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vi Contents

Percentiles 149 Variance and Standard Deviation 267

Quartiles and Deciles 155 Expectation 269
Outliers 157 5–3 The Binomial Distribution 275
3–4 Exploratory Data Analysis 168 5–4 Other Types of Distributions 289
The Five-Number Summary and Boxplots 168 The Multinomial Distribution 289
Summary 177 The Poisson Distribution 291
The Hypergeometric Distribution 293
CHAPTER 4 The Geometric Distribution 295
Summary 303
Probability and
Counting Rules 185 CHAPTER 6
The Normal
Introduction 186 Distribution 311
4–1 Sample Spaces and Probability 186
Basic Concepts 186
Classical Probability 189
Introduction 312
Complementary Events 192
6–1 Normal Distributions 312
Empirical Probability 194
The Standard Normal Distribution 315
Law of Large Numbers 196
Finding Areas Under the Standard Normal
Subjective Probability 196 Distribution Curve 316
Probability and Risk Taking 196 A Normal Distribution Curve as a Probability
4–2 The Addition Rules for Probability 201 Distribution Curve 318
4–3 The Multiplication Rules and Conditional 6–2 Applications of the Normal Distribution 328
Probability 213 Finding Data Values Given Specific
The Multiplication Rules 213 Probabilities 332
Conditional Probability 217 Determining Normality 334
Probabilities for “At Least” 220 6–3 The Central Limit Theorem 344
4–4 Counting Rules 226 Distribution of Sample Means 344
The Fundamental Counting Rule 227 Finite Population Correction Factor (Optional) 350
Factorial Notation 229 6–4 The Normal Approximation to the Binomial
Permutations 229 Distribution 354
Combinations 232 Summary 361
4–5 Probability and Counting Rules 242
Summary 246
CHAPTER 7
CHAPTER 5 Confidence Intervals
Discrete Probability and Sample Size 369
Distributions 257

7–1 Confidence Intervals for the Mean When σ Is

Introduction 370

Introduction 258 Known 370

5–1 Probability Distributions 258 Confidence Intervals 371

Confidence Intervals for the Mean When σ Is

5–2 Mean, Variance, Standard Deviation, and Sample Size 377
Expectation 265 7–2
Mean 265 Unknown 383
 Contents vii

7–3 Confidence Intervals and Sample Size for 9–5 Testing the Difference Between Two
Proportions 390 Variances 528
Confidence Intervals 391 Summary 539
Sample Size for Proportions 393
7–4 Confidence Intervals for Variances and
Standard Deviations 398
CHAPTER 10
Summary 406
Correlation and
CHAPTER 8 Regression 547

Hypothesis
Introduction 548
Testing 413 10–1 Scatter Plots and Correlation 548
Correlation 552
10–2 Regression 563
Introduction 414 Line of Best Fit 564
8–1 Steps in Hypothesis Testing—Traditional Determination of the Regression Line
Method 414 Equation 565
8–2 z Test for a Mean 426 10–3 Coefficient of Determination and Standard
P-Value Method for Hypothesis Testing 430 Error of the Estimate 580
8–3 t Test for a Mean 442 Types of Variation for the Regression Model 580

𝛘2 Test for a Variance or Standard

8–4 z Test for a Proportion 453 Residual Plots 582
8–5 Coefficient of Determination 583
Deviation 461 Standard Error of the Estimate 584
8–6 Additional Topics Regarding Hypothesis Prediction Interval 587
Testing 474 10–4 Multiple Regression (Optional) 590
Confidence Intervals and Hypothesis Testing 474
The Multiple Regression Equation 591
Type II Error and the Power of a Test 476
Testing the Significance of R 593
Summary 479 Adjusted R2 594
Summary 599
CHAPTER 9
CHAPTER 11
Testing the ­
Difference Between Other Chi-Square
Two Means, Two Tests 607
Proportions, and
Two Variances 487 Introduction 608
Introduction 488 11–1 Test for Goodness of Fit 608
9–1 Testing the Difference Between Two Means: Test of Normality (Optional) 614
Using the z Test 488 11–2 Tests Using Contingency Tables 622
9–2 Testing the Difference Between Two Means Test for Independence 622
of Independent Samples: Using the t Test 499 Test for Homogeneity of Proportions 628
9–3 Testing the Difference Between Two Means: Summary 638
Dependent Samples 507
9–4 Testing the Difference Between
Proportions 519
viii Contents

CHAPTER 12 CHAPTER 14
Analysis of ­ Sampling and
Variance 645 Simulation 737

Introduction 646 Introduction 738

12–1 One-Way Analysis of Variance 646 14–1 Common Sampling Techniques 738
12–2 The Scheffé Test and the Tukey Test 658 Random Sampling 739
Scheffé Test 658 Systematic Sampling 742
Tukey Test 659 Stratified Sampling 744
12–3 Two-Way Analysis of Variance 662 Cluster Sampling 746
Summary 676 Other Types of Sampling Techniques 746
14–2 Surveys and Questionnaire Design 753
CHAPTER 13 14–3 Simulation Techniques and the Monte Carlo
Method 756
The Monte Carlo Method 756
Nonparametric Summary 762
Statistics 685
APPENDICES

Introduction 686 A Tables 769

13–1 Advantages and Disadvantages B Data Bank 794
of Nonparametric Methods 686
Advantages 686 C Glossary 801
Disadvantages 686
D Selected Answers SA–1
Ranking 687
13–2 The Sign Test 689
Single-Sample Sign Test 689
Paired-Sample Sign Test 691
13–3 The Wilcoxon Rank Sum Test 698
13–4 The Wilcoxon Signed-Rank Test 703 Index I–1
13–5 The Kruskal-Wallis Test 708
13–6 The Spearman Rank Correlation Coefficient ADDITIONAL TOPICS ONLINE
and the Runs Test 715 (www.mhhe.com/bluman)
Rank Correlation Coefficient 715
The Runs Test 718 Algebra Review
Summary 729
Writing the Research Report
Bayes’ Theorem
Alternate Approach to the ­Standard
Normal Distribution
Bibliography
PREFACE

Approach Elementary Statistics: A Step by Step Approach was written as an aid in the beginning
statistics course to students whose mathematical background is limited to basic algebra.
The book follows a nontheoretical approach without formal proofs, explaining concepts
intuitively and supporting them with abundant examples. The applications span a broad
range of topics certain to appeal to the interests of students of diverse backgrounds, and
they include problems in business, sports, health, architecture, education, entertainment,
political science, psychology, history, criminal justice, the environment, transportation,
physical sciences, demographics, eating habits, and travel and leisure.

About This While a number of important changes have been made in the tenth edition, the learning
system remains untouched and provides students with a useful framework in which to
Book learn and apply concepts. Some of the retained features include the following:

• Hypothesis-Testing Summaries are found at the end of Chapter 9 (z, t, 𝜒2, and
• Over 1800 exercises are located at the end of major sections within each chapter.

F tests for testing means, proportions, and variances), Chapter 12 (correlation,

chi-square, and ANOVA), and Chapter 13 (nonparametric tests) to show students
the different types of hypotheses and the types of tests to use.
• A Data Bank listing various attributes (educational level, cholesterol level, gender,
etc.) for 100 people and several additional data sets using real data are included and

• An updated reference card containing the formulas and the z, t, 𝜒2, and PPMC
referenced in various exercises and projects throughout the book.

­tables is included with this textbook.

• End-of-chapter Summaries, Important Terms, and Important Formulas give
students a concise summary of the chapter topics and provide a good source for
quiz or test preparation.
• Review Exercises are found at the end of each chapter.
• Special sections called Data Analysis require students to work
with a data set to perform various statistical tests or procedures
and then summarize the results. The data are included in the Data
Bank in Appendix B and can be downloaded from the book’s
website at www.mhhe.com/bluman.
• Chapter Quizzes, found at the end of each chapter, include
­multiple-choice, true/false, and completion questions along with
exercises to test students’ knowledge and comprehension of
­chapter content.
• The Appendixes provide students with extensive reference
tables, a glossary, and answers to all quiz questions and odd-
numbered exercises. Additional Online Appendixes include al-
gebra review, an outline for report writing, Bayes’ ­theorem, and
an alternative method for using the standard normal distribution.
These can be found at www.mhhe.com/bluman.
• The Applying the Concepts feature is included in all sections
and gives students an opportunity to think about the new con-
cepts and apply them to examples and ­scenarios similar to those
found in newspapers, magazines, and radio and television news
ALLAN G. BLUMAN
PROFESSOR EMERITUS ­programs.
COMMUNITY COLLEGE OF ALLEGHENY COUNTY

ix
x Preface

Changes in the Global Changes

Tenth Edition • Replaced over 75 examples with new ones and replaced approximately 450 new or
revised exercises, many using real data.
• Updated Technology Tips sections.

Chapter 1 Updated statistical examples to introduce how statistics are used in

real life.
Four-digit random numbers (Table D) are shown in order to generate a
random sample.
Expanded explanation of the difference between stratified and cluster
sampling.

Chapter 3 New section on Linear Transformations of Data.

Chapter 5 New Procedure Table on how to construct and graph a probability distri-
bution is given.

Chapter 11 New introductory example.

Chapter 12 New Statistics Today example.

Chapter 13 New explanation of the statistical technique to use when there are ties in
the rankings.

Chapter 14 Five updated data sets are presented in order to use the sampling tech-
niques required in the exercises.

New coverage explaining Different Types of Bias Samples.

 Preface xi

Acknowledgments
It is important to acknowledge the many people whose contributions have gone into the
Tenth Edition of Elementary Statistics. Very special thanks are due to Jackie Miller of
the University of Michigan for her provision of the Index of Applications, her exhaustive
accuracy check of the page proofs, and her general availability and advice concerning all
matters statistical. The Technology Step by Step sections were provided by Tim Chappell
of Metropolitan Community College and Jerimi Walker of Moraine Valley Community
College.
I would also like to thank Rita Sowell for providing the new exercises.
Finally, at McGraw-Hill Education, thanks to Ryan Blankenship, Managing Director;
Adam Rooke, Brand Manager; Christina Sanders, Product Developer; Sally Yagan,
Marketing Director; Cynthia Northrup, Director of Digital Content; and Jane Mohr, Con-
tent Project Manager.
—Allan G. Bluman

Special thanks for their advice and recommendations for the Tenth Edition go to:

Luis Beltran, Miami Dade College, Kendall Campus
Solomon Willis, Cleveland Community College
Nicholas Bianco, Florida Gulf Coast University
Larry L. Southard, Florida Gulf Coast University
Simon Aman, Truman College
Brenda Reed, Navarro College
Dr. Toni Kasper, Bronx Community College (CUNY)
Adam Molnar, Oklahoma State University
H Michael Lueke, St. Louis Community College
Shannon Resweber, Houston Community College
Stacey Culp, West Virginia University
 A STEP BY STEP APPROACH

7
Confidence Intervals
and Sample Size

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INDEX OF APPLICATIONS
CHAPTER 1
The Nature of Probability
and Statistics
Education and Testing
Attendance and Grades, 5
Is Higher Education “Going
Digital”?, 1, 35
Piano Lessons Improve Math
Ability, 37
Medicine, Clinical Studies, and
Experiments
Beneficial Bacteria, 25
Caffeine and Health, 25
Does the Prompt Impact the
Outcome?, 21
Smoking and Criminal Behavior, 37
The Worst Day for Weight Loss, 13
Public Health and Nutrition
Today’s Cigarettes, 23
Sports, Exercise, and Fitness
ACL Tears in Collegiate Soccer
Players, 37
Surveys and Culture
American Culture and Drug
Abuse, 17
Transportation
Fatal Transportation Injuries, 10
World’s Busiest Airports, 37
CHAPTER 2
Frequency Distributions
and Graphs
Buildings and Structures
Selling Real Estate, 65
Stories in Tall Buildings, 86
Stories in the World’s Tallest
Buildings, 52
Suspension Bridge Spans, 66
Business, Management, and Work
Charity Donations, 52
Patents, 93
Tech Company Employees, 90
Trip Reimbursements, 93
Demographics and Population
Characteristics
Distribution of Blood Types, 43
Housing Arrangements, 105
U.S. Licensed Drivers 70 or
Older, 91
U.S. Population by Age, 93
Education and Testing
College Spending for First-Year
Students, 76
Do Students Need Summer
Development?, 65
High School Dropout Rate, 102
Making the Grade, 67
xvi
Math and Reading Achievement
Scores, 92
Number of College Faculty, 66
Percentage of People Who
Completed 4 or More Years
of College, 53
Pupils Per Teacher, 66
Teacher Strikes, 91, 107
Entertainment
Broadway Stage Engagements, 102
Casino Payoffs, 103
Roller Coaster Mania, 91
Songs on CDs, 103
Unclaimed Expired Prizes, 53
Environmental Sciences, the Earth,
and Space
Air Pollution, 66
Average Wind Speeds, 53
Coal Consumption, 106
Consumption of Natural Gas, 53
Cost of Utilities, 66
Gulf Coastlines, 91
Length of Major Rivers, 92
Maximum Wind Speeds, 52
Named Storms, 83
Record High Temperatures, 47
Recycled Trash, 106
The Great Lakes, 107
Water Usage, 106
Waterfall Heights, 101
Wind Speed, 101
Food and Dining
Cost of Milk, 93
Eating at Fast Food Restaurants, 52
Favorite Coffee Flavor, 52
Non-Alcoholic Beverages, 102
Super Bowl Snack Foods, 80
Worldwide Sales of Fast Foods, 90
Government, Taxes, Politics, Public
Policy, and Voting
Ages of State Governors, 61
How Much Paper Money is in
Circulation Today?, 85
Salaries of Governors, 52
History
Ages of Declaration of
Independence Signers, 52
Ages of Presidents at
Inauguration, 51
Ages of the Vice Presidents at the
Time of Their Death, 101
JFK Assassination, 53
Law and Order: Criminal Justice
Car Thefts in a Large City, 85
Causes of Accidental Deaths in
the United States, 90
Chicago Homicides, 93
How Your Identity Can Be Stolen,
41, 104
Identity Thefts, 106
Kids and Guns, 91
Murders in the United States, 81
Police Calls, 82
Types of Crimes, 102
Violent Crimes, 91
Marketing, Sales, and Consumer
Behavior
Credit Cards, 91
How People Get Their News, 101
Items Purchased at a Convenience
Store, 105
Online Ad Spending, 91
Price of an Advertisement for the
Academy Awards Show, 78
Spending of College Freshmen, 102
Valentine’s Day Spending, 91
Medicine, Clinical Studies, and
Experiments
Blood Glucose Levels, 67
BUN Count, 101
Pain Relief, 103
Waiting Times, 67
Psychology and Human Behavior
Hours of Sleep for College
Students, 49
Public Health and Nutrition
Calories in Salad Dressings, 92
Calories of Nuts, 102
Protein Grams in Fast Food, 67
Needless Deaths of Children, 106
U.S. Health Dollar, 92
Sports, Exercise, and Fitness
50 Home Run Club, 92
Ages of Football Players, 91
Home Runs, 67
Men’s World Hockey Champions,
101
NFL Salaries, 66
Peyton Manning’s Colts Career,
103
Scores in the Rose Bowl, 53
Weights of Football Players, 103
Years of Experience on a Pro
Football Team, 92
Surveys and Culture
Ages of Dogs, 52
Pet Care, 102
Technology
Smart Phone Insurance, 103
Trust in Internet Information, 52
The Sciences
Bear Kills, 65
The Value of Pi, 53
Transportation
Colors of Automobiles, 91
Commuting Times, 92
Parking Meter Revenues, 106
Railroad Crossing Accidents, 66
Traffic Congestion, 77
Travel and Leisure
Museum Visitors, 106
Public Libraries, 103
Reasons We Travel, 91
CHAPTER 3
Data Description
Buildings and Structures
Prices of Homes, 140
Suspension Bridges, 145
Business, Management, and Work
Average Earnings of Workers, 180
Average Weekly Earnings, 161
Bank Failures, 118, 178
Bonuses, 146
Commissions Earned, 124
Costs to Train Employees, 180
Employee Years of Service, 182
Foreign Workers, 123
Hourly Compensation for
Production Workers, 124
Hours of Employment, 146
Hours Worked, 180
Labor Charges, 180
Missing Work, 145
Net Worth of Corporations, 124
Paid Days Off, 123
Salaries of CEOs, 113
Salaries of Personnel, 118
The Noisy Workplace, 172
Top-Paid CEOs, 123
Travel Allowances, 141
U.S. Patent Leaders, 117
Demographics and Population
Characteristics
Ages of Accountants, 145
Ages of Consumers, 146
Ages of U.S. Astronaut
Candidates, 144
Ages of U.S. Residents, 183
Marriage Age for Females, 159
Marriage Ages, 149
Percentage of College-Educated
Population over 25, 124
Percentage of Foreign-Born
People, 124
Population in South Carolina
Cities, 160
Economics and Investment
Gold Reserves, 161
Prices of Silver and Tin, 143
Education and Testing
Achievement Test Scores, 160
College and University Debt, 159
College Room and Board Costs, 160
Enrollments for Selected
Independent Religiously
Controlled 4-Year Colleges, 125
Errors on a Typing Test, 182

Exam Completion Time, 180
Exam Grades, 180, 182
Final Grade, 125
Grade Point Average, 119
Length of School Years, 122
Pupils Per Teacher, 144
SAT Scores, 146, 179, 182
School Graduation Rates, 173
Starting Teachers’ Salaries, 143
Teacher Salaries, 122, 159
Teacher Strikes, 133
Test Scores, 148, 159, 161, 182
Textbooks in Professors’
Offices, 179
Work Hours for College
Faculty, 146
Entertainment
Contest Spelling Words, 123
Earnings of Nonliving
Celebrities, 123
FM Radio Stations, 145
Households of Four Television
Networks, 179
Roller Coaster Speeds, 122, 170
Roller Coasters, 138
Top Grossing Movies, 129
Top Video Games, 123
Environmental Sciences, the Earth,
and Space
Annual Precipitation Days, 144
Areas of Islands, 173
Distances of Stars, 123
Farm Sizes, 146
Hurricane Damage, 161
Largest Dams, 173
Licensed Nuclear Reactors, 116
Named Storms, 180
Number of Meteorites Found, 169
Number of Tornadoes, 174
Observers in the Frogwatch
Program, 123
Shark Attacks, 178
Size of Dams, 173
Size of U.S. States, 143
Solid Waste Production, 146
Tornadoes in the United States, 115
Unhealthy Smog Days, 174
Waterfall Heights, 145
Wind Speeds, 124
Food and Dining
Citrus Fruit Consumption, 146
Nonalcoholic Beverages, 117
Specialty Coffee Shops, 124
Government, Taxes, Politics, Public
Policy, and Voting
Cigarette Taxes, 143
Laws Passed, 144
Medical Marijuana 2015 Sales
Tax, 161
Taxes, 161
History
Age of Senators, 159
Children of U.S. Presidents, 124
Population of Colonies, 173
Law and Order: Criminal Justice
Murder Rates, 145
Murders in Cities, 144
Police Calls, 180
Police Calls in Schools, 161
Traffic Violations, 153
Manufacturing and Product
Development
Comparison of Outdoor
Paint, 128
Printer Repairs, 180
Marketing, Sales, and Consumer
Behavior
Average Cost of Smoking, 183
Average Cost of Weddings, 183
Cost of a Man’s Haircut, 180
Delivery Charges, 182
Diet Cola Preference, 125
Magazines in Bookstores, 179
Newspapers for Sale, 182
Price of Pet Fish, 146
Prices of Musical Instruments, 146
Sale Price of Homes, 146
Sales of Automobiles, 138
Store Sales, 112
Medicine, Clinical Studies, and
Experiments
Blood Pressure, 142
Determining Dosages, 159
Hospital Emergency Waiting
Times, 145
Multiple Births, 143
Serum Cholesterol Levels, 146
Systolic Blood Pressure, 151, 179
Psychology and Human Behavior
Reaction Times, 144
Trials to Learn a Maze, 146
Public Health and Nutrition
Avian Flu Cases, 112
Calories in Bagels, 145
Cases of Meningitis, 180
Fat Grams, 125
Sports, Exercise, and Fitness
Baseball Team Batting
Averages, 145
Innings Pitched, 173
Miles Run per Week, 136
NFL Signing Bonuses, 119
Points in Rose Bowl Games, 124
Technology
Tablet Sales, 115
Time Spent Online, 145
Transportation
Airplane Speeds, 160
Annual Miles Driven, 160
Automobile Selling Prices, 125
Automotive Fuel Efficiency, 144
Cost of Car Rentals, 179
Cost of Helicopters, 125
Fuel Capacity, 179
Gas Prices for Rental Cars, 183
How Long Are You Delayed by
Road Congestion?, 109, 181
Miles per Gallon, 182
Passenger Vehicle Deaths, 144
Times Spent in Rush-Hour
Traffic, 144
Travel and Leisure
Airline Passengers, 123
Airport Parking, 122
Public Libraries, 116
Traveler Spending, 143
Vacation Days, 159
Visitors Who Travel to Foreign
Countries, 173
CHAPTER 4
Probability and Counting
Rules
Buildings and Structures
Building a New Home, 209
Business, Management, and Work
Distribution of CEO Ages, 200
Employee Health Care Plans, 249
Job Applications, 245
Personnel Classification, 250
Research and Development
Employees, 203
Starting Salaries, 251
Types of Copy Paper, 249
Unemployed Workers, 216
Working Women and Computer
Use, 223
Demographics and Population
Characteristics
Blood Types and Rh Factors, 224
Distribution of Blood Types, 194
Education Level and Smoking, 249
Education of Factory
Employees, 252
Eye Color, 252
Foreign Adoptions, 225
Gender of Children, 187, 199
Human Blood Types, 199
Living Arrangements for
Children, 200
Male Color Blindness, 214
Marital Status of Women, 225
Names for Boys, 249
Population of Hawaii, 200
U.S. Population, 207
War Veterans, 249
Young Adult Residences, 207
Education and Testing
College Courses, 224
College Debt, 199
College Degrees Awarded, 206
College Enrollment, 226, 249
College Fundraiser, 208
Computers in Elementary
Schools, 199
Doctoral Assistantships, 225
Educational Fellowship, 245
Online Course Selection, 248
Prison Education, 208
Reading to Children, 225
Required First-Year College
Courses, 200
Index of Applications xvii
Scholarships, 251
Student Financial Aid, 223
Term Paper Selection, 243
Entertainment
2014 Top Albums, 199
Casino Gambling, 248
Child’s Board Game, 226
Craps Game, 199
de Mere Dice Game, 252
Dominoes, 237
Film Showings, 235
Getting a Full House, 245
Movie Releases, 248
Movie Selections, 249
Movies at the Park, 233
Odds, 201
Poker Hands, 237
Quinto Lottery, 235
State Lottery Number, 243
The Mathematics of Gambling,
244
Winning a Door Prize, 223
Winning Tickets, 245
World-Class Orchestras, 245
Video and Computer Games, 222
Video Games, 225
Yahtzee, 250
Environmental Sciences, the Earth,
and Space
Apple Production, 209
Bad Weather, 249
Endangered Amphibians, 235
Endangered Species, 202, 207
Lightning Strikes, 224
Plant Selection, 246
Sources of Energy Uses in the
United States, 199
Food and Dining
Banquet Meal Choices, 252
Breakfast Drink, 248
Favorite Ice Cream, 204
Inspecting Restaurants, 236
Pizzas and Salads, 224
Purchasing a Pizza, 209
Snack Foods, 207
Government, Taxes, Politics, Public
Policy, and Voting
Congressional Terms, 224
Federal Government Revenue, 200
Government Employees, 222
Mail Delivery, 208
Senate Partisanship, 245
Territorial Selection, 250
Law and Order: Criminal Justice
Bank Robberies, 214
Crimes Committed, 200
Female Prison Inmates, 223
Guilty or Innocent?, 221
Prison Populations, 222, 223
Victims of Violence, 193
Manufacturing and Product
Development
Defective Batteries, 223
Defective Integrated Circuits, 242
xviii Index of Applications
Defective Items, 223
Defective Resistors, 245
Factory Output, 248
Flashlight Batteries, 223
Garage Door Openers, 234
Lock Codes, 229
T-shirt Factories, 248
Marketing, Sales, and Consumer
Behavior
Appliance Ownership, 251
Commercials, 226
Customer Purchases, 225
Free-Sample Requests, 236
Gift Baskets, 224
Homeowner’s and Automobile
Insurance, 216
Lawnmower and Weed Wacker
Ownership, 248
New-Car Warranty, 251
Purchasing Sweaters, 248
Sales, 223
Shopping Mall Promotion, 198
Test Marketing Products, 237
Ties, 221
Medicine, Clinical Studies, and
Experiments
Autism, 225
Chronic Sinusitis, 249
Doctor Specialties, 224
Effectiveness of a Vaccine, 248
Emergency Room Tests, 208
Heart Attacks, 252
Heart Disease, 224
Medical Patients, 208
Medical Specialties, 207
Medical Tests on Emergency
Patients, 208
Medical Treatment, 200
Medication Effectiveness, 225
Multiple Births, 207
U.S. Organ Transplants, 226
Which Pain Reliever Is Best?, 206
Psychology and Human Behavior
Sleep Hours, 195
Would You Bet Your Life?, 185, 250
Sports, Exercise, and Fitness
Baseball Players, 249
Exercise Preference, 247
Football Team Selection, 246
Health Club Membership, 248
Leisure Time Exercise, 225
Tennis Tournament, 243
Surveys and Culture
Survey on Women in the
Military, 219
Technology
Cell Phone Models, 236
Passwords, 235
Smart TVs, 223
Software Selection, 247
Transportation
Automobile Insurance, 223
Automobile Sales, 222
Driving While Intoxicated, 205
Fatal Accidents, 225
License Plates, 250
Licensed Drivers in the United
States, 208
Motor Cycle License Plates, 249
Motor Vehicle Accidents, 200
Motor Vehicle Producers, 247
New Cars, 248
On-Time Airplane Arrivals, 225
Parking Tickets, 219
Railroad Accidents, 237
Railroad Memorial License
Plates, 229
Riding to School, 207
Rural Speed Limits, 199
Seat Belt Use, 222
Types of Vehicles, 226
Travel and Leisure
Bowling and Club Membership, 251
Carry-on Items, 249
Country Club Activities, 224
Cruise Ship Activities, 252
Travel over the Thanksgiving
Holiday, 194
CHAPTER 5
Discrete Probability
Distributions
Buildings and Structures
New Home Plans, 272
Business, Management, and Work
Accounting Errors, 306
Assistant Manager Applicants, 294
Employed Women, 307
Job Applicants, 299
Job Bids, 273
Job Elimination, 284
Work versus Conscience, 300
Demographics and Population
Characteristics
Alcohol Abstainers, 308
American and Foreign-Born
Citizens, 284
Blood Types, 296, 300, 308
Language Spoken at Home by the
U.S. Population, 283
Left-Handed People, 293
Runaways, 284
Unmarried Women, 305
Economics and Investment
Benford’s Law, 272
Bond Investment, 271
House Insurance, 295
Education and Testing
Dropping College Courses, 263
High School Dropouts, 283
Lessons Outside of School, 300
Mathematics Tutoring Center, 264
People Who Have Some College
Education, 283
Teachers and Summer
Vacation, 300
Entertainment
Amusement Park Game, 299
Card Game, 305
Chuck-a-Luck, 308
Coins, Births, and Other Random
(?) Events, 262
Daily Newspapers, 272
Lottery Numbers, 308
Lottery Prizes, 273
On Hold for Talk Radio, 269
Roulette, 273
UNO Cards, 270
Watching Fireworks, 284
Winning the Lottery, 273
Winning Tickets, 270
Environmental Sciences, the Earth,
and Space
Alternate Sources of Fuel, 284
Herbicides, 290
Household Wood Burning, 305
Radiation Exposure, 271
Food and Dining
Coffee Shop Customers, 290
Coffee with Meals, 272
Items Donated to a Food
Bank, 306
M&M’s Color Distribution, 298
Pizza Deliveries, 273
Pizza for Breakfast, 305
Unsanitary Restaurants, 282
Government, Taxes, Politics, Public
Policy, and Voting
Accuracy Count of Votes, 306
Federal Government Employee
E-mail Use, 284
Income Tax Errors, 307
Poverty and the Federal
Government, 284
History
Rockets and Targets, 297
Law and Order: Criminal Justice
Calls for a Fire Company, 307
Emergency Calls, 304
Prison Inmates, 283
Sentencing Intoxicated
Drivers, 281
Study of Robberies, 298
U.S. Police Chiefs and the Death
Penalty, 305
Manufacturing and Product
Development
Defective Calculators, 299
Defective Compressor Tanks, 295
Defective Computer Keyboards, 299
Defective DVDs, 306
Defective Electronics, 299
Guidance Missile System, 283
Misprints on Manuscript Pages, 299
Quality Control Check, 307
Marketing, Sales, and Consumer
Behavior
Advertising, 283
Auto Repair Insurance, 299
Cans of Paint Purchased, 305
Car Sales, 306
CD Purchases, 307
Color of Raincoats, 308
Company Mailing, 299
Credit Cards, 304
Customers in a Bank, 305
Internet Purchases, 284
Mail Ordering, 299
Phone Customers, 305
Shoe Purchases, 304
Suit Sales, 272
Medicine, Clinical Studies, and
Experiments
Drug Prescriptions, 298
Flu Shots, 305
High Blood Pressure, 283
Pooling Blood Samples, 257, 306
Psychology and Human Behavior
Calls for a Crisis Hotline, 307
Sports, Exercise, and Fitness
Fitness Machine, 272
Goals in Hockey, 264
Shooting an Arrow, 299
Sports Score Hot Line Calls, 308
Surveys and Culture
Belief in UFOs, 283
Shower or Bath Preferences, 300
Survey on Automobiles
Owned, 272
Survey on Bathing Pets, 284
Survey on Doctor Visits, 278
Survey on Employment, 278
Survey on Fear of Being Home
Alone at Night, 279
Survey of High School
Seniors, 284
Technology
Cell Phones per Household, 307
Computer Assistance, 306
Internet Access via Cell
Phone, 305
Toll-Free Telephone Calls, 292
The Sciences
Colors of Flowers, 299
Elm Trees, 308
Mendel’s Theory, 298
Transportation
Airline Accidents, 284
Arrivals at an Airport, 305
Carpooling, 307
Driver’s Exam, 307
Driving While Intoxicated, 280
Emissions Inspection
Failures, 299
Self-Driving Automobile, 305
Traffic Accidents, 272
Truck Inspection Violations, 298
Travel and Leisure
Boating Accidents, 306
Bowling Team Uniforms, 308
Destination Weddings, 283
Lost Luggage in Airlines, 306
Outdoor Regatta, 305

CHAPTER 6
The Normal Distribution
Buildings and Structures
New Home Prices, 339
New Home Sizes, 339
Business, Management, and Work
Automobile Workers, 337
Multiple-Job Holders, 363
Number of Bank Branches, 322
Retirement Income, 363
Salaries for Actuaries, 362
Working Weekends, 349
Unemployment, 365
Demographics and Population
Characteristics
Ages of Proofreaders, 353
Amount of Laundry Washed Each
Year, 353
Heights of People, 365
Life Expectancies, 353
New Residences, 352
Per Capita Income of Delaware
Residents, 353
Population of College Cities, 360
Residences of U.S. Citizens, 360
Single Americans, 360
Small Business Owners, 360
U.S. Population, 363
Economics and Investment
Home Ownership, 360
Home Values, 353
Itemized Charitable
Contributions, 339
Monthly Mortgage Payments, 338
Education and Testing
Doctoral Student Salaries, 338
Elementary School Teachers, 361
Enrollment in Personal Finance
Course, 363
Exam Scores, 340
Female Americans Who Have
Completed 4 Years of
College, 360
GMAT Scores, 366
High School Competency Test, 339
Private Four-Year College
Enrollment, 363
Reading Improvement Program, 339
Salary of Full Professors, 338
SAT Scores, 338, 340, 352
School Enrollment, 360
Smart People, 337
Teachers’ Salaries, 337
Teachers’ Salaries in
Connecticut, 352
Teachers’ Salaries in North
Dakota, 352
TIMSS Test, 353
Years to Complete a Graduate
Program, 365
Entertainment
Box Office Revenues, 340
Decibels at a Concert, 331
Drive-in Movies, 340
Hours That Children Watch
Television, 347
Movie Ticket Prices, 352
Slot Machine Earnings, 362
Slot Machines, 363
Environmental Sciences, the Earth,
and Space
Amount of Rain in a City, 365
Average Precipitation, 363
Earthquakes, 352
Electric Bills, 365
Glass Garbage Generation, 352
Heights of Active Volcanoes, 363
Monthly Newspaper
Recycling, 330
Monthly Precipitation for
Miami, 353
Temperatures for Pittsburgh, 340
Water Use, 352
Food and Dining
Bottled Drinking Water, 339
Confectionary Products, 363
Mistakes in Restaurant
Bills, 360
Sports Drink Consumption, 365
Government, Taxes, Politics, Public
Policy, and Voting
Cigarette Taxes, 340
Medicare Hospital Insurance, 353
Social Security Payments, 340
Law and Order: Criminal Justice
Larceny Thefts, 363
Police Academy Acceptance
Exams, 339
Police Academy Qualifications, 333
Population in U.S. Jails, 337
Prison Sentences, 338
Manufacturing and Product
Development
Breaking Strength of Steel
Cable, 353
Life of Smoke Detectors, 352
Repair Cost for Microwave
Ovens, 365
Wristwatch Lifetimes, 339
Marketing, Sales, and Consumer
Behavior
Credit Card Debt, 338
Mail Order, 360
Product Marketing, 339
Technology Inventories, 335
Medicine, Clinical Studies, and
Experiments
Back Injuries, 360
Heart Rates, 338
Lengths of Hospital Stays, 339
Liters of Blood in Adults, 329
Normal Ranges for Vital
Statistics, 311, 364
Per Capita Spending on Health
Care, 362
Qualifying Test Scores, 339
Systolic Blood Pressure, 334, 353
Public Health and Nutrition
Calories in Fast-Food
Sandwiches, 366
Cholesterol Content, 353
Sodium in Frozen Food, 363
Sports, Exercise, and Fitness
Batting Averages, 358
Number of Baseball Games
Played, 336
Number of Runs Made, 340
Surveys and Culture
Sleep Survey, 365
Technology
Cell Phone Lifetimes, 352
Computer Ownership, 365
Cost of Smartphone
Repair, 362
Cost of Personal Computers, 339
Household Online
Connection, 365
Internet Browsers, 360
Internet Users, 340
Monthly Spending for Paging and
Messaging Services, 362
Smartphone Ownership, 360
Wireless Sound System
Lifetimes, 363
The Sciences
Cat Behavior, 339
Newborn Elephant Weights, 338
Ragweed Allergies, 357
Transportation
Ages of Amtrak Passenger
Cars, 339
Commute Time to Work, 338
Commuter Train Passengers, 362
Drive Times, 348
Falling Asleep While Driving, 356
Miles Driven Annually, 338
Parking Lot Construction, 361
Passengers on a Bus, 365
Potholes, 338
Price of Gasoline, 338
Times to Travel to School, 351
Travel and Leisure
Cost of Overseas Trip, 352
Mountain Climbing Safety, 359
Thickness of Library Books, 365
CHAPTER 7
Confidence Intervals and
Sample Size
Buildings and Structures
Home Fires Started by
Candles, 385
Business, Management, and Work
Dog Bites to Postal Workers, 407
Number of Jobs, 379
Overtime Hours Worked, 387
Work Interruptions, 396
Worktime Lost Due to
Accidents, 387
Index of Applications xix
Demographics and Population
Characteristics
Ages of Insurance
Representatives, 410
Marriages in the United States, 407
Economics and Investment
Credit Union Assets, 376
Home Ownership Rates, 404
NYSE Stock Prices, 388
Stock Prices, 404
Education and Testing
Adult Educational Activities, 408
Age of College Students, 404
Child Care Programs, 408
Cost of Texts, 409
Covering College Costs, 392
Day Care Tuition, 380
Educational Television, 396
Freshmen GPAs, 379
High School Graduates Who Take
the SAT, 396
Hours Spent Studying, 410
Number of Faculty, 379
SAT Scores, 404
Students Who Major in
Business, 396
Undergraduate GPAs, 380
Entertainment
Lengths of Children’s Animated
Films, 407, 408
Environmental Sciences, the Earth,
and Space
Length of Growing Seasons, 380
Named Storms, 402
Number of Farms, 380
Temperature on Thanksgiving
Day, 385
Thunderstorm Speeds, 387
Travel to Outer Space, 396
Unhealthy Days in Cities, 388
Water Temperature, 380
Food and Dining
Cost of Pizzas, 380
Fast-Food Bills for Drive-Thru
Customers, 379
Government, Taxes, Politics, Public
Policy, and Voting
Money Spent on Road Repairs, 410
Parking Meter Revenue, 388
State Gasoline Taxes, 387
Women Representatives in State
Legislature, 387
History
Ages of Presidents at Time of
Death, 403
Law and Order: Criminal Justice
Assault Victims, 391
Automobile Thefts, 377
Burglaries, 410
Gun Control, 397
Manufacturing and Product
Development
Baseball Diameters, 408
xx Index of Applications
Calculator Battery Lifetimes, 405
How Many Tissues Should Be in
a Box?, 378
Lifetimes of Snowmobiles, 408
Lifetimes of Wristwatches, 404
MPG for Lawn Mowers, 408
Marketing, Sales, and Consumer
Behavior
Christmas Presents, 380
Costs for a 30-Second Spot on
Cable Television, 388
Cyber Monday Shopping, 395
Days It Takes to Sell an Aveo, 373
Holiday Gifts, 395
Number of Credit Cards, 407
Pacemaker Batteries, 404
Medicine, Clinical Studies, and
Experiments
Blood Pressure, 407
Contracting Influenza, 395
Cost of an Operation, 404
Doctor Visit Costs, 409
Emergency Room Accidents, 410
Eye Blinks, 407
Hospital Noise Levels, 380, 388
Number of Patients, 374
Osteoporosis, 402
Patients Treated in Hospital
Emergency Rooms, 410
Stress Test Results, 388
Psychology and Human Behavior
Stress and the College Student,
369, 408
Public Health and Nutrition
Calories in a Standard Size Candy
Bar, 404
Calories in Candy Bars, 387
Carbohydrate Grams in
Commercial Subs, 379
Carbohydrates in Yogurt, 404
Carbon Monoxide Deaths, 404
Daily Cholesterol Intake, 404
Diet Habits, 396
Obesity, 396
Overweight Men, 379
Skipping Lunch, 410
Sport Drink Decision, 386
Sports, Exercise, and Fitness
Dance Company Students, 387
Indy 500 Qualifier Speeds, 388
U.S. Fitness Guidelines, 396
Surveys and Culture
Belief in Haunted Places, 395
Cat Owners, 408
Does Success Bring
Happiness?, 394
Political Survey, 410
Shopping Survey, 407
Survey on Politics, 397
Technology
Direct Satellite Television, 396
Home Computers, 394
Home Internet Access, 396
Internet Viewing, 380
Smartphone Ownership, 396
Social Networking Sites, 387
Television Set Ownership, 410
Wi-Fi Access, 396
The Sciences
Weights of Elephants, 387
Transportation
Automobile Pollution, 410
Automobile Repairs, 404
Fuel Efficiency of Cars and
Trucks, 379
Gasoline Use, 380
Manual Transmission
Automobiles, 395
Self-Driving Cars, 392
Truck Safety Check, 410
Weights of Minivans, 410
Travel and Leisure
Novel Pages, 410
Overseas Travel, 396
Vacation Days, 407
Vacation Sites, 407
CHAPTER 8
Hypothesis Testing
Buildings and Structures
Cost of Building a Home, 435
Heights of Tall Buildings, 449
Business, Management, and Work
Copy Machine Use, 436
Hourly Wage, 437
Men Aged 65 and Over in the
Labor Force, 481
Number of Jobs, 450
Revenue of Large Businesses, 435
Sick Days, 435, 437
Working at Home, 479
Demographics and Population
Characteristics
Age of Psychologists, 469
Ages of Medical Doctors, 427
Ages of Professional Women, 483
Average Family Size, 450
First-Time Births, 478
First-Time Marriages, 484
Heights of 1-Year-Olds, 436
Heights of Models, 483
Runaways, 458
Economics and Investment
Home Closing Costs, 483
Stocks and Mutual Fund
Ownership, 457
Education and Testing
College Room and Board
Costs, 470
Cost of College Tuition, 432
Debt of College Graduates, 480
Doctoral Students’ Salaries, 458
Exam Grades, 470
How Much Better is Better on the
SAT?, 413, 482
IQ Test, 464
Medical School Applications, 437
Medical School Choices, 481
SAT Tests, 428
Student Expenditures, 436
Teaching Assistants’ Stipends, 450
Undergraduate Enrollment, 458
Entertainment
Movie Admission Prices, 481
Moviegoers, 435
Newspaper Reading Times, 479
Television Set Ownership, 458
Television Viewing by Teens, 449
Trifecta Winnings, 481
Environmental Sciences, the Earth,
and Space
Farm Sizes, 437
Heights of Volcanoes, 470
High Temperatures in January, 470
Natural Gas Heat, 458
Pollution By-products, 484
Recycling, 458
Tornado Deaths, 470
Warming and Ice Melt, 435
Water Consumption, 450
Wind Speed, 432
Food and Dining
Chewing Gum Use, 483
Soft Drink Consumption, 436
Takeout Food, 458
Government, Taxes, Politics, Public
Policy, and Voting
IRS Audits, 478
Lifetime of $1 Bills, 480
Replacing $1 Bills with
$1 Coins, 455
Salaries of Government
Employees, 436
Law and Order: Criminal Justice
Ages of Robbery Victims, 484
Car Thefts, 434
Federal Prison Populations, 481
Prison Sentences, 436
Prison Time, 479
Speeding Tickets, 437
Manufacturing and Product
Development
Breaking Strength of Cable, 437
Manufactured Machine Parts, 470
Soda Bottle Content, 469
Strength of Wrapping Cord, 484
Sugar Packaging, 474
Weights on Men’s Soccer
Shoes, 481
Marketing, Sales, and Consumer
Behavior
Consumer Protection Agency
Complaints, 478
Dress Shirts, 436
Shopper Purchases, 481
Medicine, Clinical Studies, and
Experiments
Aspirin Consumption, 444
Caesarean Babies, 454
Cost of Braces, 449
Cost of Rehabilitation, 430
Doctor Visits, 450
Female Physicians, 458
Hospital Infections, 444
Medical Operations, 450
Outpatient Surgery, 465
Sleep Time, 449
Sunlight after Surgery, 448
Time Until Indigestion Relief, 481
Weight Loss of Newborns, 436
Public Health and Nutrition
After-School Snacks, 458
Alcohol and Tobacco Use by High
School Students, 481
Calories in Pancake Syrup, 470
Carbohydrates in Fast Foods, 469
Chocolate Chip Cookie
Calories, 449
Cigarette Smoking, 449
Eggs and Your Health, 425
Nicotine Content of Cigarettes,
448, 466, 470
Obese Young People, 454
Quitting Smoking, 457
Vitamin C in Fruits and Veg-
etables, 470
Youth Smoking, 458
Sports, Exercise, and Fitness
Exercise to Reduce Stress, 458
Football Injuries, 458
Games Played by NBA Scoring
Leaders, 482
Golf Scores, 470
Joggers’ Oxygen Uptake, 447
Surveys and Culture
Breakfast Survey, 484
Caffeinated Beverage Survey, 484
Life on Other Planets, 457
Survey on Vitamin Usage, 484
Technology
Cell Phone Bills, 450
Cell Phone Call Lengths, 450
Facebook Friends, 435
Internet Visits, 450
MP3 Ownership, 481
Radio Ownership, 484
Telephone Calls, 436
Transferring Phone Calls, 469
The Sciences
Hog Weights, 475
Plant Leaf Lengths, 482
Seed Germination Times, 484
Whooping Crane Eggs, 481
Transportation
Automobiles Purchased, 458
Commute Time to Work, 450
Daily Driving, 436
Distance to Supermarkets, 470
Experience of Taxi Drivers, 484
First-Class Airline
Passengers, 459
Fuel Consumption, 481, 482
Interstate Speeds, 470

One-Way Airfares, 478
Stopping Distances, 436
Testing Gas Mileage Claims, 468
Tire Inflation, 482
Transmission Service, 437
Travel Times to Work, 480
Travel and Leisure
Borrowing Library Books, 458
Hotel Rooms, 483
Number of Words in a Novel, 449
Pages in Romance Novels, 484
CHAPTER 9
Testing the Difference
Between Two Means,
Two Proportions, and Two
Variances
Buildings and Structures
Ages of Homes, 504
Apartment Rental Fees, 543
Heights of Tall Buildings, 536
Heights of World Famous
Cathedrals, 541
Home Prices, 495, 497
Business, Management, and Work
Animal Bites of Postal
Workers, 525
Interview Errors, 526
Senior Workers, 526
Too Long on the Telephone, 502
Work Absences, 500
Demographics and Population
Characteristics
Age Differences, 496
Ages of Dogs, 537
County Size in Indiana and
Iowa, 536
Family Incomes, 543
Heights of 9-Year-Olds, 495
Male Head of Household, 544
Manual Dexterity
Differences, 495
Married People, 526
Medical School
Employments, 504
Never Married People, 526
Per Capita Income, 495
Population and Area, 536
Salaries of Chemists, 543
Economics and Investment
Bank Deposits, 510
Daily Stock Prices, 537
Education and Testing
ACT Scores, 495
Ages of College Students, 496
Average Earnings for College
Graduates, 497, 541
College Education, 526
Cyber School Enrollment, 504
Exam Scores at Private and Public
Schools, 497
Factory Worker Literacy Rates, 543
Grade Point Averages, 532
High School Graduation
Rates, 526
Improving Study Habits, 515
Lay Teachers in Religious
Schools, 541
Lecture versus Computer-Assisted
Instruction, 525
Literacy Scores, 496
Mathematical Skills, 543
Out-of-State Tuitions, 504
Reading Program, 536
Reducing Errors in Grammar, 516
Retention Test Scores, 515
School Teachers’ Salaries, 536
Teachers’ Salaries, 494, 503, 541
Test Scores, 537
Testing After Review, 541
Tuition Costs for Medical
School, 536
Undergraduate Financial Aid, 526
Entertainment
Gambling, 541
Hours Spent Watching
Television, 503
Television Watching, 496
Environmental Sciences, the Earth,
and Space
Air Quality, 515
Average Temperatures, 541
High and Low Temperatures, 541
Waterfall Heights, 503
Winter Temperatures, 536
Food and Dining
Prices of Low-Calorie Foods, 543
Soft Drinks in School, 541
Government, Taxes, Politics, Public
Policy, and Voting
Money Spent on Road Repair, 544
Monthly Social Security
Benefits, 495
Tax-Exempt Properties, 503
Law and Order: Criminal Justice
Criminal Arrests, 522
Victims of Violence, 525
Manufacturing and Product
Development
Weights of Running Shoes, 503, 536
Weights of Vacuum Cleaners, 503
Marketing, Sales, and Consumer
Behavior
Coupon Use, 526
Store Sales, 497
Medicine, Clinical Studies, and
Experiments
Can Video Games Save Lives?, 514
Heart Rates of Smokers, 532
Hospital Stays for Maternity
Patients, 504
Is More Expensive Better?, 523
Length of Hospital Stays, 495
Medical Supply Sales, 526
Noise Levels in Hospitals, 503,
535, 541
Obstacle Course Times, 516
Overweight Dogs, 516
Physical Therapy, 541
Pulse Rates of Identical
Twins, 516
Vaccination Rates in Nursing
Homes, 487, 521, 542
Working Breath Rate, 495
Psychology and Human Behavior
Bullying, 527
Mistakes in a Song, 516
Self-Esteem Scores, 496
Smoking and Education, 524
Toy Assembly Test, 516
Public Health and Nutrition
Calories in Ice Cream, 536
Carbohydrates in Candy, 503, 536
Cholesterol Levels, 512, 516, 543
Hypertension, 525
Sodium Content of Cereals, 542
Sports, Exercise, and Fitness
Batting Averages, 505
Heights of Basketball Players, 544
Hockey’s Highest Scorers, 504
Home Runs, 493, 505
Miniature Golf Scores, 504
PGA Golf Scores, 516
Professional Golfers’
Earnings, 504
Surveys and Culture
Desire to Be Rich, 525
Pet Ownership, 525
Smoking Survey, 526
The Sciences
Egg Production, 543
Wolf Pack Pups, 535
Transportation
Airline On-Time Arrivals, 526
Airport Passengers, 533
Automatic Transmissions, 534
Commuters, 525
Commuting Distances for
Students, 496
Commuting Times, 495
Commuting Times for College
Students, 496
Gasoline Prices, 504
Seat Belt Use, 525
Travel and Leisure
Driving for Pleasure, 540
Jet Ski Accidents, 543
Leisure Time, 491, 525
Museum Attendance, 537
Recreational Time, 494
CHAPTER 10
Correlation and Regression
Buildings and Structures
Tall Buildings, 563, 571
Business, Management, and Work
Average Age and Length of
Service, 562, 571
Index of Applications xxi
Typing Speed and Word
Processing, 600
Demographics and Population
Characteristics
Age and Driving Accidents, 602
Age and Net Worth, 572
Age, GPA, and Income, 595
Life Expectancies, 562, 571
Economics and Investment
Oil and Gas Prices, 561, 570
Education and Testing
Absences and Final Grades,
550, 572
Alumni Contributions, 562, 570
Aspects of Students’ Academic
Behavior, 596
Class Size and Grades, 563, 571
Faculty and Students, 562, 571
Literacy Rates, 562, 571
More Math Means More Money, 595
Number of Teachers and Pupils
per Teacher, 551
SAT Scores, 572
State Board Scores, 593
Entertainment
Commercial Movie Releases,
561, 570
Television Viewers, 572
Environmental Sciences, the Earth,
and Space
Coal Production, 572
Deaths from Lightning, 600
Farm Acreage, 572
Forest Fires and Acres Burned,
562, 570
Food and Dining
Special Occasion Cakes, 595
Government, Taxes, Politics, Public
Policy, and Voting
State Debt and Per Capita Tax,
562, 570
Law and Order: Criminal Justice
Can Temperature Predict Crime?,
547, 601
Crimes, 561, 570
Manufacturing and Product
Development
Copy Machine Maintenance
Costs, 585
Marketing, Sales, and Consumer
Behavior
Customer Satisfaction and
Purchases, 600
Internet Use and Isolation, 601
Product Sales, 603
Puppy Cuteness and Cost, 600
Medicine, Clinical Studies, and
Experiments
Father’s and Son’s Weights, 572
Fireworks and Injuries, 571
Nursing Home Satisfaction, 595
Prescription Drug Prices, 602
xxii Index of Applications
Public Health and Nutrition
Age, Cholesterol, and Sodium, 596
Fat and Cholesterol, 602
Measles and Mumps, 562, 571
Protein and Diastolic Blood
Pressure, 600
Water and Carbohydrates,
562, 571
Sports, Exercise, and Fitness
At Bats and Hits, 562, 571
NHL Assists and Total Points,
563, 571
The Sciences
Gestation and Average Longevity,
563, 571
Transportation
Car Rental Companies, 550
Driver’s Age and Accidents, 600
Stopping Distances, 560, 569
CHAPTER 11
Other Chi-Square Tests
Business, Management, and Work
Displaced Workers, 639
Employee Absences, 618
Employment of High School
Females, 639
Employment Satisfaction, 642
Job Loss Reasons, 641
Mothers Working Outside the
Home, 633
Unemployment Time and Type of
Industry, 632
Demographics and Population
Characteristics
Age and Drug Use, 634
Blood Types, 617
Education Level and Health
Insurance, 618
Ethnicity and Movie Admissions,
632
Living Arrangements, 631, 640
Pet Owners, 632
Population and Age, 632
Women in the Military, 632
Economics and Investment
Pension Investments, 639
Education and Testing
Ages of Head Start Program
Students, 618
College Degree Recipients, 618
Education Level of Adults, 612
Extending the School Year, 617
Foreign Language Speaking
Dorms, 633
Statistics Class Times, 617
Student Majors at Colleges, 632
Volunteer Practices of
Students, 634
Entertainment
Music CDs Sold, 633
State Lottery Numbers, 619
Type of Music Preferred, 639
Television Viewing, 641
Environmental Sciences, the Earth,
and Space
Tornadoes, 639
Food and Dining
Athletic Status and Meat
Preference, 633
Consumption of Takeout
Foods, 641
Favorite Ice Cream Flavor, 641
Genetically Modified Food, 617
Skittles Color Distribution, 616
Types of Pizza Purchased, 642
Government, Taxes, Politics, Public
Policy, and Voting
Congressional Representatives, 632
Tax Credit Refunds, 642
Law and Order: Criminal Justice
Arrests for Crimes, 610
Firearm Deaths, 613, 618
Gun Sale Denials, 639
Violent Crimes, 632
Marketing, Sales, and Consumer
Behavior
Pennant Colors Purchased, 642
Medicine, Clinical Studies, and
Experiments
Cardiovascular Procedures, 640
Effectiveness of a New Drug, 633
Fathers in the Delivery Room, 634
Hospitals and Cesarean Delivery
Rates, 633
Hospitals and Infections, 625
Organ Transplantation, 632
Paying for Prescriptions, 618
Risk of Injury, 639
Type of Medicine, 633
Psychology and Human Behavior
Does Color Affect Your
Appetite?, 635
Happiness and Income, 629
Mental Illness, 627
Sports, Exercise, and Fitness
Injuries on Monkey Bars, 634
Youth Physical Fitness, 633
Surveys and Culture
Participation in a Market Research
Survey, 633
Technology
Internet Users, 618
Satellite Dishes in Restricted
Areas, 631
The Sciences
Statistics and Heredity, 607, 640
Transportation
Automobile Ownership, 633
On-Time Performance by
Airlines, 617
Traffic Accident Fatalities, 639
Truck Colors, 617
Types of Automobiles
Purchased, 618
Ways to Get to Work, 641
Travel and Leisure
Thanksgiving Travel, 634
CHAPTER 12
Analysis of Variance
Buildings and Structures
Home Building Times, 672
Lengths of Various Types of
Bridges, 677
Tall Buildings, 651
Business, Management, and Work
Weekly Unemployment
Benefits, 662
Education and Testing
Alumni Gift Solicitation, 681
Annual Child Care Costs, 655
Average Debt of College
Graduates, 655
Expenditures per Pupil, 654, 662
Number of Pupils in a Class, 655
Review Preparation for
Statistics, 678
Soap Bubble Experiments
(and Math), 671
Entertainment
Ages of Late-Night TV Talk
Show Viewers, 680
Movie Theater Attendance, 654
Environmental Sciences, the Earth,
and Space
Air Pollution, 680
Air Quality, 655
CO2 Emissions, 678
Number of State Parks, 677
Temperatures in January, 678
Government, Taxes, Politics, Public
Policy, and Voting
Voters in Presidential Elections, 680
Law and Order: Criminal Justice
School Incidents Involving Police
Calls, 678
Manufacturing and Product
Development
Durability of Paint, 672
Environmentally Friendly Air
Freshener, 672
Types of Outdoor Paint, 672
Marketing, Sales, and Consumer
Behavior
Age and Sales, 673
Automobile Sales Techniques, 670
Leading Businesses, 653
Microwave Oven Prices, 655
Prices of Body Soap, 680
Sales for Leading Companies, 662
Medicine, Clinical Studies, and
Experiments
Can Bringing Your Dog to Work
Reduce Stress?, 645, 679
Diets and Exercise Programs, 681
Effects of Different Types of
Diets, 679
Emergency Room Visits, 662
Psychology and Human Behavior
Adult Children of Alcoholics, 681
Colors That Make You Smarter,
653, 661
Public Health and Nutrition
Calories in Fast-Food
Sandwiches, 655
Carbohydrates in Cereals, 678
Fiber Content of Foods, 662
Grams of Fat per Serving of
Pizza, 678
Healthy Eating, 654
Iron Content of Foods and
Drinks, 678
Sodium Content of Foods, 654
Sports, Exercise, and Fitness
Weight Gain of Athletes, 654
Technology
Cell Phone Bills, 654
The Sciences
Increasing Plant Growth, 672
Transportation
Gasoline Consumption, 666
Gasoline Prices, 680
Hybrid Vehicles, 654
Miles per Gallon, 650
CHAPTER 13
Nonparametric Statistics
Buildings and Structures
Home Prices, 733
Property Assessments, 707
Business, Management, and Work
Annual Incomes for Men, 694
Employee Absences, 726
Job Offers for Chemical
Engineers, 712
Job Satisfaction, 702
Weekly Earnings of Women, 694
Demographics and Population
Characteristics
Ages at First Marriage for
Women, 694
Ages of Substance Abuse
Program Participants, 721
Birth Registry, 734
Gender of Patients at a Medical
Center, 726
Gender of Shoppers, 726
Gender of Train Passengers, 721
Economics and Investment
Bank Branches and Deposits, 716
Stock Market, 726
Education and Testing
Cyber School Enrollments, 725
Exam Scores, 695, 732
Expenditures for Pupils, 712
Externships, 695

Funding and Enrollment for Head
Start Students, 734
Homework Exercises and Exam
Scores, 731
Hours Worked by Student
Employees, 731
Manuscript Pages and
References, 731
Mathematics Achievement Test
Scores, 724
Mathematics Literacy
Scores, 712
Medical School Enrollments, 702
Number of Faculty for Proprietary
Schools, 695
Student Grade Point Averages, 733
Student Participation in a Blood
Drive, 702
Students’ Opinions on Lengthening
the School Year, 695
Textbook Costs, 733
Textbook Ranking, 725
Transfer Credits, 701
True or False Exam, 726
Entertainment
Daily Lottery Numbers, 725
Lottery Ticket Sales, 695
Motion Picture Releases and
Gross Revenue, 725
On-Demand Movie Rentals, 726
State Lottery Numbers, 734
Television Viewers, 695, 696
Type of Movies, 734
Environmental Sciences, the Earth,
and Space
Clean Air, 694
Deaths Due to Severe Weather, 695
Heights of Waterfalls, 711
Record High Temperatures, 731
Wave Heights, 691
Food and Dining
Lunch Costs, 731
Price of Pizza, 730
Soft Drinks, 695
Government, Taxes, Politics, Public
Policy, and Voting
Tolls for Bridge, 734
Law and Order: Criminal Justice
Legal Costs for School Districts, 708
Lengths of Prison Sentences, 701
Motor Vehicle Thefts and
Burglaries, 725
Number of Crimes per Week, 713
Shoplifting Incidents, 705
Speeding Tickets, 726
Manufacturing and Product
Development
Breaking Strength of Cable, 731
Lifetimes of Batteries, 733
Lifetimes of Handheld Video
Games, 701
Output of Motors, 734
Rechargeable Batteries, 730
Routine Maintenance and
Defective Parts, 696
Too Much or Too Little?, 685, 732
Marketing, Sales, and Consumer
Behavior
Grocery Store Repricing, 730
Printer Costs, 713
Medicine, Clinical Studies, and
Experiments
Accidents or Illnesses, 726
Cavities in Fourth-Grade
Students, 725
Drug Prices, 707, 708, 725, 734
Drug Side Effects, 688
Ear Infections in Swimmers, 692
Effects of a Pill on Appetite, 695
Hospital Infections, 710
Hospitals and Nursing Homes, 725
Medication and Reaction Times, 733
Pain Medication, 707
Patients at a Medical Center, 690
Physical Therapy Visits, 695
Psychology and Human Behavior
Charity Donations, 733
Compulsive Gamblers, 707
Depression Levels, 712
Speaking Confidence, 712
Public Health and Nutrition
Amounts of Caffeine in
Beverages, 713
Calories and Cholesterol in
Fast-Food Sandwiches, 725
Prices of Vitamin/Mineral
Supplements, 713
School Lunch, 700
Sodium Content of Fast-Food
Sandwiches, 733
Sodium Content of Microwave
Dinners, 712
Sugar Content, 712
Sports, Exercise, and Fitness
Baseball All-Star Winners, 722
Bowling Scores, 708
Game Attendance, 694
Hunting Accidents, 702
NBA Scoring Leaders, 731
Olympic Medals, 734
Skiing Conditions, 726
Speed Skating Times, 701
Times to Complete an Obstacle
Course, 699
Winning Baseball Games, 701
The Sciences
Maximum Speeds of Animals, 713
Tall Trees, 724
Weights of Turkeys, 733
Transportation
Automobile Ratings, 725
Fuel Efficiency of Automobiles, 731
Stopping Distances of
Automobiles, 701
Subway and Commuter Rail
Passengers, 724
Travel and Leisure
Amusement Park Admission
Price, 725
Beach Temperatures for July, 731
Fiction or Nonfiction Books, 732
Index of Applications xxiii
CHAPTER 14
Sampling and Simulation
Demographics and Population
Characteristics
Foreign-Born Residents, 761
Stay-at-Home Parents, 761
Education and Testing
Overview of U.S. Public
Schools, 748
Entertainment
Odd Man Out, 761
Television Set Ownership, 761
Television Show Interviews, 743
The Monty Hall Problem, 737, 765
Environmental Sciences, the Earth,
and Space
Record High Temperatures by
State, 749
Should We Be Afraid of
Lightning?, 743
Wind Speed of Hurricanes, 763
Food and Dining
Smoking Bans and Profits, 755
Government, Taxes, Politics, Public
Policy, and Voting
Electoral Votes, 749
Unemployment Rates and
Benefits, 763
Law and Order: Criminal Justice
State Governors on Capital
Punishment, 740
Medicine, Clinical Studies, and
Experiments
Snoring, 757
Public Health and Nutrition
The White or Wheat Bread
Debate, 747
Sports, Exercise, and Fitness
Basketball Foul Shots, 761
Clay Pigeon Shooting, 761
Outcomes of a Tennis Game, 758
Playing Basketball, 761
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The Nature
1
of Probability
and Statistics

STATISTICS TODAY
Is Higher Education “Going Digital”? © Shutterstock/Monkey Business Images RF

Today many students take college courses online and use eBooks. OUTLINE
Also, many students use a laptop, smartphone, or computer tablet Introduction
in the classroom. With the increased use of technology, some ques- 1–1 Descriptive and Inferential Statistics
tions about the effectiveness of this technology have been raised. 1–2 Variables and Types of Data
For example, 1–3 Data Collection and Sampling Techniques
1–4 Experimental Design
How many colleges and universities offer online courses?
1–5 Computers and Calculators
Do students feel that the online courses are equal in value to
Summary
the traditional classroom presentations?
Approximately how many students take online courses now?
Will the number of students who take online courses increase
OBJECTIVES
After competing this chapter, you should be able to:
in the future?
1 Demonstrate knowledge of statistical terms.
Has plagiarism increased since the advent of computers and
the Internet? 2 Differentiate between the two branches of
Do laptops, smartphones, and tablets belong in the ­classroom? statistics.

Have colleges established any guidelines for the use of 3 Identify types of data.
laptops, smartphones, and tablets?
4 Identify the measurement level for each
To answer these questions, Pew Research Center conducted a variable.
study of college graduates and college presidents in 2011. The pro- 5 Identify the four basic sampling techniques.
cedures they used and the results of the study are explained in this Explain the difference between an observa-
6
chapter. See Statistics Today—Revisited at the end of the chapter. tional and an experimental study.

7 Explain how statistics can be used and

misused.

8 Explain the importance of computers and

calculators in statistics.

1–1
2 Chapter 1 The Nature of Probability and Statistics
U n u s u a l Stats
Of people in the United
States, 14% said that
they feel happiest in
June, and 14% said that
they feel happiest in
­December.
Interesting Fact statistician may keep records of the number of yards a running back gains during a foot-
Every day in the United
States about 120 golfers
claim that they made a
hole-in-one.
HistoricalNote
A Scottish landowner
and president of the
Board of Agriculture, Sir
John ­Sinclair introduced
the word statistics into
the English language in
the 1798 publication of
his book on a statistical
­account of Scotland.
The word statistics is
derived from the Latin
word ­status, which is
loosely defined as a
statesman.
1–2
Introduction
You may be familiar with probability and statistics through radio, televi­sion, newspapers,
and magazines. For example, you may have read statements like the following found in
­newspapers.
• A recent survey found that 76% of the respondents said that they lied regularly to
their friends.
• The Tribune Review reported that the average hospital stay for circulatory system
ailments was 4.7 days and the average of the charges per stay was $52,574.
• Equifax reported that the total amount of credit card debt for a recent year was
$642 billion.
• A report conducted by the SAS Holiday Shopping Styles stated that the average
holiday shopper buys gifts for 13 people.
• The U.S. Department of Agriculture reported that a 5-foot 10-inch person who
weighs 154 pounds will burn 330 calories for 1 hour of dancing.
• The U.S. Department of Defense reported for a recent year that the average age of
active enlisted personnel was 27.4 years.
Statistics is used in almost all fields of human endeavor. In sports, for example, a
ball game, or the number of hits a baseball player gets in a season. In other areas, such
as public health, an administrator might be concerned with the number of residents who
contract a new strain of flu virus during a certain year. In education, a researcher might
want to know if new methods of teaching are better than old ones. These are only a few
examples of how statistics can be used in various occupations.
Furthermore, statistics is used to analyze the results of surveys and as a tool in scien-
tific research to make decisions based on controlled experiments. Other uses of statistics
include operations research, quality control, estimation, and prediction.
Statistics is the science of conducting studies to collect, organize, summarize, a
­ nalyze,
and draw conclusions from data.
There are several reasons why you should study statistics.
1. Like professional people, you must be able to read and understand the various sta-
tistical studies performed in your fields. To have this understanding, you must be
knowledgeable about the vocabulary, symbols, concepts, and statistical procedures
used in these studies.
2. You may be called on to conduct research in your field, since statistical procedures
are basic to research. To accomplish this, you must be able to design experiments;
collect, organize, analyze, and summarize data; and possibly make reliable predic-
tions or forecasts for future use. You must also be able to communicate the results
of the study in your own words.
3. You can also use the knowledge gained from studying statistics to become better
consumers and citizens. For example, you can make intelligent decisions about
what products to purchase based on consumer studies, about government spending
based on utilization studies, and so on.
It is the purpose of this chapter to introduce the goals for studying statistics by
­answering questions such as the following:
What are the branches of statistics?
What are data?
How are samples selected?

1–1
OBJECTIVE 1 To gain knowledge about seemingly haphazard situations, statisticians collect informa-
Demonstrate knowledge
of statistical terms.
HistoricalNote
The 1880 Census had
so many questions on it
that it took 10 years to
­publish the results.
HistoricalNote
The origin of descriptive
statistics can be traced to
data collection methods
used in censuses taken
by the Babylonians and
Egyptians between
4500 and 3000 b.c.
In addition, the Roman
Emperor Augustus
(27 b.c.–a.d. 17)
conducted surveys
on births and deaths
of the citizens of the
­empire, as well as the
number of livestock
each owned and the
crops each citizen
harvested yearly.
OBJECTIVE 2 explained in Section 1–3.
Differentiate between the
two branches of statistics.
FIGURE 1–1
Population and Sample
Population
Sample
Section 1–1 Descriptive and Inferential Statistics 3
Descriptive and Inferential Statistics
tion for variables, which describe the situation.
A variable is a characteristic or attribute that can assume different values.
Data are the values (measurements or observations) that the variables can assume.
Variables whose values are determined by chance are called random ­variables.
Suppose that an insurance company studies its records over the past several years and
determines that, on average, 3 out of every 100 automobiles the company insured were
­involved in accidents during a 1-year period. Although there is no way to predict the specific
automobiles that will be involved in an accident (random occurrence), the company can adjust
its rates accordingly, since the company knows the general pattern over the long run. (That is,
on average, 3% of the insured automobiles will be involved in an ­accident each year.)
A collection of data values forms a data set. Each value in the data set is called a
data value or a datum.
In statistics it is important to distinguish between a sample and a population.
A population consists of all subjects (human or otherwise) that are being studied.
When data are collected from every subject in the population, it is called a census.
For example, every 10 years the United States conducts a census. The primary purpose
of this census is to determine the apportionment of the seats in the House of ­Representatives.
The first census was conducted in 1790 and was mandated by Article 1, Section 2 of the
Constitution. As the United States grew, the scope of the census also grew. Today the Census
limits questions to populations, housing, manufacturing, agriculture, and mortality. The Cen-
sus is conducted by the Bureau of the Census, which is part of the Department of Commerce.
Most of the time, due to the expense, time, size of population, medical concerns, etc.,
it is not possible to use the entire population for a statistical study; therefore, researchers
use samples.
A sample is a group of subjects selected from a population.
If the subjects of a sample are properly selected, most of the time they should possess
the same or similar characteristics as the subjects in the population. See Figure 1–1.
However, the information obtained from a statistical sample is said to be biased if the
results from the sample of a population are radically different from the results of a census
of the population. Also, a sample is said to be biased if it does not represent the popula-
tion from which it has been selected. The techniques used to properly select a sample are
The body of knowledge called statistics is sometimes divided into two main areas,
depending on how data are used. The two areas are
1. Descriptive statistics
2. Inferential statistics
Descriptive statistics consists of the collection, organization, summarization, and
presentation of data.
In descriptive statistics the statistician tries to describe a situation. Consider the national
census conducted by the U.S. government every 10 years. Results of this census give you
the average age, income, and other characteristics of the U.S. population. To obtain this
­information, the Census Bureau must have some means to ­collect relevant data. Once data
are collected, the bureau must organize and summarize them. Finally, the bureau needs a
means of presenting the data in some meaningful form, such as charts, graphs, or tables.
1–3
4 Chapter 1 The Nature of Probability and Statistics

The second area of statistics is called inferential statistics.

Inferential statistics consists of generalizing from samples to populations, perfor­ming
estimations and hypothesis tests, determining relationships among variables, and mak­
ing predictions.

Here, the statistician tries to make inferences from samples to populations. Inferential
HistoricalNote statistics uses probability, i.e., the chance of an event occurring. You may be familiar
Inferential statistics with the concepts of probability through various forms of gambling. If you play cards,
­originated in the 1600s, dice, bingo, or lotteries, you win or lose according to the laws of probability. Probability
when John Graunt theory is also used in the insurance industry and other areas.
published his book The area of inferential statistics called hypothesis testing is a decision-making pro-
on population growth, cess for evaluating claims about a population, based on information obtained from sam-
Natural and Political Ob- ples. For example, a researcher may wish to know if a new drug will reduce the number of
servations Made upon heart attacks in men over age 70 years of age. For this study, two groups of men over age
the Bills of Mortality. 70 would be selected. One group would be given the drug, and the other would be given
About the same time, a placebo (a substance with no medical benefits or harm). Later, the number of heart at-
another mathematician/ tacks occurring in each group of men would be counted, a statistical test would be run,
­astronomer, Edmond and a decision would be made about the effectiveness of the drug.
Halley, published the Statisticians also use statistics to determine relationships among variables. For ex-
first complete mortal- ample, relationships were the focus of the most noted study in the 20th century, “Smoking
ity ­tables. (Insurance and Health,” published by the Surgeon General of the United States in 1964. He stated
­companies use mortality that after reviewing and evaluating the data, his group found a definite relationship be-
tables to determine life tween smoking and lung cancer. He did not say that cigarette smoking a­ ctually causes
insurance rates.) lung cancer, but that there is a relationship between smoking and lung cancer. This con-
clusion was based on a study done in 1958 by Hammond and Horn. In this study, 187,783
men were observed over a period of 45 months. The death rate from lung ­cancer in this
group of volunteers was 10 times as great for smokers as for ­nonsmokers.
Finally, by studying past and present data and conditions, statisticians try to make
U n u s u a l Stat predictions based on this information. For example, a car dealer may look at past sales
Twenty-nine percent of records for a specific month to decide what types of automobiles and how many of each
Americans want their type to order for that month next year.
boss’s job.
EXAMPLE 1–1 Descriptive or Inferential Statistics
Determine whether descriptive or inferential statistics were used.
a. The average price of a 30-second ad for the Academy Awards show in a recent
year was 1.90 million dollars.
b. The Department of Economic and Social Affairs predicts that the population of
Mexico City, Mexico, in 2030 will be 238,647,000 people.
c. A medical report stated that taking statins is proven to lower heart attacks, but some
people are at a slightly higher risk of developing diabetes when taking statins.
d. A survey of 2234 people conducted by the Harris Poll found that 55% of the
respondents said that excessive complaining by adults was the most annoying
social media habit.
SOLUTION

a. A descriptive statistic (average) was used since this statement was based on data
obtained in a recent year.
b. Inferential statistics were used since this is a prediction for a future year.
c. Inferential statistics were used since this conclusion was drawn from data obtained
from samples and used to conclude that the results apply to a population.
d. Descriptive statistics were used since this is a result obtained from a sample of
2234 survey respondents.

1–4
 Section 1–1 Descriptive and Inferential Statistics 5

Applying the Concepts 1–1

Attendance and Grades
Read the following on attendance and grades, and answer the questions.
A study conducted at Manatee Community College revealed that students who attended class
95 to 100% of the time usually received an A in the class. Students who attended class 80 to 90%
of the time usually received a B or C in the class. Students who attended class less than 80% of the
time usually received a D or an F or eventually withdrew from the class.
Based on this information, attendance and grades are related. The more you attend class, the more
U n u s u a l Stat likely it is you will receive a higher grade. If you improve your attendance, your grades will probably
Only one-third of crimes improve. Many factors affect your grade in a course. One factor that you have considerable control over
committed are reported is attendance. You can increase your opportunities for learning by attending class more often.
to the police. 1. What are the variables under study?
2. What are the data in the study?
3. Are descriptive, inferential, or both types of statistics used?
4. What is the population under study?
5. Was a sample collected? If so, from where?
6. From the information given, comment on the relationship between the variables.
See page 38 for the answers.

Exercises 1–1
1. Define statistics.
2. What is a variable?
3. What is meant by a census?
4. How does a population differ from a sample?
5. Explain the difference between descriptive and inferen-
tial statistics.
6. Name three areas where probability is used.
7. Why is information obtained from samples used more
often than information obtained from populations?
8. What is meant by a biased sample?
For Exercises 9–17, determine whether descriptive or
­inferential statistics were used.
9. Because of the current economy, 49% of 18- to 34- year-
olds have taken a job to pay the bills. (Source: Pew
­Research Center)
11. In a weight loss study using teenagers at Boston
University, 52% of the group said that they lost weight
and kept it off by counting calories.
12. Based on a sample of 2739 respondents, it is
estimated that pet owners spent a total of 14 billion
­dollars on veterinarian care for their pets.
(Source: American Pet Products Association, Pet
Owners Survey)
13. A recent article stated that over 38 million U.S. adults
binge-drink alcohol.
14. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention esti-
mated that for a specific school year, 7% of children in
kindergartens in the state of Oregon had nonmedical
waivers for vaccinations.
15. A study conducted by a research network found that
people with fewer than 12 years of education had
lower life expectancies than those with more years of
education.
16. A survey of 1507 smartphone users showed that 38% of
them purchased insurance at the same time as they pur-
chased their phones.
17. Forty-four percent of the people in the United States
have type O blood. (Source: American Red Cross)

10. In 2025, the world population is predicted to be 8 billion

people. (Source: United Nations)

1–5
6 Chapter 1 The Nature of Probability and Statistics

Extending the Concepts

18. Find three statistical studies and explain whether they 19. Find a gambling game and explain how probability was
used descriptive or inferential statistics. used to determine the outcome.

1–2 Variables and Types of Data

OBJECTIVE 3 As stated in Section 1–1, statisticians gain information about a particular situation by col-
Identify types of data. lecting data for random variables. This section will explore in greater detail the nature of
variables and types of data.
Variables can be classified as qualitative or quantitative.

Qualitative variables are variables that have distinct categories according to some
characteristic or attribute.

For example, if subjects are classified according to gender (male or female), then the
variable gender is qualitative. Other examples of qualitative variables are religious pref-
erence and geographic locations.

Quantitative variables are variables that can be counted or measured.

For example, the variable age is numerical, and people can be ranked in order according
to the value of their ages. Other examples of quantitative variables are heights, weights,
and body temperatures.
Quantitative variables can be further classified into two groups: discrete and continu-
ous. Discrete variables can be assigned values such as 0, 1, 2, 3 and are said to be count-
able. Examples of discrete variables are the number of children in a family, the number
of students in a classroom, and the number of calls received by a call center each day for
a month.

Discrete variables assume values that can be counted.

Continuous variables, by comparison, can assume an infinite number of values in an

interval between any two specific values. Temperature, for example, is a continuous vari-
able, since the variable can assume an infinite number of values between any two given
temperatures.

Continuous variables can assume an infinite number of values between any two
specific values. They are obtained by measuring. They often include fractions and
decimals.

The classification of variables can be summarized as follows:

Variables

Qualitative Quantitative

Discrete Continuous

1–6
 Section 1–2 Variables and Types of Data 7

EXAMPLE 1–2 Discrete or Continuous Data

Classify each variable as a discrete or continuous variable.
a. The number of hours during a week that children ages 12 to 15 reported that they
watched television.
b. The number of touchdowns a quarterback scored each year in his college football
career.
c. The amount of money a person earns per week working at a fast-food restaurant.
d. The weights of the football players on the teams that play in the NFL this year.
SOLUTION

a. Continuous, since the variable time is measured

b. Discrete, since the number of touchdowns is counted
c. Discrete, since the smallest value that money can assume is in cents
d. Continuous, since the variable weight is measured

Since continuous data must be measured, answers must be rounded because of the
U n u s u a l Stat limits of the measuring device. Usually, answers are rounded to the nearest given unit. For
Fifty-two percent of example, heights might be rounded to the nearest inch, weights to the nearest ounce, etc.
Americans live within Hence, a recorded height of 73 inches could mean any measure from 72.5 inches up to but
50 miles of a coastal not including 73.5 inches. Thus, the boundary of this measure is given as 72.5–73.5 inches.
shoreline. The boundary of a number, then, is defined as a class in which a data value would be placed
before the data value was rounded. Boundaries are written for convenience as 72.5–73.5
but are understood to mean all values up to but not including 73.5. Actual data values of
73.5 would be rounded to 74 and would be included in a class with boundaries of 73.5 up
to but not including 74.5, written as 73.5–74.5. As another example, if a recorded weight is
86 pounds, the exact boundaries are 85.5 up to but not including 86.5, written as 85.5–86.5
pounds. Table 1–1 helps to clarify this concept. The boundaries of a continuous variable are
given in one additional decimal place and always end with the digit 5.

T A B L E 1 – 1 Recorded Values and Boundaries

Variable Recorded value Boundaries
Length 15 centimeters (cm) 14.5–15.5 cm
Temperature 86 degrees Fahrenheit (°F) 85.5–86.5°F
Time 0.43 second (sec) 0.425–0.435 sec
Mass 1.6 grams (g) 1.55–1.65 g

EXAMPLE 1–3 Class Boundaries

Find the boundaries for each measurement.
a. 17.6 inches
b. 23° Fahrenheit
c. 154.62 mg/dl
SOLUTION

a. 17.55–18.55 inches
b. 22.5–23.5° Fahrenheit
c. 154.615–154.625 mg/dl

1–7

blu55339_ch01_001-040.indd 7 5/18/18 5:18 PM

8 Chapter 1 The Nature of Probability and Statistics
OBJECTIVE 4 The first level of measurement is called the nominal level of measurement. A sample of
Identify the measurement
level for each variable.
U n u s u a l Stat
Sixty-three percent of us
say we would rather
hear the bad news first.
HistoricalNote
When data were first
­analyzed statistically
by Karl Pearson and
Francis Galton, almost all
were continuous data.
In 1899, Pearson began
to analyze discrete data.
Pearson found that some
data, such as eye color,
could not be measured,
so he termed such data
nominal data. Ordinal
data were introduced by
a German numerologist
Frederich Mohs in 1822
when he introduced
a hardness scale for
minerals. For example,
the hardest stone is
the d­ iamond, which he
­assigned a hardness
value of 1500. Quartz
was a­ ssigned a hardness
value of 100. This does
not mean that a diamond
is 15 times harder than
quartz. It only means
that a diamond is harder
than quartz. In 1947, a
psychologist named
Stanley Smith Stevens
made a further division
of continuous data into
two categories, namely,
interval and ratio.
1–8
In addition to being classified as qualitative or quantitative, variables can be clas-
sified by how they are categorized, counted, or measured. For example, can the data be
organized into specific categories, such as area of residence (rural, suburban, or urban)?
Can the data values be ranked, such as first place, second place, etc.? Or are the values
obtained from measurement, such as heights, IQs, or temperature? This type of classifi-
cation—i.e., how variables are categorized, counted, or measured—uses measurement
scales, and four common types of scales are used: nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio.
college instructors classified according to subject taught (e.g., English, history, psychology,
or mathematics) is an example of nominal-level measurement. Classifying ­survey subjects
as male or female is another example of nominal-level measurement. No ranking or order
can be placed on the data. Classifying residents according to zip codes is also an example
of the nominal level of measurement. Even though numbers are assigned as zip codes, there
is no meaningful order or ranking. Other examples of ­nominal-level data are political party
(Democratic, Republican, independent, etc.), religion (Christianity, Judaism, Islam, etc.),
and marital status (single, married, divorced, widowed, separated).
The nominal level of measurement classifies data into mutually exclusive (nonover­
lapping) categories in which no order or ranking can be imposed on the data.
The next level of measurement is called the ordinal level. Data measured at this
level can be placed into categories, and these categories can be ordered, or ranked. For
example, from student evaluations, guest speakers might be ranked as superior, average,
or poor. Floats in a homecoming parade might be ranked as first place, second place,
etc. Note that precise measurement of differences in the ordinal level of measurement
does not exist. For instance, when people are classified according to their build (small,
­medium, or large), a large variation exists among the individuals in each class.
Other examples of ordinal data are letter grades (A, B, C, D, F).
The ordinal level of measurement classifies data into categories that can be ranked;
however, precise differences between the ranks do not exist.
The third level of measurement is called the interval level. This level differs from
the ordinal level in that precise differences do exist between units. For example, many
standardized psychological tests yield values measured on an interval scale. IQ is an ex-
ample of such a variable. There is a meaningful difference of 1 point between an IQ of 109
and an IQ of 110. Temperature is another example of interval measurement, since there is
a meaningful difference of 1°F between each unit, such as 72 and 73°F. One ­property is
lacking in the interval scale: There is no true zero. For example, IQ tests do not measure
people who have no intelligence. For temperature, 0°F does not mean no heat at all.
The interval level of measurement ranks data, and precise differences between units
of measure do exist; however, there is no meaningful zero.
The final level of measurement is called the ratio level. Examples of ratio scales are
those used to measure height, weight, area, and number of phone calls received. Ratio
scales have differences between units (1 inch, 1 pound, etc.) and a true zero. In addition,
the ratio scale contains a true ratio between values. For example, if one person can lift
200 pounds and another can lift 100 pounds, then the ratio between them is 2 to 1. Put
­another way, the first person can lift twice as much as the second person.
The ratio level of measurement possesses all the characteristics of interval
­measurement, and there exists a true zero. In addition, true ratios exist when the same
variable is measured on two different members of the population.
 Section 1–2 Variables and Types of Data 9

T A B L E 1 – 2 Examples of Measurement Scales

Nominal-level data Ordinal-level data Interval-level data Ratio-level data
Zip code Grade (A, B, C, SAT score Height
Gender (male, female)   D, F) IQ Weight
Eye color (blue, brown, Judging (first place, Temperature Time
  green, hazel)    second place, etc.) Salary
Political affiliation Rating scale (poor, Age
Religious affiliation   good, excellent)
Major field (mathematics, Ranking of tennis
  computers, etc.)   players
Nationality

FIGURE 1–2 1. Nominal Level 3. Interval Level

Measurement Scales

Blue White

Red Black

Automobile color

Temperature

2. Ordinal Level 4. Ratio Level

6 ft 2”

Small Medium Large

Pizza size

Height

There is not complete agreement among statisticians about the classification of data
into one of the four categories. For example, some researchers classify IQ data as ratio
data rather than interval. Also, data can be altered so that they fit into a different category.
For instance, if the incomes of all professors of a college are classified into the three
­categories of low, average, and high, then a ratio variable becomes an ordinal variable.
Table 1–2 gives some examples of each type of data. See Figure 1–2.

EXAMPLE 1–4 Measurement Levels

What level of measurement would be used to measure each variable?
a. The ages of authors who wrote the hardback versions of the top 25 fiction books
sold during a specific week
b. The colors of baseball hats sold in a store for a specific year
c. The highest temperature for each day of a specific month
d. The ratings of bands that played in the homecoming parade at a college

1–9
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And then first the political tension within the Faustian world-
consciousness discharged itself. For the Greeks, Hellas was and
remained the important part of the earth’s surface, but with the
discovery of America West-Europe became a province in a gigantic
whole. Thenceforward the history of the Western Culture has a
planetary character.
Every Culture possesses a proper conception of home and
fatherland, which is hard to comprehend, scarcely to be expressed in
words, full of dark metaphysical relations, but nevertheless
unmistakable in its tendency. The Classical home-feeling which tied
the individual corporally and Euclidean-ly to the Polis[420] is the very
antithesis of that enigmatic “Heimweh” of the Northerner which has
something musical, soaring and unearthly in it. Classical man felt as
“Home” just what he could see from the Acropolis of his native city.
Where the horizon of Athens ended, the alien, the hostile, the
“fatherland” of another began. Even the Roman of late Republican
times understood by “patria” nothing but Urbs Roma, not even
Latium, still less Italy. The Classical world, as it matured, dissolved
itself into a large number of point-patriæ, and the need of bodily
separation between them took the form of hatreds far more intense
than any hatred that there was of the Barbarian. And it is therefore
the most convincing of all evidences of the victory of the Magian
world-feeling that Caracalla[421] in 212 A.D. granted Roman citizenship
to all provincials. For this grant simply abolished the ancient,
statuesque, idea of the citizen. There was now a Realm and
consequently a new kind of membership. The Roman notion of an
army, too, underwent a significant change. In genuinely Classical
times there had been no Roman Army in the sense in which we
speak of the Prussian Army, but only “armies,” that is, definite
formations (as we say) created as corps, limited and visibly present
bodies, by the appointment of a Legatus to command—an exercitus
Scipionis, Crassi for instance—but never an exercitus Romanus. It
was Caracalla, the same who abolished the idea of “civis Romanus”
by decree and wiped out the Roman civic deities by making all alien
deities equivalent to them, who created the un-Classical and Magian
idea of an Imperial Army, something manifested in the separate
legions. These now meant something, whereas in Classical times
they meant nothing, but simply were. The old “fides exercituum” is
replaced by “fides exercitus” in the inscriptions and, instead of
individual bodily-conceived deities special to each legion and ritually
honoured by its Legatus, we have a spiritual principle common to all.
So also, and in the same sense, the "fatherland"-feeling undergoes a
change of meaning for Eastern men—and not merely Christians—in
Imperial times. Apollinian man, so long as he retained any effective
remnant at all of his proper world-feeling, regarded “home” in the
genuinely corporeal sense as the ground on which his city was built
—a conception that recalls the “unity of place” of Attic tragedy and
statuary. But to Magian man, to Christians, Persians, Jews,
“Greeks,”[422] Manichæans, Nestorians and Mohammedans, it means
nothing that has any connexion with geographical actualities. And for
ourselves it means an impalpable unity of nature, speech, climate,
habits and history—not earth but “country,” not point-like presence
but historic past and future, not a unit made up of men, houses and
gods but an idea, the idea that takes shape in the restless
wanderings, the deep loneliness, and that ancient German impulse
towards the South which has been the ruin of our best, from the
Saxon Emperors to Hölderlin and Nietzsche.
The bent of the Faustian Culture, therefore, was overpoweringly
towards extension, political, economic or spiritual. It overrode all
geographical-material bounds. It sought—without any practical
object, merely for the Symbol’s own sake—to reach North Pole and
South Pole. It ended by transforming the entire surface of the globe
into a single colonial and economic system. Every thinker from
Meister Eckhardt to Kant willed to subject the “phenomenal” world to
the asserted domination of the cognizing ego, and every leader from
Otto the Great to Napoleon did it. The genuine object of their
ambitions was the boundless, alike for the great Franks and
Hohenstaufen with their world-monarchies, for Gregory VII and
Innocent III, for the Spanish Habsburgs “on whose empire the sun
never set,” and for the Imperialism of to-day on behalf of which the
World-War was fought and will continue to be fought for many a long
day. Classical man, for inward reasons, could not be a conqueror,
notwithstanding Alexander’s romantic expedition—for we can discern
enough of the inner hesitations and unwillingnesses of his
companions not to need to explain it as an “exception proving the
rule.”[423] The never-stilled desire to be liberated from the binding
element, to range far and free, which is the essence of the fancy-
creatures of the North—the dwarfs, elves and imps—is utterly
unknown to the Dryads and Oreads of Greece. Greek daughter-cities
were planted by the hundred along the rim of the Mediterranean, but
not one of them made the slightest real attempt to conquer and
penetrate the hinterlands. To settle far from the coast would have
meant to lose sight of “home,” while to settle in loneliness—the ideal
life of the trapper and prairie-man of America as it had been of
Icelandic saga-heroes long before—was something entirely beyond
the possibilities of Classical mankind. Dramas like that of the
emigration to America—man by man, each on his own account,
driven by deep promptings to loneliness—or the Spanish Conquest,
or the Californian gold-rush, dramas of uncontrollable longings for
freedom, solitude, immense independence, and of giantlike contempt
of all limitations whatsoever upon the home-feeling—these dramas
are Faustian and only Faustian. No other Culture, not even the
Chinese, knows them.
The Hellenic emigrant, on the contrary, clung as a child clings to
its mother’s lap. To make a new city out of the old one, exactly like it,
with the same fellow citizens, the same gods, the same customs,
with the linking sea never out of sight, and there to pursue in the
Agora the familiar life of the ζῷον πολιτικόν—this was the limit of
change of scene for the Apollinian life. To us, for whom freedom of
movement (if not always as a practical, yet in any case as an ideal,
right) is indispensable, such a limit would have been the most crying
of all slaveries. It is from the Classical point of view that the oft-
misunderstood expansion of Rome must be looked at. It was
anything rather than an extension of the fatherland; it confined itself
exactly within fields that had already been taken up by other culture-
men whom they dispossessed. Never was there a hint of dynamic
world-schemes of the Hohenstaufen or Habsburg stamp, or of an
imperialism comparable with that of our own times. The Romans
made no attempt to penetrate the interior of Africa. Their later wars
were waged only for the preservation of what they already
possessed, not for the sake of ambition nor under a significant
stimulus from within. They could give up Germany and Mesopotamia
without regret.
If, in fine, we look at it all together—the expansion of the
Copernican world-picture into that aspect of stellar space that we
possess to-day; the development of Columbus’s discovery into a
worldwide command of the earth’s surface by the West; the
perspective of oil-painting and of tragedy-scene; the sublimed home-
feeling; the passion of our Civilization for swift transit, the conquest
of the air, the exploration of the Polar regions and the climbing of
almost impossible mountain-peaks—we see, emerging everywhere
the prime-symbol of the Faustian soul, Limitless Space. And those
specially (in form, uniquely) Western creations of the soul-myth
called “Will,” “Force” and “Deed” must be regarded as derivatives of
this prime-symbol.
 CHAPTER X
SOUL-IMAGE AND LIFE-FEELING
II
BUDDHISM, STOICISM, SOCIALISM
 CHAPTER X
SOUL-IMAGE AND LIFE-FEELING
 II
BUDDHISM, STOICISM, SOCIALISM

We are now at last in a position to approach the phenomenon of

Morale,[424] the intellectual interpretation of Life by itself, to ascend
the height from which it is possible to survey the widest and gravest
of all the fields of human thought. At the same time, we shall need
for this survey an objectivity such as no one has as yet set himself
seriously to gain. Whatever we may take Morale to be, it is no part of
Morale to provide its own analysis; and we shall get to grips with the
problem, not by considering what should be our acts and aims and
standards, but only by diagnosing the Western feeling in the very
form of the enunciation.
In this matter of morale, Western mankind, without exception, is
under the influence of an immense optical illusion. Everyone
demands something of the rest. We say “thou shalt” in the conviction
that so-and-so in fact will, can and must be changed or fashioned or
arranged conformably to the order, and our belief both in the efficacy
of, and in our title to give, such orders is unshakable. That, and
nothing short of it, is, for us, morale. In the ethics of the West
everything is direction, claim to power, will to affect the distant. Here
Luther is completely at one with Nietzsche, Popes with Darwinians,
Socialists with Jesuits; for one and all, the beginning of morale is a
claim to general and permanent validity. It is a necessity of the
Faustian soul that this should be so. He who thinks or teaches
“otherwise” is sinful, a backslider, a foe, and he is fought down
without mercy. You “shall,” the State “shall,” society “shall”—this form
of morale is to us self-evident; it represents the only real meaning
that we can attach to the word. But it was not so either in the
Classical, or in India, or in China. Buddha, for instance, gives a
pattern to take or to leave, and Epicurus offers counsel. Both
undeniably are forms of high morale, and neither contains the will-
element.
What we have entirely failed to observe is the peculiarity of moral
dynamic. If we allow that Socialism (in the ethical, not the economic,
sense) is that world-feeling which seeks to carry out its own views on
behalf of all, then we are all without exception, willingly or no,
wittingly or no, Socialists. Even Nietzsche, that most passionate
opponent of “herd morale,” was perfectly incapable of limiting his
zeal to himself in the Classical way. He thought only of “mankind,”
and he attacked everyone who differed from himself. Epicurus, on
the contrary, was heartily indifferent to others’ opinions and acts and
never wasted one thought on the “transformation” of mankind. He
and his friends were content that they were as they were and not
otherwise. The Classical ideal was indifference (ἀπάθεια) to the
course of the world—the very thing which it is the whole business of
Faustian mankind to master—and an important element both of Stoic
and of Epicurean philosophy was the recognition of a category of
things neither preferred nor rejected[425] (ἀδιάφορα). In Hellas there
was a pantheon of morales as there was of deities, as the peaceful
coexistence of Epicureans, Cynics and Stoics shows, but the
Nietzschean Zarathustra—though professedly standing beyond good
and evil—breathes from end to end the pain of seeing men to be
other than as he would have them be, and the deep and utterly un-
Classical desire to devote a life to their reformation—his own sense
of the word, naturally, being the only one. It is just this, the general
transvaluation, that makes ethical monotheism and—using the word
in a novel and deep sense—socialism. All world-improvers are
Socialists. And consequently there are no Classical world-improvers.
The moral imperative as the form of morale is Faustian and only
Faustian. It is wholly without importance that Schopenhauer denies
theoretically the will to live, or that Nietzsche will have it affirmed—
these are superficial differences, indicative of personal tastes and
temperaments. The important thing, that which makes
Schopenhauer the progenitor of ethical modernity, is that he too feels
the whole world as Will, as movement, force, direction. This basic
feeling is not merely the foundation of our ethics, it is itself our whole
ethics, and the rest are bye-blows. That which we call not merely
activity but action[426] is a historical conception through-and-through,
saturated with directional energy. It is the proof of being, the
dedication of being, in that sort of man whose ego possesses the
tendency to Future, who feels the momentary present not as
saturated being but as epoch, as turning-point, in a great complex of
becoming—and, moreover, feels it so of both his personal life and of
the life of history as a whole. Strength and distinctness of this
consciousness are the marks of higher Faustian man, but it is not
wholly absent in the most insignificant of the breed, and it
distinguishes his smallest acts from those of any and every Classical
man. It is the distinction between character and attitude, between
conscious becoming and simple accepted statuesque becomeness,
between will and suffering in tragedy.
In the world as seen by the Faustian’s eyes, everything is motion
with an aim. He himself lives only under that condition, for to him life
means struggling, overcoming, winning through. The struggle for
existence as ideal form of existence is implicit even in the Gothic age
(of the architecture of which it is visibly the foundation) and the 19th
Century has not invented it but merely put it into mechanical-
utilitarian form. In the Apollinian world there is no such directional
motion—the purposeless and aimless see-saw of Heraclitus’s
“becoming” (ἡ ὁδὸς ἄνω κάτω) is irrelevant here—no
“Protestantism,” no “Sturm und Drang,” no ethical, intellectual or
artistic “revolution” to fight and destroy the existent. The Ionic and
Corinthian styles appear by the side of the Doric without setting up
any claim to sole and general validity, but the Renaissance expelled
the Gothic and Classicism expelled the Baroque styles, and the
history of every European literature is filled with battles over form-
problems. Even our monasticism, with its Templars, Franciscans,
Dominicans and the rest, takes shape as an order-movement, in
sharp contrast to the “askesis” of the Early-Christian hermit.
To go back upon this basic form of his existence, let alone
transform it, is entirely beyond the power of Faustian man. It is
presupposed even in efforts to resist it. One fights against
“advanced” ideas, but all the time he looks on his fight itself as an
advance. Another agitates for a “reversal,” but what he intends is in
fact a continuance of development. “Immoral” is only a new kind of
“moral” and sets up the same claim to primacy. The will-to-power is
intolerant—all that is Faustian wills to reign alone. The Apollinian
feeling, on the contrary, with its world of coexistent individual things,
is tolerant as a matter of course. But, if toleration is in keeping with
will-less Ataraxia, it is for the Western world with its oneness of
infinite soul-space and the singleness of its fabric of tensions the
sign either of self-deception or of fading-out. The Enlightenment of
the 18th Century was tolerant towards—that is, careless of—
differences between the various Christian creeds, but in respect of
its own relation to the Church as a whole, it was anything but tolerant
as soon as the power to be otherwise came to it. The Faustian
instinct, active, strong-willed, as vertical in tendency as its own
Gothic cathedrals, as upstanding as its own “ego habeo factum,”
looking into distance and Future, demands toleration—that is, room,
space—for its proper activity, but only for that. Consider, for instance,
how much of it the city democracy is prepared to accord to the
Church in respect of the latter’s management of religious powers,
while claiming for itself unlimited freedom to exercise its own and
adjusting the “common” law to conform thereto whenever it can.
Every “movement” means to win, while every Classical “attitude” only
wants to be and troubles itself little about the Ethos of the neighbour.
To fight for or against the trend of the times, to promote Reform or
Reaction, construction, reconstruction or destruction—all this is as
un-Classical as it is un-Indian. It is the old antithesis of Sophoclean
and Shakespearian tragedy, the tragedy of the man who only wants
to exist and that of the man who wants to win.
It is quite wrong to bind up Christianity with the moral imperative. It
was not Christianity that transformed Faustian man, but Faustian
man who transformed Christianity—and he not only made it a new
religion but also gave it a new moral direction. The “it” became “I,”
the passion-charged centre of the world, the foundation of the great
Sacrament of personal contrition. Will-to-power even in ethics, the
passionate striving to set up a proper morale as a universal truth,
and to enforce it upon humanity, to reinterpret or overcome or
destroy everything otherwise constituted—nothing is more
characteristically our own than this is. And in virtue of it the Gothic
springtime proceeded to a profound—and never yet appreciated—
inward transformation of the morale of Jesus. A quiet spiritual morale
welling from Magian feeling—a morale or conduct recommended as
potent for salvation, a morale the knowledge of which was
communicated as a special act of grace[427]—was recast as a morale
of imperative command.[428]
Every ethical system, whether it be of religious or of philosophical
origin, has associations with the great arts and especially with that of
architecture. It is in fact a structure of propositions of causal
character. Every truth that is intended for practical application is
propounded with a “because” and a “therefore.” There is
mathematical logic in them—in Buddha’s “Four Truths” as in Kant’s
“Critique of Practical Reason”[429] and in every popular catechism.
What is not in these doctrines of acquired truth is the uncritical logic
of the blood, which generates and matures those conduct-standards
(Sitten) of social classes and of practical men (e.g., the chivalry-
obligations in the time of the Crusades) that we only consciously
realize when someone infringes them. A systematic morale is, as it
were, an Ornament, and it manifests itself not only in precepts but
also in the style of drama and even in the choice of art-motives. The
Meander, for example, is a Stoic motive. The Doric column is the
very embodiment of the Antique life-ideal. And just because it was
so, it was the one Classical “order” which the Baroque style
necessarily and frankly excluded; indeed, even Renaissance art was
warned off it by some very deep spiritual instinct. Similarly with the
transformation of the Magian dome into the Russian roof-cupola,[430]
the Chinese landscape-architecture of devious paths, the Gothic
cathedral-tower. Each is an image of the particular and unique
morale which arose out of the waking-consciousness of the Culture.

II

The old riddles and perplexities now resolve themselves. There

are as many morales as there are Cultures, no more and no fewer.
Just as every painter and every musician has something in him
which, by force of inward necessity, never emerges into
consciousness but dominates a priori the form-language of his work
and differentiates that work from the work of every other Culture, so
every conception of Life held by a Culture-man possesses a priori (in
the very strictest Kantian sense of the phrase) a constitution that is
deeper than all momentary judgments and strivings and impresses
the style of these with the hall-mark of the particular Culture. The
individual may act morally or immorally, may do “good” or “evil” with
respect to the primary feeling of his Culture, but the theory of his
actions is not a result but a datum. Each Culture possesses its own
standards, the validity of which begins and ends with it. There is no
general morale of humanity.
It follows that there is not and cannot be any true “conversion” in
the deeper sense. Conscious behaviour of any kind that rests upon
convictions is a primary phenomenon, the basic tendency of an
existence developed into a “timeless truth.” It matters little what
words or pictures are employed to express it, whether it appears as
the predication of a deity or as the issue of philosophic meditation,
as proposition or as symbol, as proclamation of proper or confutation
of alien convictions. It is enough that it is there. It can be wakened
and it can be put theoretically in the form of doctrine, it can change
or improve its intellectual vehicle but it cannot be begotten. Just as
we are incapable of altering our world-feeling—so incapable that
even in trying to alter it we have to follow the old lines and confirm
instead of overthrowing it—so also we are powerless to alter the
ethical basis of our waking being. A certain verbal distinction has
sometimes been drawn between ethics the science and morale the
duty, but, as we understand it, the point of duty does not arise. We
are no more capable of converting a man to a morale alien to his
being than the Renaissance was capable of reviving the Classical or
of making anything but a Southernized Gothic, an anti-Gothic, out of
Apollinian motives. We may talk to-day of transvaluing all our values;
we may, as Megalopolitans, “go back to” Buddhism or Paganism or a
romantic Catholicism; we may champion as Anarchists an
individualist or as Socialists a collectivist ethic—but in spite of all we
do, will and feel the same. A conversion to Theosophy or
Freethinking or one of the present-day transitions from a supposed
Christianity to a supposed Atheism (or vice versa) is an alteration of
words and notions, of the religious or intellectual surface, no more.
None of our “movements” have changed man.
 A strict morphology of all the morales is a task for the future. Here,
too, Nietzsche has taken the first and essential step towards the new
standpoint. But he has failed to observe his own condition that the
thinker shall place himself “beyond good and evil.” He tried to be at
once sceptic and prophet, moral critic and moral gospeller. It cannot
be done. One cannot be a first-class psychologist as long as one is
still a Romantic. And so here, as in all his crucial penetrations, he got
as far as the door—and stood outside it. And so far, no one has done
any better. We have been blind and uncomprehending before the
immense wealth that there is in the moral as in other form-
languages. Even the sceptic has not understood his task; at bottom
he, like others, sets up his own notion of morale, drawn from his
particular disposition and private taste, as standard by which to
measure others. The modern revolutionaires—Stirner, Ibsen,
Strindberg, Shaw—are just the same; they have only managed to
hide the facts (from themselves as well as from others) behind new
formulæ and catchwords.
But a morale, like a sculpture, a music, a painting-art, is a self-
contained form-world expressing a life-feeling; it is a datum,
fundamentally unalterable, an inward necessity. It is ever true within
its historical circle, ever untrue outside it. As we have seen already,
[431]
what his several works are to the poet or musician or painter, that
its several art-genera are for the higher individual that we call the
Culture, viz., organic units; and that oil-painting as a whole, act-
sculpture as a whole and contrapuntal music as a whole, and
rhymed lyric and so on are all epoch-making, and as such take rank
as major symbols of Life. In the history of the Culture as in that of the
individual existence, we are dealing with the actualization of the
possible; it is the story of an inner spirituality becoming the style of a
world. By the side of these great form-units, which grow and fulfil
themselves and close down within a predeterminate series of human
generations, which endure for a few centuries and pass irrevocably
into death, we see the group of Faustian morals and the sum of
Apollinian morals also as individuals of the higher order. That they
are, is Destiny. They are data, and revelation (or scientific insight, as
the case may be) only put them into shape for the consciousness.
 There is something, hardly to be described, that assembles all the
theories from Hesiod and Sophocles to Plato and the Stoa and
opposes them collectively to all that was taught from Francis of
Assisi and Abelard to Ibsen and Nietzsche, and even the morale of
Jesus is only the noblest expression of a general morale that was
put into other forms by Marcion and Mani, by Philo and Plotinus, by
Epictetus, Augustine and Proclus. All Classical ethic is an ethic of
attitude, all Western an ethic of deed. And, likewise, the sum of all
Indian and the sum of all Chinese systems forms each a world of its
own.

III

Every Classical ethic that we know or can conceive of constitutes

man an individual static entity, a body among bodies, and all
Western valuations relate to him as a centre of effect in an infinite
generality. Ethical Socialism is neither more nor less than the
sentiment of action-at-a-distance, the moral pathos of the third
dimension; and the root-feeling of Care—care for those who are with
us, and for those who are to follow—is its emblem in the sky.
Consequently there is for us something socialistic in the aspect of
the Egyptian Culture, while the opposite tendency to immobile
attitude, to non-desire, to static self-containedness of the individual,
recalls the Indian ethic and the man formed by it. The seated
Buddha-statue (“looking at its navel”) and Zeno’s Ataraxia are not
altogether alien to one another. The ethical ideal of Classical man
was that which is led up to in his tragedy, and revealed in its
Katharsis. This in its last depths means the purgation of the
Apollinian soul from its burden of what is not Apollinian, not free from
the elements of distance and direction, and to understand it we have
to recognize that Stoicism is simply the mature form of it. That which
the drama effected in a solemn hour, the Stoa wished to spread over
the whole field of life; viz., statuesque steadiness and will-less ethos.
Now, is not this conception of κάθαρσις closely akin to the Buddhist
ideal of Nirvana, which as a formula is no doubt very “late” but as an
essence is thoroughly Indian and traceable even from Vedic times?
And does not this kinship bring ideal Classical man and ideal Indian
man very close to one another and separate them both from that
man whose ethic is manifested in the Shakespearian tragedy of
dynamic evolution and catastrophe? When one thinks of it, there is
nothing preposterous in the idea of Socrates, Epicurus, and
especially Diogenes, sitting by the Ganges, whereas Diogenes in a
Western megalopolis would be an unimportant fool. Nor, on the other
hand, is Frederick William I of Prussia, the prototype of the Socialist
in the grand sense, unthinkable in the polity of the Nile, whereas in
Periclean Athens he is impossible.
Had Nietzsche regarded his own times with fewer prejudices and
less disposition to romantic championship of certain ethical
creations, he would have perceived that a specifically Christian
morale of compassion in his sense does not exist on West-European
soil. We must not let the words of humane formulæ mislead us as to
their real significance. Between the morale that one has and the
morale that one thinks one has, there is a relation which is very
obscure and very unsteady, and it is just here that an incorruptible
psychology would be invaluable. Compassion is a dangerous word,
and neither Nietzsche himself—for all his maestria—nor anyone else
has yet investigated the meaning—conceptual and effective—of the
word at different times. The Christian morale of Origen’s time was
quite different from the Christian morale of St. Francis’s. This is not
the place to enquire what Faustian compassion—sacrifice or
ebullience or again race-instinct in a chivalrous society[432]—means
as against the fatalistic Magian-Christian kind, how far it is to be
conceived as action-at-a-distance and practical dynamic, or (from
another angle) as a proud soul’s demand upon itself, or again as the
utterance of an imperious distance-feeling. A fixed stock of ethical
phrases, such as we have possessed since the Renaissance, has to
cover a multitude of different ideas and a still greater multitude of
different meanings. When a mankind so historically and
retrospectively disposed as we are accepts the superficial as the real
sense, and regards ideals as subject-matter for mere knowing, it is
really evidencing its veneration for the past—in this particular
instance, for religious tradition. The text of a conviction is never a
test of its reality, for man is rarely conscious of his own beliefs.
Catchwords and doctrines are always more or less popular and
external as compared with deep spiritual actualities. Our theoretical
reverence for the propositions of the New Testament is in fact of the
same order as the theoretical reverence of the Renaissance and of
Classicism for antique art; the one has no more transformed the
spirit of men than the other has transformed the spirit of works. The
oft-quoted cases of the Mendicant Orders, the Moravians and the
Salvation Army prove by their very rarity, and even more by the
slightness of the effects that they have been able to produce, that
they are exceptions in a quite different generality—namely, the
Faustian-Christian morale. That morale will not indeed be found
formulated, either by Luther or by the Council of Trent, but all
Christians of the great style—Innocent III and Calvin, Loyola and
Savonarola, Pascal and St. Theresa—have had it in them, even in
unconscious contradiction to their own formal teachings.
We have only to compare the purely Western conception of the
manly virtue that is designated by Nietzsche’s “moralinfrei” virtù, the
grandezza of Spanish and the grandeur of French Baroque, with that
very feminine ἀρετή of the Hellenic ideal, of which the practical
application is presented to us as capacity for enjoyment (ἡδονή),
placidity of disposition (γαλήνη, ἀπάθεια), absence of wants and
demands, and, above all, the so typical ἀταραξία. What Nietzsche
called the Blond Beast and conceived to be embodied in the type of
Renaissance Man that he so overvalued (for it is really only a jackal
counterfeit of the great Hohenstaufen Germans) is the utter
antithesis to the type that is presented in every Classical ethic
without exception and embodied in every Classical man of worth.
The Faustian Culture has produced a long series of granite-men, the
Classical never a one. For Pericles and Themistocles were soft
natures in tune with Attic καλοκἀγαθία, and Alexander was a
Romantic who never woke up, Cæsar a shrewd reckoner. Hannibal,
the alien, was the only “Mann” amongst them all. The men of the
early time, as Homer presents them to our judgment—the
Odysseuses and Ajaxes—would have cut a queer figure among the
chevaliers of the Crusades. Very feminine natures, too, are capable
of brutality—a rebound-brutality of their own—and Greek cruelty was
of this kind. But in the North the great Saxon, Franconian and
Hohenstaufen emperors appear on the very threshold of the Culture,
surrounded by giant-men like Henry the Lion and Gregory VII. Then
come the men of the Renaissance, of the struggle of the two Roses,
of the Huguenot Wars, the Spanish Conquistadores, the Prussian
electors and kings, Napoleon, Bismarck, Rhodes. What other Culture
has exhibited the like of these? Where in all Hellenic history is so
powerful a scene as that of 1176—the Battle of Legnano as
foreground, the suddenly-disclosed strife of the great Hohenstaufen
and the great Welf as background? The heroes of the Great
Migrations, the Spanish chivalry, Prussian discipline, Napoleonic
energy—how much of the Classical is there in these men and
things? And where, on the heights of Faustian morale, from the
Crusades to the World War, do we find anything of the “slave-
morale,” the meek resignation, the deaconess’s Caritas?[433] Only in
pious and honoured words, nowhere else. The type of the very
priesthood is Faustian; think of those magnificent bishops of the old
German empire who on horseback led their flocks into the wild
battle,[434] or those Popes who could force submission on a Henry IV
and a Frederick II, of the Teutonic Knights in the Ostmark, of Luther’s
challenge in which the old Northern heathendom rose up against old
Roman, of the great Cardinals (Richelieu, Mazarin, Fleury) who
shaped France. That is Faustian morale, and one must be blind
indeed if one does not see it efficient in the whole field of West-
European history. And it is only through such grand instances of
worldly passion which express the consciousness of a mission that
we are able to understand those of grand spiritual passion, of the
upright and forthright Caritas which nothing can resist, the dynamic
charity that is so utterly unlike Classical moderation and Early-
Christian mildness. There is a hardness in the sort of com-passion
that was practised by the German mystics, the German and Spanish
military Orders, the French and English Calvinists. In the Russian,
the Raskolnikov, type of charity a soul melts into the fraternity of
souls, in the Faustian it arises out of it. Here too “ego habeo factum”
is the formula. Personal charity is the justification before God of the
Person, the individual.
This is the reason why "compassion"-morale, in the everyday
sense, always respected by us so far as words go, and sometimes
hoped for by the thinker, is never actualized. Kant rejected it with
decision, and in fact it is in profound contradiction with the
Categorical Imperative, which sees the meaning of Life to lie in
actions and not in surrender to soft opinions. Nietzsche’s “slave-
morale” is a phantom, his master-morale is a reality. It does not
require formulation to be effective—it is there, and has been from of
old. Take away his romantic Borgia-mask and his nebulous vision of
supermen, and what is left of his man is Faustian man himself, as he
is to-day and as he was even in saga-days, the type of an energetic,
imperative and dynamic Culture. However it may have been in the
Classical world, our great well-doers are the great doers whose
forethought and care affects millions, the great statesmen and
organizers. "A higher sort of men, who thanks to their
preponderance of will, knowledge, wealth and influence make use of
democratic Europe as their aptest and most mobile tool, in order to
bring into their own hands the destinies of the Earth and as artists to
shape ‘man’ himself. Enough—the time is coming when men will
unlearn and relearn the art of politics." So Nietzsche delivered
himself in one of the unpublished drafts that are so much more
concrete than the finished works. “We must either breed political
capacities, or else be ruined by the democracy that has been forced
upon us by the failure of the older alternatives,”[435] says Shaw in
Man and Superman. Limited though his philosophic horizon is in
general, Shaw has the advantage over Nietzsche of more practical
schooling and less ideology, and the figure of the multimillionaire
Undershaft in Major Barbara translates the Superman-ideal into the
unromantic language of the modern age (which in truth is its real
source for Nietzsche also, though it reached him indirectly through
Malthus and Darwin). It is these fact-men of the grand style who are
the representatives to-day of the Will-to-Power over other men’s
destinies and therefore of the Faustian ethic generally. Men of this
sort do not broadcast their millions to dreamers, “artists,” weaklings
and “down-and-outs” to satisfy a boundless benevolence; they
employ them for those who like themselves count as material for the
Future. They pursue a purpose with them. They make a centre of
force for the existence of generations which outlives the single lives.
The mere money, too, can develop ideas and make history, and
Rhodes—precursor of a type that will be significant indeed in the
21st Century—provided, in disposing of his possessions by will, that
it should do so. It is a shallow judgment, and one incapable of
inwardly understanding history, that cannot distinguish the literary
chatter of popular social-moralists and humanity-apostles from the
deep ethical instincts of the West-European Civilization.
Socialism—in its highest and not its street-corner sense—is, like
every other Faustian ideal, exclusive. It owes its popularity only to
the fact that it is completely misunderstood even by its exponents,
who present it as a sum of rights instead of as one of duties, an
abolition instead of an intensification of the Kantian imperative, a
slackening instead of a tautening of directional energy. The trivial
and superficial tendency towards ideals of “welfare,” “freedom,”
“humanity,” the doctrine of the “greatest happiness of the greatest
number,” are mere negations of the Faustian ethic—a very different
matter from the tendency of Epicureanism towards the ideal of
“happiness,” for the condition of happiness was the actual sum and
substance of the Classical ethic. Here precisely is an instance of
sentiments, to all outward appearance much the same, but meaning
in the one case everything and in the other nothing. From this point
of view, we might describe the content of the Classical ethic as
philanthropy, a boon conferred by the individual upon himself, his
soma. The view has Aristotle on its side, for it is exactly in this sense
that he uses the word φιλάνθρωπος, which the best heads of the
Classicist period, above all Lessing, found so puzzling. Aristotle
describes the effect of the Attic tragedy on the Attic spectator as
philanthropic. Its Peripeteia relieves him from compassion with
himself. A sort of theory of master-morale and slave-morale existed
also in the early Hellenism, in Callicles for example—naturally, under
strictly corporeal-Euclidean postulates. The ideal of the first class is
Alcibiades. He did exactly what at the moment seemed to him best
for his own person, and he is felt to be, and admired as, the type of
Classical Kalokagathia. But Protagoras is still more distinct, with his
famous proposition—essentially ethical in intention—that man (each
man for himself) is the measure of things. That is master-morale in a
statuesque soul.

IV
 When Nietzsche wrote down the phrase “transvaluation of all
values” for the first time, the spiritual movement of the centuries in
which we are living found at last its formula. Transvaluation of all
values is the most fundamental character of every civilization. For it
is the beginning of a Civilization that it remoulds all the forms of the
Culture that went before, understands them otherwise, practises
them in a different way. It begets no more, but only reinterprets, and
herein lies the negativeness common to all periods of this character.
It assumes that the genuine act of creation has already occurred,
and merely enters upon an inheritance of big actualities. In the Late-
Classical, we find the event taking place inside Hellenistic-Roman
Stoicism, that is, the long death-struggle of the Apollinian soul. In the
interval from Socrates—who was the spiritual father of the Stoa and
in whom the first signs of inward impoverishment and city-
intellectualism became visible—to Epictetus and Marcus Aurelius,
every existence-ideal of the old Classical underwent transvaluation.
In the case of India, the transvaluation of Brahman life was complete
by the time of King Asoka (250 B.C.), as we can see by comparing
the parts of the Vedanta put into writing before and after Buddha.
And ourselves? Even now the ethical socialism of the Faustian soul,
its fundamental ethic, as we have seen, is being worked upon by the
process of transvaluation as that soul is walled up in the stone of the
great cities. Rousseau is the ancestor of this socialism; he stands,
like Socrates and Buddha, as the representative spokesman of a
great Civilization. Rousseau’s rejection of all great Culture-forms and
all significant conventions, his famous “Return to the state of
Nature,” his practical rationalism, are unmistakable evidences. Each
of the three buried a millennium of spiritual depth. Each proclaimed
his gospel to mankind, but it was to the mankind of the city
intelligentsia, which was tired of the town and the Late Culture, and
whose “pure” (i.e., soulless) reason longed to be free from them and
their authoritative form and their hardness, from the symbolism with
which it was no longer in living communion and which therefore it
detested. The Culture was annihilated by discussion. If we pass in
review the great 19th-Century names with which we associate the
march of this great drama—Schopenhauer, Hebbel, Wagner,
Nietzsche, Ibsen, Strindberg—we comprehend in a glance that