t know that they have
the disorder.
Source: WebMD
c. Twenty million Americans are living with chronic pain that interferes with their
daily lives.
Source: CDC
d. When 1350 children got booster shots or vaccines with unpleasant side effects,
only 215 got the same reactions as they did when they got the first injections.
Source: The Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal
SOLUTION
a. This is a descriptive statistic since it describes the results of a study using 5000 diners.
b. This is an inferential statistic since it is a generalization about a population.
c. This is an inferential statistic since it is a generalization about a population.
d. This is a descriptive statistic since it is based on the results of a sample of 1300
children.
1–4
ISTUDY
Section 1–1 Descriptive and Inferential Statistics 5
Exercises 1–1
1. Define statistics. 11. Last year during the week of July 4th, Murrysville
Regional Hospital reported that they treated 264 patients
2. What is a variable? for fireworks-related injuries.
3. What is meant by a census? 12. In the city of Westbrook, 6 out of the 8 bridges within
the city limits were in need of repair.
4. How does a population differ from a sample?
5. Explain the difference between descriptive and inferen- 13. A survey found that 16.8 days was the average number of
tial statistics. vacation days that employees had taken during the year.
6. Name three areas where probability is used. Source: GFK Survey
14. During a recent year, the TSA found 3957 guns at airport
7. Why is information obtained from samples used more
security check points.
often than information obtained from populations?
8. What is meant by a biased sample?
15. In a recent year, 39 people in the United States died from
lightning strikes.
For Exercises 9–17, determine whether descriptive or
inferential statistics were used. Source: Acosta Survey
9. Seventy-seven percent of consumers don’t think small busi- 16. During a recent year, the average U.S. diners spent a
nesses should stay open on holidays. month on food prepared outside the home was $144.
Source: Cox Business Consumer Sentiment Survey
Source: Acosta Survey
10. Sixty-six percent of Americans believe that their com-
munities’ drinking water is at risk. 17. Fifty-seven percent of Hispanics in the United States have
type O blood.
Source: Nestle Waters North American Survey Source: American Red Cross
ISTUDY
6 Chapter 1 The Nature of Probability and Statistics
Qualitative variables are variables that have distinct categories according to some
characteristic or attribute.
For example, if subjects are classified according to gender (male or female), then the vari-
able gender is qualitative. Other examples of qualitative variables are religious preference
and geographic locations.
For example, the variable age is numerical, and people can be ranked in order according
to the value of their ages. Other examples of quantitative variables are heights, weights,
and body temperatures.
Quantitative variables can be further classified into two groups: discrete and continu-
ous. Discrete variables can be assigned values such as 0, 1, 2, 3 and are said to be countable.
Examples of discrete variables are the number of children in a family, the number of stu-
dents in a classroom, and the number of calls received by a call center each day for a month.
Continuous variables can assume an infinite number of values between any two
specific values. They are obtained by measuring. They often include fractions and
decimals.
Variables
Qualitative Quantitative
Discrete Continuous
1–6
ISTUDY
Section 1–2 Variables and Types of Data 7
Since continuous data must be measured, answers must be rounded because of the lim-
U n u s u a l Stat its of the measuring device. Usually, answers are rounded to the nearest given unit. For
Fifty-two percent of example, heights might be rounded to the nearest inch, weights to the nearest ounce, etc.
Americans live within Hence, a recorded height of 73 inches could mean any measure from 72.5 inches up to but
50 miles of a coastal not including 73.5 inches. Thus, the boundary of this measure is given as 72.5–73.5 inches.
shoreline. The boundary of a number, then, is defined as a class in which a data value would be placed
before the data value was rounded. Boundaries are written for convenience as 72.5–73.5 but
are understood to mean all values up to but not including 73.5. Actual data values of 73.5
would be rounded to 74 and would be included in a class with boundaries of 73.5 up to but
not including 74.5, written as 73.5–74.5. As another example, if a recorded weight is
86 pounds, the exact boundaries are 85.5 up to but not including 86.5, written as 85.5–86.5
pounds. Table 1–1 helps to clarify this concept. The boundaries of a continuous variable are
given in one additional decimal place and always end with the digit 5.
a. 32.35–32.45 feet
b. 85.5°–86.5° Fahrenheit
c. 27.535–27.545 mg/dl
ISTUDY
8 Chapter 1 The Nature of Probability and Statistics
The nominal level of measurement classifies data into mutually exclusive (nonover
HistoricalNote lapping) categories in which no order or ranking can be imposed on the data.
When data were first
analyzed statistically The next level of measurement is called the ordinal level. Data measured at this level
by Karl Pearson and can be placed into categories, and these categories can be ordered, or ranked. For exam-
Francis Galton, almost all ple, from student evaluations, guest speakers might be ranked as superior, average, or
were continuous data. In poor. Floats in a homecoming parade might be ranked as first place, second place, etc.
1899, Pearson began to Note that precise measurement of differences in the ordinal level of measurement does
analyze discrete data. not exist. For instance, when people are classified according to their build (small, m
edium,
Pearson found that some or large), a large variation exists among the individuals in each class.
data, such as eye color, Other examples of ordinal data are letter grades (A, B, C, D, F).
could not be measured,
so he termed such data The ordinal level of measurement classifies data into categories that can be ranked;
nominal data. Ordinal however, precise differences between the ranks do not exist.
data were introduced by
a German numerologist The third level of measurement is called the interval level. This level differs from
Frederich Mohs in 1822 the ordinal level in that precise differences do exist between units. For example, many
when he introduced a standardized psychological tests yield values measured on an interval scale. IQ is an ex-
hardness scale for min- ample of such a variable. There is a meaningful difference of 1 point between an IQ of 109
erals. For example, the and an IQ of 110. Temperature is another example of interval measurement, since there is
hardest stone is the a meaningful difference of 1°F between each unit, such as 72 and 73°F. One property is
diamond, which he lacking in the interval scale: There is no true zero. For example, IQ tests do not measure
assigned a hardness people who have no intelligence. For temperature, 0°F does not mean no heat at all.
value of 1500. Quartz
was assigned a hardness
The interval level of measurement ranks data, and precise differences between units
value of 100. This does of measure do exist; however, there is no meaningful zero.
not mean that a diamond
is 15 times harder than The final level of measurement is called the ratio level. Examples of ratio scales are
quartz. It only means those used to measure height, weight, area, and number of phone calls received. Ratio
that a diamond is harder scales have differences between units (1 inch, 1 pound, etc.) and a true zero. In addition,
than quartz. In 1947, a the ratio scale contains a true ratio between values. For example, if one person can lift
psychologist named 200 pounds and another can lift 100 pounds, then the ratio between them is 2 to 1. Put
Stanley Smith Stevens another way, the first person can lift twice as much as the second person.
made a further division
of continuous data into
The ratio level of measurement possesses all the characteristics of interval
two categories, namely,
measurement, and there exists a true zero. In addition, true ratios exist when the same
interval and ratio. variable is measured on two different members of the population.
1–8
ISTUDY
Section 1–2 Variables and Types of Data 9
Blue White
Red Black
Automobile color
Temperature
6 ft 2”
Pizza size
Height
There is not complete agreement among statisticians about the classification of data
into one of the four categories. For example, some researchers classify IQ data as ratio
data rather than interval. Also, data can be altered so that they fit into a different category.
For instance, if the incomes of all professors of a college are classified into the three
categories of low, average, and high, then a ratio variable becomes an ordinal variable.
Table 1–2 gives some examples of each type of data. See Figure 1–2.
ISTUDY
10 Chapter 1 The Nature of Probability and Statistics
SOLUTION
a. Ratio
b. Nominal
c. Interval
d. Ordinal
Exercises 1–2
1. Explain the difference between qualitative variables and 8. The blood pressure readings of students before taking an
quantitative variables. exam
2. Explain the difference between discrete and continuous 9. Number of degrees awarded by a college each year for
variables. the last 10 years
3. Why are continuous variables rounded when they are 10. Ratings of teachers
used in statistical studies?
For Exercises 11–16, determine whether the data are
4. Name and define the four types of measurement levels used discrete or continuous.
in statistics. 11. The number of hours that students sleep each day
For Exercises 5–10, determine whether the data are 12. Systolic blood pressure readings
qualitative or quantitative.
13. The amount of water, in ounces, an adult consumes dur-
5. The number of stores a person visits on a shopping trip ing a 24-hour period
14. The number of physical workouts during the month that
6. The times spent cleaning each office at a local office an executive completes
building
15. The amount of bacteria in raw milk
7. The number of toppings on pizzas sold at a local pizza
restaurant 16. Temperatures at a seashore resort
1–10
ISTUDY
Section 1–3 Data Collection and Sampling Techniques 11
For Exercises 17–22, give the boundaries of each value. 25. Years ending in a double zero
17. 18 inches 26. Amount of money spent on pet care per year
18. 2.3 kilometers 27. Debts of college students
19. 76 miles 28. Ratings of high schools based on teachers’ salaries
20. 9.67 tons
29. Number of CT scans an imaging center completes
21. 33.2 feet
30. Horsepower of automobile engines
22. 45 pints
For Exercises 23–30, classify each as nominal-level,
ordinal-level, interval-level, or ratio-level measurement.
23. Social Security numbers
24. Telephone numbers
ISTUDY
12 Chapter 1 The Nature of Probability and Statistics
Random Sampling
A random sample is a sample in which all members of the population have an equal
chance of being selected.
Random samples are selected by using chance methods or random numbers. One such
method is to number each subject in the population. Then place numbered cards in a bowl,
mix them thoroughly, and select as many cards as needed. The subjects whose numbers
are selected constitute the sample. Since it is difficult to mix the cards thoroughly, there
is a chance of obtaining a biased sample. For this reason, statisticians use another method
of obtaining numbers. They generate random numbers with a computer or calculator.
Before the invention of computers, random numbers were obtained from tables.
Some five-digit random numbers are shown in Table A–1 in Appendix A. A section
of Table A–1 is shown on page 13. To select a random sample of, say, 15 subjects out of
85 subjects, it is necessary to number each subject from 01 to 85. Then select a starting
number by closing your eyes and placing your finger on a number in the table. (Although
this may sound somewhat unusual, it enables us to find a starting number at random.) In
this case, suppose your finger landed on the number 88948 in the fourth column, the fifth
number down from the top. Since you only need two-digit numbers, you can use the last
two digits of each of these numbers. The first random number then is 48. Then proceed
down until you have selected 15 different numbers between and including 01 and 85.
When you reach the bottom of the column, go to the top of the next column. If you select
a number 00 or a number greater than 85 or a duplicate number, just omit it.
In our example, we use the numbers (which correspond to the subjects) 48, 43, 44, 19,
07, 27, 57, 24, 68, and so on. Use Table A–1 in the Appendix to get all the random numbers.
Systematic Sampling
A systematic sample is a sample obtained by selecting every kth member of the
population where k is a counting number.
Researchers obtain systematic samples by numbering each subject of the population and
then selecting every kth subject. For example, suppose there were 2000 subjects in the
population and a sample of 50 subjects was needed. Since 2000 ÷ 50 = 40, then k = 40,
and every 40th subject would be selected; however, the first subject (numbered between
1 and 40) would be selected at random. Suppose s ubject 12 were the first subject selected;
then the sample would consist of the subjects whose numbers were 12, 52, 92, etc., until
1–12
ISTUDY
Section 1–3 Data Collection and Sampling Techniques 13
SPEAKING OF STATISTICS The Worst Day for Weight Loss
Many overweight people have difficulty losing weight.
Prevention magazine reported that researchers from
Washington University School of Medicine studied the
diets of 48 adult weight loss participants. They used food
diaries, exercise monitors, and weigh-ins. They found that
the participants ate an average of 236 more calories on
Saturdays than they did on the other weekdays. This
would amount to a weight gain of 9 pounds per year. So if
you are watching your diet, be careful on Saturdays.
Are the statistics reported in this study descriptive
or inferential in nature? What type of variables are used
here?
Jacobs Stock Photography/Getty Images
T A B L E A – 1 Random Numbers
51455 02154 06955 88858 02158 76904 28864 95504 68047 41196 88582 99062 21984 67932
06512 07836 88456 36313 30879 51323 76451 25578 15986 50845 57015 53684 57054 93261
71308 35028 28065 74995 03251 27050 31692 12910 14886 85820 42664 68830 57939 34421
60035 97320 62543 61404 94367 07080 66112 56180 15813 15978 63578 13365 60115 99411
64072 76075 91393 88948 99244 60809 10784 36380 5721 24481 86978 74102 49979 28572
14914 85608 96871 74743 73692 53664 67727 21440 13326 98590 93405 63839 65974 05294
93723 60571 17559 96844 88678 89256 75120 62384 77414 24023 82121 01796 03907 35061
86656 43736 62752 53819 81674 43490 07850 61439 52300 55063 50728 54652 63307 83597
31286 27544 44129 51107 53727 65479 09688 57355 20426 44527 36896 09654 63066 92393
95519 78485 20269 64027 53229 59060 99269 12140 97864 31064 73933 37369 94656 57645
78019 75498 79017 22157 22893 88109 57998 02582 34259 11405 97788 37718 64071 66345
45487 22433 62809 98924 96769 24955 60283 16837 02070 22051 91191 40000 36480 07822
64769 25684 33490 25168 34405 58272 90124 92954 43663 39556 40269 69189 68272 60753
00464 62924 83514 97860 98982 84484 18856 35260 22370 22751 89716 33377 97720 78982
73714 36622 04866 00885 34845 26118 47003 28924 98813 45981 82469 84867 50443 00641
84032 71228 72682 40618 69303 58466 03438 67873 87487 33285 19463 02872 36786 28418
70609 51795 47988 49658 29651 93852 27921 16258 28666 41922 33353 38131 64115 39541
37209 94421 49043 11876 43528 93624 55263 29863 67709 39952 50512 93074 66938 09515
80632 65999 34771 06797 02318 74725 10841 96571 12052 41478 50020 59066 30860 96357
50 subjects were obtained. When using systematic sampling, you must be careful about
how the subjects in the population are numbered. If subjects were arranged in a manner
such as wife, husband, wife, husband, and every 40th subject were selected, the sample
would consist of all husbands. Numbering is not always necessary. For example, a
researcher may select every 10th item from an assembly line to test for defects.
Systematic sampling has the advantage of selecting subjects throughout an ordered
population. This sampling method is fast and convenient if the population can be easily
numbered.
Stratified Sampling
ISTUDY
14 Chapter 1 The Nature of Probability and Statistics
Samples within the strata should be randomly selected. For example, suppose the presi-
dent of a two-year college wants to learn how students feel about a certain issue.
Furthermore, the president wishes to see if the opinions of first-year students differ from
those of second-year students. The president will randomly select students from each
subgroup to use in the sample.
Cluster Sampling
A cluster sample is obtained by dividing the population into sections or clusters and
HistoricalNote then selecting one or more clusters at random and using all members in the cluster(s)
as the members of the sample.
In 1936, the Literary
Digest, on the basis of a
biased sample of its sub- Here the population is divided into groups or clusters by some means such as geographic
scribers, predicted that area or schools in a large school district. Then the researcher randomly selects some of these
Alf Landon would defeat clusters and uses all members of the selected clusters as the subjects of the samples. Sup-
Franklin D. Roosevelt in pose a researcher wishes to survey apartment dwellers in a large city. If there are 10 apart-
the upcoming presiden- ment buildings in the city, the researcher can select at random 2 buildings from the 10 and
tial election. Roosevelt interview all the residents of these buildings. Cluster sampling is used when the population
won by a landslide. The is large or when it involves subjects residing in a large geographic area. For example, if one
magazine ceased publi- wanted to do a study involving the patients in the hospitals in New York City, it would be
cation the following year. very costly and time‑consuming to try to obtain a random sample of patients since they
would be spread over a large area. Instead, a few hospitals could be selected at random, and
the patients in these hospitals would be interviewed in a cluster. See Figure 1–3.
The main difference between stratified sampling and cluster sampling is that although
in both types of sampling the population is divided into groups, the subjects in the groups
for stratified sampling are more or less homogeneous, that is, they have similar character-
istics, while the subjects in the clusters form “miniature populations.” That is, they vary
in characteristics as does the larger population. For example, if a researcher wanted to use
the class of first-year students at a university as the population, the researcher might use
a class of students in a first-year orientation class as a cluster sample. If using a stratified
sample, the researcher would need to divide the first-year students into groups according
to their major field, sex, age, etc., or other samples from each group.
Cluster samples save the researcher time and money, but the researcher must be aware
that sometimes a cluster does not represent the population.
The four basic sampling methods are summarized in Table 1–3.
1–14
ISTUDY
Section 1–3 Data Collection and Sampling Techniques 15
F I G U R E 1 – 3 Sampling Methods
1. Random
Table D Random Numbers
1 2 3 4 5
6 7 8 9 10 3 6 9
11 12 13 14 15 12 15
Population Sample
3. Stratified
Population
4. Cluster
ISTUDY
16 Chapter 1 The Nature of Probability and Statistics
Since samples are not perfect representatives of the populations from which they
are selected, there is always some error in the results. This error is called a sampling error.
Sampling error is the difference between the results obtained from a sample and the
results obtained from the population from which the sample was selected.
For example, suppose you select a sample of full-time students at your college and find 56% are
female. Then you go to the admissions office and get the genders of all full-time students that
semester and find that 54% are female. The difference of 2% is said to be due to sampling error.
In most cases, this difference is unknown, but it can be estimated. This process is
shown in Chapter 7.
There is another error that occurs in statistics called nonsampling error.
A nonsampling error occurs when the data are obtained erroneously or the sample is
biased, i.e., nonrepresentative.
For example, data could be collected by using a defective scale. Each weight might be off
by, say, 2 pounds. Also, recording errors can be made. Perhaps the researcher wrote an
incorrect data value.
Caution and vigilance should be used when collecting data.
Other sampling techniques, such as sequential sampling, double sampling, and multi
stage sampling, are explained in Chapter 14, along with a more detailed explanation of
the four basic sampling techniques.
SOLUTION
a. Cluster
b. Stratified
c. Random
d. Systematic
1–16
ISTUDY
Section 1–3 Data Collection and Sampling Techniques 17
Exercises 1–3
1. Name five ways that data can be collected. For Exercises 11–16, indentify the sampling method that
was used.
2. What is meant by sampling error and nonsampling error?
11. A machine fills bags of apple slices for sale to custom-
3. Why are random numbers used in sampling, and how
ers who eat at a fast-food restaurant. To check the
are random numbers generated?
accuracy of the weight of the bags, every 10th bag
4. Name and define the four basic sampling methods. is selected and weighed on a scale.
10. The average January 2012 temperature in Boston 16. Ten counties in Pennsylvania are randomly selected to
was 34.2°F. This was 5.2° higher than the normal determine the average county real estate tax that the
January average temperature. residents pay.
Source: AccuWeather.com
ISTUDY
18 Chapter 1 The Nature of Probability and Statistics
For example, in August 2015 (The Verge) asked “Tons of people are buying Fitbits, but
are they actually using them?” Fitbit is a manufacturer of step counting devices. Only
9.5 million registered users out of 19 million are active (50%). The past data showed an
active rate of 60% (10.9 million registered, 6.5 million active). Endeavour Partners states
that 33% of buyers of step devices continue to use them after 6 months. In this study, the
researcher merely observed what had happened to the Fitbit owners over a period of time.
There was no type of research intervention.
There are three main types of observational studies. When all the data are collected at
one time, the study is called a cross-sectional study. When the data are collected using re-
cords obtained from the past, the study is called a retrospective study. Finally, if the data are
collected over a period of time, say, past and present, the study is called a longitudinal study.
Observational studies have advantages and disadvantages. One advantage of an ob-
servational study is that it usually occurs in a natural setting. For example, researchers can
observe people’s driving patterns on streets and highways in large cities. Another advan-
tage of an observational study is that it can be done in situations where it would be
unethical or downright dangerous to conduct an experiment. Using observational studies,
researchers can study suicides, rapes, murders, etc. In addition, observational studies can
be done using variables that cannot be manipulated by the researcher, such as drug users
versus nondrug users and right-handedness versus left‑handedness.
Observational studies have disadvantages, too. As mentioned previously, since the
variables are not controlled by the researcher, a definite cause-and-effect situation cannot
be shown since other factors may have had an effect on the results. Observational studies
can be expensive and time-consuming. For example, if one wanted to study the habitat of
lions in Africa, one would need a lot of time and money, and there would be a certain
amount of danger involved. Finally, since the researcher may not be using his or her own
measurements, the results could be subject to the inaccuracies of those who collected the
data. For example, if the researchers were doing a study of events that occurred in
the 1800s, they would have to rely on information and records obtained by others from a
previous era. There is no way to ensure the accuracy of these records.
The other type of study is called an experimental study.
In an experimental study, the researcher manipulates one of the variables and tries to
determine how the manipulation influences other variables.
Interesting Fact For example, a study conducted at Virginia Polytechnic Institute and presented in
The safest day of the sychology Today divided female undergraduate students into two groups and had the
P
week for driving is students perform as many sit-ups as possible in 90 seconds. The first group was told only
Tuesday. to “Do your best,” while the second group was told to try to increase the actual number of
sit-ups done each day by 10%. After four days, the subjects in the group who were given
the vague instructions to “Do your best” averaged 43 sit-ups, while the group that was
given the more specific instructions to increase the number of sit-ups by 10% averaged
56 sit-ups by the last day’s session. The conclusion then was that athletes who were given
specific goals performed better than those who were not given specific goals.
This study is an example of a statistical experiment since the researchers intervened
in the study by manipulating one of the variables, namely, the type of instructions given
to each group.
1–18
ISTUDY
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
— Fembeni? sanoi Sanders miettivästi. — Taidan tuntea miehen;
jos muistan oikein, niin hän ei ole niitä miehiä, jotka ottavat
uskonnon, ellei se lopuksi lupaa hyvää liikeyritystä.
Tyttö on kaunis, ajatteli hän — tai sitten hän oli ollut niin kauan
poissa valkoihoisten naisten seurasta, että tyttö vain näytti kauniilta
seisoessaan raakaa, sivistymätöntä taustaa vasten. Hento, suora,
harmaasilmäinen, virheettömästi muodostunut, vaikkakin Afrikan
auringon paahtama, piirteet säännölliset — herkulliset, hiukset
(tuuheat) ruosteenruskeat.
— Niin, herra.
— Neljä, herra.
— No?
— Herra, ajan heidät pois, paitsi yhtä, sanoi hän jurosti, — sillä se
on pyhä tapa.
— Kuinka?
*****
— Elät tai kuolet, sanoi hän, — mutta jos huudat, niin lyön, kunnes
kuolet.
— Pääni kautta sinä saat elää, sanoi hän, — jos Sandi antaa
lupauksen, ettei ketään meistä hirtetä — sillä me olemme Julmat
miehet, ja Sandi on nuuskinut minut ilmi.
Pian sen jälkeen eräs nainen toi hänelle kulhollisen keitettyä kalaa
ja hiukan vettä.
Murteellisella isisin kielellään hän pyysi naista jäämään luoksensa,
mutta tämä oli nähtävästikin ngombilaisia eikä ymmärtänyt.
*****
*****
Sanders nyökkäsi.
NGOMBIN KUNINGATAR
Tyttö lähetti hänelle pitkän vihreän lehden, joka merkitsi, että tyttö
oli suruissaan hänen puolestaan. Mies käsitti tämän merkiksi siitä,
mitä hänelle tulisi tapahtumaan, ja poistui kylästä kiitettävän
nopeasti.