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 Page i

INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION IN
CONTEXTS
Page ii
 Page iii

INTERCULTURAL
COMMUNICATION
IN CONTEXTS
EIGHTH EDITION

Judith N. Martin
Arizona State University
Thomas K. Nakayama
Northeastern University
 Page iv

INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION IN CONTEXTS, EIGHTH EDITION

Published by McGraw Hill LLC, 1325 Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY 10121.
Copyright ©2022 by McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. Printed in the United
States of America. No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in
any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the
prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC, including, but not limited to, in any
network or other electronic storage or transmission, or broadcast for distance
learning.

Some ancillaries, including electronic and print components, may not be available
to customers outside the United States.

This book is printed on acid-free paper.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 LCR 26 25 24 23 22 21

ISBN 978-1-265-90572-9
MHID 1-265-90572-X

Cover Image: ©Shutterstock/metamorworks

All credits appearing on page or at the end of the book are considered to be an
extension of the copyright page.

The Internet addresses listed in the text were accurate at the time of publication.
The inclusion of a website does not indicate an endorsement by the authors or
McGraw Hill LLC, and McGraw Hill LLC does not guarantee the accuracy of the
information presented at these sites.
mheducation.com/highered
 Page v

About the Authors

The two authors of this book come to intercultural communication

from very different backgrounds and very different research
traditions. Yet we believe that these differences offer a unique
approach to thinking about intercultural communication. We briefly
introduce ourselves here, but we hope that by the end of the book
you will have a much more complete understanding of who we are.

Judith Martin

Judith Martin grew up in Mennonite communities, primarily in

Delaware and Pennsylvania. She has studied at the Université de
Grenoble in France and has taught in Algeria. She received her
doctorate at the Pennsylvania State University. By background and
training, she is a social scientist who has focused on intercultural
communication on an interpersonal level and has studied how
people’s communication is affected as they move or sojourn between
international locations. More recently, she has studied how people’s
cultural backgrounds influence their online communication. She has
taught at the State University of New York at Oswego, the University
of Minnesota, the University of New Mexico, and Arizona State
University. She enjoys gardening, hiking in the Arizona desert,
traveling, and Netflix.
Tom Nakayama grew up mainly in Georgia, at a time when the
Asian American presence was much less than it is now. He has
studied at the Université de Paris and various universities in the
United States. He received his doctorate from the University of Iowa.
By background and training, he is a critical rhetorician who views
intercultural communication in a social context. He has taught at the
California State University at San Bernardino and Arizona State
University. He has done a Fulbright at the Université de Mons in
Belgium. He is now professor of communication studies at
Northeastern University in Boston. He lives in Providence, Rhode
Island and loves taking the train to campus. He loves the change of
seasons in New England, especially autumn.

Courtesy of Glenn Turner

The authors’ very different life stories and research programs came
together at Arizona State University. We each have learned much
about intercultural communication through our own experiences, as
well as through our intellectual pursuits. Judith has a well-
established record of social science approaches to intercultural
communication. Tom, in contrast, has taken a nontraditional
approach to understanding intercultural communication by
emphasizing critical perspectives. We believe that these differences
in our lives and in our research offer complementary ways of
understanding intercultural communication.

Page vi
 For more than 25 years, we have engaged in many different
dialogues about intercultural communication—focusing on our
experiences, thoughts, ideas, and analyses—which led us to think
about writing this textbook. But our interest was not primarily
sparked by these dialogues; rather, it was our overall interest in
improving intercultural relations that motivated us. We believe that
communication is an important arena for improving those relations.
By helping people become more aware as intercultural
communicators, we hope to make this a better world for all of us.
 Page vii

Brief Contents

PART I FOUNDATIONS OF INTERCULTURAL

COMMUNICATION

Chapter 1 Why Study Intercultural Communication?

Chapter 2 The Study of Intercultural Communication
Chapter 3 Culture, Communication, Context, and Power
Chapter 4 History and Intercultural Communication

PART II INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION

PROCESSES

Chapter 5 Identity and Intercultural Communication

Chapter 6 Language and Intercultural Communication
Chapter 7 Nonverbal Codes and Cultural Space

PART III INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION

APPLICATIONS

Chapter 8 Understanding Intercultural Transitions

Chapter 9 Popular Culture and Intercultural Communication
Chapter 10 Culture, Communication, and Intercultural
Relationships
Chapter 11 Culture, Communication, and Conflict
Chapter 12 Striving for Engaged and Effective Intercultural
Communication
Page viii
 Page ix

Contents

Preface
To the Student

PART I FOUNDATIONS OF
INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION

Chapter 1 Why Study Intercultural

Communication?
 The Self-Awareness Imperative
The Demographic Imperative
Changing U.S. Demographics
Changing Immigration Patterns
The Economic Imperative
The Environmental Imperative
Floods and Droughts Lead to Migration
Wildfires
Water Rights
The Technological Imperative
Technology and Human Communication
Access to Communication Technology
The Peace Imperative
The Ethical Imperative
Relativity Versus Universality
Being Ethical Students of Culture
Internet Resources
Summary
Discussion Questions

Page x

Activities
Key Words
References
Credits
Chapter 2 The Study of Intercultural
Communication
 The Early Development of the Discipline
Interdisciplinary Contributions
Perception and Worldview of the
Researcher
Three Approaches to Studying
Intercultural Communication
The Social Science Approach
The Interpretive Approach
The Critical Approach
A Dialectical Approach to Understanding
Culture and Communication
Combining the Three Traditional Paradigms: The
Dialectical Approach
Six Dialectics of Intercultural Communication
Keeping a Dialectical Perspective
Internet Resources
Summary
Discussion Questions
Activities
Key Words
References
Credits
Chapter 3 Culture, Communication, Context, and
Power
What is Culture?
Social Science Definitions: Culture as Learned,
Group-Related Perceptions

Page xi

Interpretive Definitions: Culture as Contextual

Symbolic Patterns of Meaning, Involving
Emotions
Critical Definitions: Culture as Heterogeneous,
Dynamic, and a Contested Zone
What is Communication?
The Relationship Between Culture and
Communication
How Culture Influences Communication
How Communication Reinforces Culture
Communication as Resistance to the Dominant
Cultural System
The Relationship Between Communication
and Context
The Relationship Between Communication
and Power
Internet Resources
Summary
Discussion Questions
Activities
Key Words
References
Credits
Chapter 4 History and Intercultural
Communication
From History to Histories
Political, Intellectual, and Social Histories
Family Histories
National Histories
Cultural-Group Histories
History, Power, and Intercultural
Communication
The Power of Texts
The Power of Other Histories
Power in Intercultural Interactions
History and Identity
Histories as Stories
Nonmainstream Histories

Page xii

Intercultural Communication and History

Antecedents of Contact
The Contact Hypothesis
Negotiating Histories Dialectically in Interaction
Internet Resources
Summary
Discussion Questions
Activities
Key Words
References
Credits
 PART II INTERCULTURAL
COMMUNICATION PROCESSES 157

Chapter 5 Identity and Intercultural

Communication
Thinking Dialectically About Identity
The Social Science Perspective
The Interpretive Perspective
The Critical Perspective
Identity Development Issues
Minority Identity Development
Majority Identity Development
Social and Cultural Identities
Gender Identity
Sexual Identity
Age Identity
Racial and Ethnic Identities
Characteristics of Whiteness
Religious Identity
Class Identity
National Identity
Regional Identity

Page xiii

Personal Identity
Multicultural People
Identity, Stereotypes, and Prejudice
Identity and Communication
Internet Resources
Summary
Discussion Questions
Activities
 Key Words
References
Credits
Chapter 6 Language and Intercultural
Communication
Social Science Perspective on Language
Language and Perception
Language and Thought: Metaphor
Cultural Variations in Communication Style
Influence of Interactive Media Use on Language
and Communication Style
Slang and Humor in Language Use
Interpretive Perspective on Language
Variations in Contextual Rules
Critical Perspective on Language
Co-Cultural Communication
Discourse and Social Structure
The “Power” Effects of Labels
Moving Between Languages
Multilingualism
Translation and Interpretation
Language and Identity
Language and Cultural Group Identity
Code Switching

Page xiv

Language Politics and Policies

Language and Globalization
Internet Resources
Summary
Discussion Questions
Activities
 Key Words
References
Credits
Chapter 7 Nonverbal Codes and Cultural Space
 Thinking Dialectically About Nonverbal
Communication: Defining Nonverbal
Communication
Comparing Verbal and Nonverbal
Communication
What Nonverbal Behavior Communicates
The Universality of Nonverbal Behavior
Recent Research Findings
Nonverbal Codes
Stereotype, Prejudice, and Discrimination
Semiotics and Nonverbal Communication
Defining Cultural Space
Cultural Identity and Cultural Space
Changing Cultural Space
Postmodern Cultural Spaces
Internet Resources
Summary
Discussion Questions
Activities
Key Words
References
Credits

Page xv

PART III INTERCULTURAL

COMMUNICATION APPLICATIONS
300
Chapter 8 Understanding Intercultural
Transitions
 Thinking Dialectically About Intercultural
Transitions
Types of Migrant Groups
Voluntary Migrants
Involuntary Migrants
Migrant–Host Relationships
Assimilation
Separation
Integration
Cultural Hybridity
Cultural Adaptation
Social Science Approach
Interpretive Approach
Critical Approach: Contextual Influences
Internet Resources
Summary
Discussion Questions
Activities
Key Words
References
Credits
Chapter 9 Popular Culture and Intercultural
Communication
 Learning About Cultures Without Personal
Experience
The Power of Popular Culture
What is Popular Culture?
Consuming and Resisting Popular Culture
Consuming Popular Culture
Resisting Popular Culture

Page xvi

Representing Cultural Groups

Migrants’ Perceptions of Mainstream Culture
Popular Culture and Stereotyping
U.S. Popular Culture and Power
Global Circulation of Images and Commodities
Cultural Imperialism
Internet Resources
Summary
Discussion Questions
Activities
Key Words
References
Credits
Chapter 10 Culture, Communication, and
Intercultural Relationships
 Benefits and Challenges of Intercultural
Relationships
Benefits
Challenges
Thinking Dialectically About Intercultural
Relationships
Personal–Contextual Dialectic
Differences–Similarities Dialectic
Cultural–Individual Dialectic
Privilege–Disadvantage Dialectic
Static–Dynamic Dialectic
History/Past–Present/Future Dialectic
Intercultural Relationships
Social Science Approach: Cross-Cultural
Differences
Interpretive Approach: Communicating in
Intercultural Relationships
Critical Approach: Contextual Influences
Internet Resources
Summary
Discussion Questions

Page xvii

Activities
Key Words
References
Credits
Chapter 11 Culture, Communication, and Conflict
Characteristics of Intercultural Conflict
Ambiguity
Language
Contradictory Conflict Styles
The Social Science Approach to Conflict
Cultural Values and Conflict
Religion and Conflict
Family Influences
Intercultural Conflict Styles
Gender, Ethnicity, and Conflict Styles
Interpretive and Critical Approaches to
Social Conflict
Social Movements
Historical and Political Contexts
Managing Intercultural Conflict
Dealing with Interpersonal Conflict
Mediation
Peacebuilding
Internet Resources
Summary
Discussion Questions
Activities
Key Words
References
Credits

Page xviii
Chapter 12 Striving for Engaged and Effective
Intercultural Communication
The Components of Competence
Social Science Perspective: Individual
Components
Interpretive Perspective: Competence in
Contexts
Critical Perspective: Competence for Whom?
Applying Knowledge About Intercultural
Communication
Entering into Dialogue
Becoming Interpersonal Allies
Building Coalitions
Social Justice and Transformation
Forgiveness
What The Future Holds
Internet Resources
Summary
Discussion Questions
Activities
Key Words
References
Credits
Name Index
Subject Index
 Page xix

Preface

THE INCREASING IMPORTANCE OF INTERCULTURAL

COMMUNICATION IN A RAPIDLY CHANGING WORLD
On December 31, 2019, a new strain of coronavirus was identified in
Wuhan, China. This virus, commonly known as the Coronavirus or
COVID-19, was initially contained in China, largely due to China’s
enormous quarantine of the Wuhan area. Quickly, however, the
epidemic spread to other Asian countries, especially South Korea,
and then to Europe and the rest of the world. It became a global
pandemic.
On the one hand, the spread of the virus and its impact on the
global economy underscored how interconnected the world has
become. People and goods travel around the globe and the spread of
the virus demonstrated how significant these global connections are.
This movement of goods and people was quickly slowed down or
shut down entirely. Many people scrambled to get home, and the
flow of goods began to have a tremendous impact on China, the
world’s second largest economy and a major producer, as well as the
United States, the world largest economy and a major consumer.
On the other hand, the response to the spreading epidemic has
been to revert to older notions of borders, as many nations put
restrictions on crossing their borders, some completely closing their
borders, e.g., for Spain “only Spanish citizens, residents and special
cases will be allowed in the country” (Coronavirus, 2020). On top of
this kind of border control, the European Union “agreed to close off a
region encompassing at least 26 countries and more than 400
million people” (Stevins-Gridneff, 2020). The United Kingdom, no
longer part of the European Union, did not agree to participate.
At the time of this writing, we do not know how this pandemic will
play out. We do know that so far, millions have contracted the
disease, hundreds of thousands have died, and many more are
suffering economic devastation; life all over the globe has changed
immeasurably.
People are asking how different cultural responses to the virus
have different results. Government public health policies emerge
within cultural and political frameworks. Can individualist cultures
expect their citizens to follow rules that impact others? Are
collectivist cultures better positioned to deal with these public health
issues? After being asked to stay home and avoid contact with others,
a Twitter user, Katie Williams, wrote: “I just went to a crowded Red
Robin and I’m 30. It was delicious, and I took my sweet time eating
my meal. Because this is America. And I’ll do what I want” (quoted in
Dillin, 2020). The infrastructure of different places have also
influenced the response: “the vigilant monitoring systems in
Singapore, Taiwan and Hong Kong were built over years, after their
failures to stop another dangerous outbreak—SARS—17 years ago.
The United States disbanded its pandemic response unit in 2018”
(Beech, 2020).

Page xx

We start with this focus on the Coronavirus as you may have been
impacted by it. Your university or college may have moved classes
online and some people that you know might have contracted it. Our
cultures shape how we respond to these crisis situations, as our
cultural frameworks offer us a way to understand how to respond.
Do we follow the directives of the government officials? Or do we do
what we want? Do we think about others? Or is it is everyone for
him/herself? What will happen to globalization? Will we move more
toward closing borders or will we reach out and be more engaged
with the world?
Those who study, teach, and conduct research in intercultural
communication face an increasing number of challenges and other
difficult questions: Are we actually reinforcing stereotypes in
discussing cultural differences? Is there a way to understand the
dynamics of intercultural communication without resorting to lists of
instructions? How do we understand the broader social, political,
and historical contexts when we teach intercultural communication?
How can we use our intercultural communication skills to help
enrich our lives and the lives of those around us? Can intercultural
communication scholars promote a better world for all?
Such questions are driven by rapidly changing cultural dynamics—
both within the United States and abroad. On the one hand, natural
disasters like wildfires in Australia and California, as well as
migrants, driven from their home by climate change conditions or
warfare have elicited a variety of positive responses, including
tremendous caring and compassion across intercultural and
international divides. On the other hand, the increasing number of
terrorist attacks, many fueled by the increasing ideology of white
supremacy world wide, the tightening of national borders in
response to global migration, conflicts between police and
communities of color in the United States, and the racist and hateful
and sometimes false content posted on social media exemplify and
sometimes exacerbate and lead to increased intergroup conflict
(Hindu vs Muslim in India, violence against Rohingya in Myanmar,
Uighurs in China forced into “reeducation camps”). These extremes
demonstrate the dynamic nature of culture and communication.
We initially wrote this book in part to address questions and issues
such as these. Although the foundation of intercultural
communication theory and research has always been
interdisciplinary, the field is now informed by three identifiable and
competing paradigms, or “ways of thinking.” In this book, we
attempt to integrate three different research approaches: (1) the
traditional social-psychological approach that emphasizes cultural
differences and how these differences influence communication, (2)
the interpretive approach that emphasizes understanding
communication in context, and (3) the critical approach that
underscores the importance of power and historical context to
understanding intercultural communication, including postcolonial
approaches.
We believe that each of these approaches has important
contributions to make to the understanding of intercultural
communication and that they operate in interconnected and
sometimes contradictory ways. In this eighth edition, we have
further strengthened our dialectical approach, which encourages
students to think critically about intercultural phenomena as seen
from these various perspectives.
 Throughout this book, we acknowledge that there are no easy
solutions to the difficult challenges of intercultural communication.
Sometimes our discussions raise more questions than they answer.
We believe that this is perfectly reasonable. The field of intercultural
communication is changing, but the relationship between culture
and communication is as well—because that relationship is, and
probably always will be, complex and dynamic. We live in a rapidly
changing world where intercultural contact will continue to increase,
creating an increased potential for both conflict and cooperation. We
hope that this book provides the tools needed to think about
intercultural communication, as a way of understanding the
challenges and recognizing the advantages of living in a multicultural
world.

Page xxi

References
Beech, H. (2020, March 17). Tracking the Coronavirus: How
crowded Asian cities tackled an epidemic. The New York Times.
Retrieved March 17, 2020, from
https://www.nytimes.com/2020/03/17/world/asia/coronavirus-
singapore-hong-kong-taiwan.html?
action=click&module=Spotlight&pgtype=Homepage
Coronavirus: Germany latest country to close borders. (2020, March
16). BBC News. Retrieved March 17, 2020, from
https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-51905129
Dillin, R. (2020, March 15). #CoronaKatie trends after Alexandria
Ocasio-Cortez begs people to stay in & woman tweets “I’ll do what
I want.” Inquisitr. Retrieved March 17, 2020, from
https://www.inquisitr.com/5943659/coronakatie-alexandria-
ocasio-cortez/
Parodi, E., Jewkes, S. Cha, S. & Park, J. (2020, March 12). Special
report: Italy and South Korea virus outbreaks reveal disparity in
death and tactcs. Reuters. Retrieved March 17, 2020, from
https://www.reuters.com/article/us-health-coronavirus-
response-specialre/italy-and-south-korea-virus-outbreaks-
reveal-disparity-in-deaths-and-tactics-idUSKBN20Z27P
Stevins-Gridneff, S. (2020, March 17). Europe shuts out visitors to
slow Coronavirus. The New York Times. Retrieved March 17,
2020, from
https://www.nytimes.com/2020/03/17/world/europe/EU-
closes-borders-virus.html

SIGNATURE FEATURES OF THE BOOK

Students usually come to the field of intercultural communication
with some knowledge about many different cultural groups,
including their own. Their understanding often is based on
observations drawn from the Internet, social media, television,
movies, books, personal experiences, news media, and other sources.
In this book, we hope to move students gradually to the notion of a
dialectical framework for thinking about cultural issues. That is, we
show that knowledge can be acquired in many different ways—
through social scientific studies, experience, media reports, and so
on—but these differing forms of knowledge need to be seen
dynamically and in relation to each other. We offer students a
number of ways to begin thinking critically about intercultural
communication in a dialectical manner. These include:

Page xxii

An explicit discussion of differing research approaches to

intercultural communication, focusing on both the strengths
and limitations of each
Ongoing attention to history, popular culture, and identity as
important factors in understanding intercultural
communication
Student Voices boxes in which students relate their own
experiences and share their thoughts about various
intercultural communication issues
Point of View boxes in which diverse viewpoints from news
media, research studies, and other public forums are presented
Incorporation of the authors’ own personal experiences to
highlight particular aspects of intercultural communication
NEW TO THE EIGHTH EDITION
To reflect the increasing doubts about the benefits of an
increasing rise of populism both in the U.S. and abroad, we
continue to emphasize the importance of these issues to
intercultural communication. For example, in Chapter 1, we
discuss how globalization and related economic recessions
influence intercultural communication. In Chapter 8, we
provide new examples of the impact of war and terrorism on
the continuing worldwide migration and the resulting
intercultural encounters.
The continuing and expanding influence of communication
technology in our daily lives is addressed by new material in
Chapter 1, acknowledging the increasing (and dialectic) role,
negative and positive, of social media in intercultural
encounters, and social media examples are interwoven
throughout the book.
Our expanded discussion of the implications of religious
identity and belief systems in Chapters 1 and 11 is prompted by
continued awareness of the important role religion plays in
intercultural communication.
We continue to emphasize the important roles that institutions
play in intercultural contact. In Chapter 8, we address the role
of institutions in supporting or discouraging refugees, as well
as immigrants and other kinds of intercultural transitions.

The eighth edition of Intercultural Communication in Contexts is

now available online with Connect, McGraw-Hill Education’s
integrated assignment and assessment platform. Connect also offers
SmartBook for the new edition, which is the first adaptive reading
experience proven to improve grades and help students study more
effectively. All of the title’s website and ancillary content is also
available through Connect, including:
A full Test Bank of multiple choice questions that test students
on central concepts and ideas in each chapter
An Instructor’s Manual for each chapter with full chapter
outlines, sample test questions, and discussion topics

Page xxiii
CHAPTER-BY-CHAPTER OVERVIEW
Intercultural Communication in Contexts is organized into three
parts: Part I, “Foundations of Intercultural Communication”; Part II,
“Intercultural Communication Processes”; and Part III,
“Intercultural Communication Applications.”
Part I, “Foundations of Intercultural Communication,” explores
the history of the field and presents various approaches to this area
of study, including our own.
We begin Chapter 1 with a focus on the dynamics of social life and
global conditions as a rationale for the study of intercultural
communication. We introduce ethics in this chapter to illustrate its
centrality to any discussion of intercultural interaction. In this
edition, we have introduced the “Environmental Imperative,”
emphasizing the importance of increasing instances of wildfires,
floods, droughts, and associated intercultural challenges (migration,
conflict). We have also updated our discussion of the impact of rising
populism and right-wing politics and immigration policies on
intercultural encounters.
In Chapter 2, we introduce the history of intercultural
communication as an area of study as well as the three paradigms
that inform our knowledge about intercultural interactions. We
establish the notion of a dialectical approach so that students can
begin to make connections and form relationships among the
paradigms. We describe and illustrate these approaches through the
very relevant case study of the continuing global migration, including
the impacts on the various cultural groups (racial, ethnic, LGBTQ)
who have left their countries and also on host communities in the
destination countries, including the related short- and long-term
political implications.
In Chapter 3, we focus on four basic intercultural communication
components—culture, communication, context, and power. In this
edition, we’ve provided new examples of interpretive ethnographic
research and extended our discussion of the critical impact of social
media on cultural resistance (e.g., #metoo, the Time’s Up
movement).
Chapter 4 focuses on the importance of historical forces in shaping
contemporary intercultural interaction. We include additional focus
on family history, as well as a discussion of how national histories are
narrated (e.g., renovation of the Colonial museum in Belgium,
Holocaust denial, the new U.S. lynching museum, and Ireland’s
emigration museum). In addition, we have added discussions on
India’s colonial history and the British imposition of anti-same sex
laws, and analyze the intercultural challenges in the controversy
surrounding “Silent Sam,” the Confederate statute on the UNC-
Chapel Hill campus.
Part II, “Intercultural Communication Processes,” establishes the
factors that contribute to the dynamics of intercultural
communication: identity, language, and nonverbal codes.
Chapter 5, on identity, has extended coverage of religious identity,
multicultural identity, and sexual identity (in addition to gender
identity). This chapter includes an extended exploration of cisgender
and transgender identity, and its current status in various cultures.
We also include an updated discussion on generational differences,
as well as the concept of “stateless person” as an identity, as well as
nationality, and further discuss microaggression as a communication
strategy used to demean another identity in subtle ways.

Page xxiv

Chapter 6 addresses language issues, with new examples of slang,

and generational differences in communication style, as well as
analysis of the communication style differences that influenced the
challenging trade negotiations between the U.S. and China. We also
introduce an extension of co-cultural theory—dominant group theory
—that examines the strategies that dominant group members use in
response to the concerns of co-cultural group members.
Chapter 7 focuses on nonverbal codes and cultural spaces and
includes new examples of cultural variations in nonverbal behavior,
including manspreading, deception, and emoji use. There is also a
discussion of recent controversies over wearing of hijab, the
intercultural implications of LGBTQ-free zones in Poland as well as
the recent postmodern mobile massively multiplayer online real-
time strategy (MMORTS) games.
Part III, “Intercultural Communication Applications,” helps
students apply the knowledge of intercultural communication
presented in the first two parts.
 Chapter 8 addresses intercultural transitions. In this edition, we
have added updated material on the worldwide refugee situation,
including the influence of interethnic conflict and populist politics.
We also further discuss the problems of integration and assimilation,
as well as the issues of working overseas for global businesses.
In Chapter 9, we focus on popular and folk culture and their
impact on intercultural communication. We have included new
updated examples, including Green Book, as well as introduction of
“yaoi” as an Asian popular culture example.
Chapter 10 explores intercultural relationships. In this edition, we
update the discussion of sexuality and intimate relationships (both
cisgender and LGBTQ) in multicultural environments. We also
discuss the importance of contextual influences on these
relationships, as well as the continuing societal tensions concerning
these relationships, and the implications for intercultural
communication.
Chapter 11 emphasizes an integrated approach to intercultural
conflict in a many different ways, including conflict on social media,
social change protests, as well as violence. We have refocused
discussion on important strategies in peacebuilding, as well as the
role of social movements (e.g., Black Lives Matter) and updated
examples.
Chapter 12 includes updated examples of current intercultural
challenges (e.g., recent religious and ethnic/racial conflict) in both
domestic and international contexts, as well as suggestions for
practical ways to strive for intercultural competence in everyday
encounters.

Page xxv

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The random convergence of the two authors in time and place led to
the creation of this textbook. We both found ourselves at Arizona
State University in the early 1990s. Over the course of several years,
we discussed and analyzed the multiple approaches to intercultural
communication. Much of this discussion was facilitated by the ASU
Department of Communication’s “culture and communication”
theme. Department faculty met to discuss research and pedagogical
issues relevant to the study of communication and culture; we also
reflected on our own notions of what constituted intercultural
communication. This often meant reliving many of our intercultural
experiences and sharing them with our colleagues.
Above all, we must recognize the fine work of the staff at McGraw-
Hill: Alex Preiss, Product Developer; Lisa Bruflodt, Content Project
Manager; and Sarah Flynn, Content Licensing Specialist.
In addition, we want to thank all the reviewers of this and previous
editions of Intercultural Communication in Contexts, whose
comments and careful readings were enormously helpful. They are:

First Edition Reviewers

Rosita D. Albert, University of Minnesota
Carlos G. Aleman, University of Illinois, Chicago
Deborah Cai, University of Maryland
Gail Campbell, University of Colorado, Denver
Ling Chen, University of Oklahoma
Alberto Gonzalez, Bowling Green State University
Bradford “J” Hall, University of New Mexico
Mark Lawrence McPhail, University of Utah
Richard Morris, Northern Illinois University
Catherine T. Motoyama, College of San Mateo
Gordon Nakagawa, California State University, Northridge
Joyce M. Ngoh, Marist College
Nancy L. Street, Bridgewater State College
Erika Vora, St. Cloud State University
Lee B. Winet, State University of New York, Oswego
Gust A. Yep, San Francisco State University

Second Edition Reviewers

Eric Akoi, Colorado State University
Jeanne Barone, Indiana/Purdue University at Fort Wayne
Wendy Chung, Rider University
Ellen Shide Crannell, West Valley College
Patricia Holmes, University of Missouri
Madeline Keaveney, California State University, Chico
Mark Neumann, University of South Florida
Margaret Pryately, St. Cloud State University
 Kara Shultz, Bloomsburg University

Page xxvi

Third Edition Reviewers

Marguerite Arai, University of Colorado at Colorado Springs
Rona Halualani, San José State University
Piper McNulty, De Anza College
Karla Scott, St. Louis University
Candace Thomas-Maddox, Ohio University, Lancaster
Susan Walsh, Southern Oregon University
Jennifer Willis-Rivera, Southern Illinois State University

Fourth Edition Reviewers

Sara DeTurk, University of Texas, San Antonio
Christopher Hajek, University of Texas, San Antonio
Mary M. Meares, Washington State University
Kimberly Moffitt, DePaul University
James Sauceda, California State University, Long Beach
Kathryn Sorrells, California State University, Northridge
David Zuckerman, Sacramento State University

Fifth Edition Reviewers

Shirene Bell, Salt Lake Community College
Lisa Bradford, University of Milwaukee-Wisconsin
John Chiang, State University of New York Oneonta
Susan DeTurk, University of Texas at San Antonio
Charles Elliott, Cedarville University
Gayle Houser, Northern Arizona University
Tema Oliveira Milstein, University of New Mexico
Marc Rich, California State University, Long Beach

Sixth Edition Reviewers

Nader Chaaban, Northern Virginia Community College
Jenny Gardner, Bay Path College
 Rachel Alicia Griffin, Southern Illinois University-Carbondale
Julia Hagemann, Drexel University
Amy N. Heuman, PhD, Texas Tech University
Kumi Ishii, Western Kentucky University
Meina Lui, University of Maryland
Dr. Nina-Jo Moore, Appalachian State University

Page xxvii

Craig VanGeison, Saint Charles County Community College

Nadene Vevea, North Dakota State University
MJ Woeste, University of Cincinnati

Seventh Edition Reviewers

Julie Chekroun, Santa Monica College & Cal State University
Becky DeGreeff, Kansas State University Polytechnic Campus
Thomas Green, Cape Fear Community College
Rebecca Hall-Cary, Florida State University
Kristine Knutson, University of Wisconsin Eau Claire
Jerome Kreitzer, Community College of Vermont
Grace Leinbach Coggio, University of Wisconsin-River Falls
Ines Meyer-Hoess, The Pennsylvania State University

Eight Edition Reviewers

Lee Artz, Purdue University Northwest
Emily Bosch, Concordia College-Moorhead
Rebecca Dumlao, East Carolina University
Our colleagues and students have provided invaluable assistance.
Thanks to our colleagues for their ongoing moral support and
intellectual challenges to our thinking. Thanks to Marilyn Brimo, San
Diego Mesa College for her timely suggestion to add “The
Environmental Imperative” in this edition. Thanks to our editorial
assistants, Megan Stephenson at Arizona State University and Dr.
Deya Roy at California State University San Marcos. They found
relevant scholarship and interesting examples to support and liven
up our writing. They were also always cooperative and responsive
even when they had their own research projects to complete and
academic deadlines to meet. And as always, we owe thanks to our
undergraduate students, who continue to challenge us to think about
intercultural communication in ways that make sense to their lives.
We thank our families and friends for once again allowing us
absences and silences as we directed our energies toward the
completion of this revision. We want to acknowledge both Ronald
Chaldu and David L. Karbonski, who continue to be supportive of
our academic writing projects.
Our international experiences have enriched our understanding of
intercultural communication theories and concepts. We thank all of
the following people for helping us with these experiences: Tommy
and Kazuko Nakayama; Michel Dion and Eliana Sampaïo of
Strasbourg, France; Jean-Louis Sauvage and Pol Thiry of the
Université de Mons-Hainaut, Belgium; Christina Kalinowska and the
Café “Le Ropieur” in Mons, Belgium; Scott and the others at Le BXL
in Brussels, Belgium; Emilio, Vince, Jimmy, Gene and the others at
the Westbury Bar in Philadelphia; Jerzy, Alicja, Marek, and Jolanta
Drzewieccy of Bedzin, Poland; as well as Margaret Nicholson of the
Commission for Educational Exchange between Belgium,
Luxembourg, and the United States; and Liudmila Markina from
Minsk, Belarus. Some research in this book was made possible by a
scholarship from the Fulbright Commission and the Fonds National
de la Recherche Scientifique in Brussels. We also thank Dr. Melissa
Steyn and her students at the Centre for Diversity Studies at the
University of the Witswatersrand in Johannesburg, South Africa for
their insightful discussions. In addition, we thank the countless
others we have met in cafés, train stations, bars, and conferences, if
only for a moment of international intercultural interaction.

Page xxviii

Other people helped us understand intercultural communication

closer to home, especially the staff and students at the Guadalupe
Center at South Mountain Community College, and also Dr. Amalia
Villegas, Cruzita Mori, and Lucia Madril and family.
In spirit and conceptualization, our book spans the centuries and
crosses many continents. It has been shaped by the many people we
have read about and encountered. It is to these guiding and inspiring
individuals—some of whom we had the good fortune to meet and
some of whom we will never encounter—that we dedicate this book.
It is our hope that their spirit of curiosity, openness, and
understanding will be reflected in the pages that follow.
 Page xxix

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Another random document with
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The Project Gutenberg eBook of The apiary; or,
bees, bee-hives, and bee culture [1865]
 This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United
States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with
almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away
or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License
included with this ebook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you
are not located in the United States, you will have to check the
laws of the country where you are located before using this
eBook.

Title: The apiary; or, bees, bee-hives, and bee culture [1865]

Author: Alfred Neighbor

Release date: June 9, 2022 [eBook #68269]

Language: English

Original publication: United Kingdom: Kent and Company, 1865

Credits: Tom Cosmas compiled from materials made available

at The Internet Archive and placed in the Public
Domain.

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE APIARY;

OR, BEES, BEE-HIVES, AND BEE CULTURE [1865] ***
 THE APIARY
OR,

BEES, BEE-HIVES
AND

BEE CULTURE.
 THE APIARY;
OR,

BEES, BEE-HIVES,
AND

BEE CULTURE:
BEING A FAMILIAR ACCOUNT OF THE HABITS OF BEES, AND
THE MOST
IMPROVED METHODS OF MANAGEMENT, WITH FULL
DIRECTIONS,
ADAPTED FOR THE COTTAGER, FARMER, OR,
SCIENTIFIC APIARIAN.
 By ALFRED NEIGHBOUR.

"Je connais beaucoup des personnes qu' aiment

les abeilles, mais ne personnes aiment les
mediocrement, ils les passionment."—Gelieu.

LONDON:
KENT AND CO., PATERNOSTER ROW
GEO: NEIGHBOUR AND SONS,
149. REGENT STREET, AND 127, HIGH HOLBORN;
AND ALL, BOOKSELLERS.
1865.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS.

Preface—Introductory 1

SECTION I.
The inhabitants of the hive 2
The queen 2
The drone 6
The worker bee 8
Eggs of bees 8
Increase of bees 9
Swarming 11

SECTION II.—Modern Bee-Hives.

Nutt's Collateral Hive 17
Neighbour's Improved Single Box Hive 24
Taylor's Amateur Shallow Box or Eight-bar Hive 26
Taylor's Amateur Seven-bar Hive 27
Neighbour's Improved Cottage 28
Improved Cottage 31
Ladies' Observatory or Crystal Bee-hive 32
Cottagers' Hive for taking honey in straw caps without the destruction of the
34
bees
Woodbury Bar and Frame Hives:—
Wood 36
Straw 37
Glass 38
Frame 39
Improved Comb Bar 39
Compound Bar and Frame 40
Cover 41
Taylor's Improved Cottage Hive 43
" Eight Bar Straw 43
Neighbour's Unicomb Observatory Hive 44
Woodbury " " " 46
Huber's Hive 50

SECTION III.—Exterior Arrangements

and Apparatus.
Bee House to contain two hives 53
" " twelve hives 55
" " nine hives 56
Evening thoughts in January 56
Exterior and interior of an Apiary 58
Zinc Cover 59
Ornamental Zinc Cover 59
Cover of Zinc 60
Bell Glasses 60
Taylor's Glass 60
Payne's Glass 61
Bell Glass with lid 61
Guide Comb for Glasses 61
The New Bottle Feeder 63
Round Bee Feeder 65
Zinc Fountain Bee Feeder 65
Nutt's Drawer Feeder 66
Honey Cutters (13) 66
Fumigator (11) 66
Fumigator (12) 68
Bee Dress or Protector 68
Engraved Pressing Roller, for the guidance of bees in the construction of
69
honey-comb on the bars
Impressed Wax Sheets for artificial comb 70

SECTION IV.
Manipulation and uses of Bar and Frame Hives 73
Putting on Super Hive 75
Taking out Frames with Combs 76
Artificial Swarming 79
Driving 84
Changing Old Stock to new Hives 86
Weighing Hives, &c. 88

SECTION V.—Miscellaneous Information.

Stings: their Prevention and Cure 88
Pollen or Food for Infant Bees 91
Propolis or Bees' Cement 92
Pasturage for Bees 93
The Ligurian or Italian Alp Bee 95
Living Bees at the International Exhibition of 1862,
100
sending Bees to Australia, &c.
Bee-keeping in London 102
Wasps and Moths 106
Draining Honey from the Combs 110
General Remarks 110
On the First Flight of Bees in Spring 116

APPENDIX.—Testimonials of the Press.

Great Exhibition of 1801:—
From the "Cottage Gardener" 119
" "Illustrated London News" 119
" "Express" 121
International Exhibition of 1802:—
From the "Illustrated London News" 121
" "Journal of Horticulture" 121
" "Illustrated News of the World" 122
" "Gardener's Weekly Magazine" 123
Bath and West of England Agricultural Show at Exeter
in June, 1863:—
From the "Journal of Horticulture" 124
" "Western Times" 124
" "Devon Weekly Times" 126
 " "Exeter Gazette" 126
Royal Agricultural Show, Newcastle, 1804:—
From the "Northern Daily Express" 126

ERRATA.
At second line from bottom of page 23, for "cottage" read "cottager."
At page 30, fifth line from bottom, for "last page" read "page 25."
At page 44, sixteenth line, for "this plates of glass" read "thin plates
of glass."
At page 53, fourteenth line, read "bee hive" for "bee house."
[Transcriber Note: Above ERRATA corrections were applied.]

EXPLANATIONS OMITTED.
At page 62, "Hold the glass horizontally over the flame of the candle."
At page 80, "An empty hive should be placed on the stand when the
living hive is removed, for the purpose of amusing returning
bees. If the hive is kept in a bee-house, the entrance should be
shut down unto the hive is restored, when the clustered bees
may be at once admitted."
[Transcriber Note: Above EXPLANATIONS were placed.]
 PREFACE.

Our apology for preparing a bee book is a very simple one. We are
so frequently applied to for advice on matters connected with bees
and bee-hives, that it seemed likely to prove a great advantage, alike
to our correspondents and ourselves, if we could point to a "handy-
book" of our own, which should contain full and detailed replies
sufficient to meet all ordinary enquiries. Most of the apiarian manuals
possess some special excellence or other, and we have no wish to
disparage any of them. Yet in all, we have found a want of
explanations relating to several of the more recent improvements.
It has, more especially, been our aim to give explicit and detailed
directions on most subjects connected with the hiving and removing
of bees; and also, to show how, by judicious application of the
"depriving" system, the productive powers of the bees may be
enormously increased.
We need say little here as to the interest that attaches to the
apiary as a source of perennial pleasure for the amateur naturalist.
Many of the hives and methods of management are described with a
direct reference to this class of bee-keepers; so that, besides plain
and simple directions suitable for cottagers with their ordinary hives,
this work will be found to include instructions useful for the scientific
apiarian, or, at least, valuable, for those who desire to gain a much
wider acquaintance with the secrets of bee-keeping than is now
usually possessed. We would lay stress on the term "acquaintance,"
for there is nothing in the management of the various bar-and-frame
hives which is at all difficult when frequent practice has rendered the
bee-keeper familiar with them. Such explicit directions are herein
given as to how the right operations may be performed at the right
times, that a novice may at once commence to use the modern
hives. The word "new-fangled" has done good service for the
indolent and prejudiced; but we trust that our readers will be of a
very different class. Let them give a fair trial to the modern
appliances for the humane and depriving system of bee-keeping,
and they will find offered to them an entirely new field of interest and
observation. At present, our continental neighbours far surpass us as
bee-masters; but we trust that the season of 1865, if the summer be
fine, will prove a turning point in the course of. English bee-keeping.
There is little doubt that a greater number of intelligent and influential
persons in this country will become bee-keepers than has ever been
the case before.
Our task would have lost half its interest, did we not hope that it
would result in something beyond the encouragement of a refined
and interesting amusement for the leisurely classes. The social
importance of bee keeping as a source of pecuniary profit for small
farmers and agricultural labourers, has never been appreciated as it
deserves. Yet these persons will not, of themselves, lay aside the
bungling and wasteful plan of destroying the bees, or learn without
being taught the only proper method, that of deprivation. Their
educated neighbours when once interested in bee-keeping, will be
the persons to introduce the more profitable system of humane bee-
keeping. The clergy, especially, as permanent residents in the
country, may have great influence in this respect. There is not a rural
or suburban parish in the kingdom in which bee-keeping might not
be largely extended, and the well being of all but the very poorest
inhabitants would be greatly promoted. Not only would the general
practice of bee-keeping add largely to the national resources, but
that addition would chiefly fall to the share of those classes to whom
it would be of most value. Moreover, in the course of thus adding to
their income, the uneducated classes would become interested in an
elevating and instructive pursuit.
It is curious to observe that honey, whether regarded as a
manufactured article or as an agricultural product, is obtained under
economical conditions of exceptional advantage. If regarded as a
manufactured article, we notice that there is no outlay required for
"labour," nor any expense for "raw material." The industrious
labourers are eager to utilize all their strength: they never "combine"
except for the benefit of their master, they never "strike" for wages,
and they provide their own subsistence. All that the master
manufacturer of honey has to do financially, is to make a little outlay
for "fixed capital" in the needful "plant" of hives and utensils—no
"floating capital" is needed. Then, on the other hand, if we regard
honey as an agricultural product, it presents as such a still more
striking contrast to the economists' theory of what are the "requisites
of production." Not only is there no outlay needed for wages and
none for raw material, but there is nothing to be paid for "use of a
natural agent." Every square yard of land in the United Kingdom may
come to be cultivated, as in China, but no proprietor will ever be able
to claim "rent" for those "waste products" of the flowers and leaves,
which none but the winged workers of the hive can ever utilize.
The recent domestication in England of the Ligurian or "Italian
Alp" bee adds a new and additional source of interest to bee-culture.
We have, therefore, gone pretty fully into this part of the subject; and
believe that what is here published with regard to their introduction
embodies the most recent and reliable information respecting them
that is possessed by English apiarians.[1]
[1] Some of our apiarian friends may be inclined to be
discouraged from cultivating the Ligurian bees in consequence of
the liability to their becoming hybridised when located in proximity
to the black bees. We can dispel these fears by stating that we
have not unfrequently found that hybrid queens possess the
surprising fecundity of the genuine Italian ones, whilst the English
stocks in course of time become strengthened by the infusion of
foreign blood.
We are under many obligations for the advice and assistance that
we have on many occasions received from Mr. T. W. Woodbury, of
Exeter, whose apiarian skill is unrivalled in this country. Our
acknowledgments are also due to Mr. Henry Taylor, author of an
excellent "Bee-Keeper's Manual," for his help and counsel during the
earlier years of our apiarian experience. Both the before-mentioned
gentlemen have freely communicated to us their contrivances and
suggestions, without thought of fee or reward for them. In common
with most recent writers on bee-culture, we are necessarily largely
indebted to the standard works of Huber and succeeding apiarians.
From the more recent volume of the Rev. L. L. Langstroth we have
also obtained useful information. But having ourselves of later years
had considerable experience in the manipulation and practical
management of bees, we are enabled to confirm or qualify the
statement of others, as well as to summarize information gleaned
from many various sources. We should state that our thanks are due
to Mr. W. Martin Wood, who has rendered us valuable aid in the
arrangement of this work.
Let it be understood that we have no patented devices to push:
we are free to choose out of the many apiarian contrivances that
have been offered of late years, and we feel perfectly at liberty to
praise or blame as our experience warrants us in doing. It does not
follow that we necessarily disparage hives which are not described
herein; we have sought, as much as possible, to indicate the
principles on which good hives must be constructed, whatever their
outward size or shape. All through the work, we have endeavoured
to adopt the golden rule of "submission to nature," by reference to
which all the fancied difficulties of bee-keeping may be easily
overcome. In none of the attempts of men to hold sway over natural
objects, is the truth of Bacon's leading doctrine more beautifully
illustrated than in the power that the apiarian exercises in the little
world of bees.
There are one or two literary peculiarities of this work to which we
ought to refer. It will be noticed that the numbers affixed to the
names of the various hives and utensils do not follow in regular
order. Those numbers refer to our Illustrated Catalogue, with which
most English apiarians have long been familiar, and we could not
alter them without great inconvenience.
Some persons may consider we have used too many poetical
quotations in a book dealing wholly with matters of fact. We trust,
however, that an examination of the extracts will at once remove that
feeling of objection.
We venture to hope that the following pages contain many
valuable hints and interesting statements which may tend to excite
increased and renewed attention to the most useful and industrious
of all insects. Although bees have neither reason nor religion for their
guide, yet from them man may learn many a lesson of virtue and
industry, and may even draw from them thoughts suggestive of trust
and faith in God.
We beg leave to conclude our preface, and introduce the subject,
by the following extract from Shakespeare,—who, without doubt,
kept bees in that garden at Stratford wherein he used to meditate:—

"So work the honey bees;

Creatures, that by a rule in Nature, teach
The art of order to a peopled kingdom.
They have a king and officers of sorts;
Where some, like magistrates, correct at home;
Others, like merchants, venture trade abroad;
Others, like soldiers, armed in their stings.
Make boot upon the Summer's velvet buds.
Which pillage they, with merry march, bring home
To the tent royal of their emperor:
Who, busied in his majesty, surveys
The singing masons building roofs of gold;
The civil citizens kneading up the honey;
The poor mechanic porters crowding in
Their heavy burdens at his narrow gate;
The sad-eyed justice, with his surly hum,
Delivering o'er to executors pale
The lazy, yawning drone."—

Shakespeare's Henry V., Act I., Scene 2.

 THE APIARY;
OR

BEES, BEE-HIVES, & BEE CULTURE.

There are two classes of persons for whom bee-culture should have
a strong interest, and two distinct purposes for which the pursuit may
be followed. First, there is the cottager or small farmer who, in
thousands of instances, might add considerably to his income by
bee-keeping; and secondly, there is the man of "retired leisure" and
refinement, who, in the personal tendance of an apiary would find an
easy and interesting occupation, and one which could not fail to
quicken his faculties of general scientific observation. Moreover, in
contemplating the wonderful skill, industry, and prevision of his insect
artisans, the bee-keeper would find in his apiary constant illustrations
of creative wisdom.
Amongst the humbler classes in the rural districts, the neglect of
bee-keeping is to be attributed to an exaggerated idea of the trouble
needful for the care of a few hives, and also to ignorance of the
easier and more profitable methods of modern management. Many
of the wealthier country or suburban residents, also, are averse to
the personal trouble which they fancy needful in keeping an apiary;
and, perhaps, some gentlemen are more afraid than they would like
to own of that very efficient weapon of defence with which the honey
bee is provided. But the prejudices against bees are quite
unnecessary; bees are as tractable as they are intelligent, and it is
the purpose of this little book to show that bee-culture is an easy and
safe, as well as a deeply interesting, pursuit. Possibly, also, some
who do us the favour to read our detailed explanations, will see how
the rural clergyman, or the benevolent landlord, who keeps an apiary
of his own, may be of signal service to his poorer neighbours in
explaining to them the mysteries of bee-keeping.

I. THE INHABITANTS OF THE HIVE.

Every hive or bee colony comprises three distinct classes of
bees, each class having functions peculiar to itself, and which are
essential to the well-being of the whole community. As each bee
knows its own proper duties, they all work harmoniously and
zealously together, for the common weal. Certain apparent
exceptions to the good-fellowship of the bees will be hereafter
noticed, but those arise out of essential conditions in the social
economy of the bee community.
The three classes of bees are:—the queen bee, with the pupæ or
embryos intended for queens; the working bees; and the drones or
male bees.
The Queen.—Dr. Evans[2] introduces the queen bee to our
notice thus:—

First of the throng, and foremost of the whole,

One 'stands confest the sovereign and the soul.'

[2] Dr. Evans,—who may be styled the poet-laureate of the

bees,—lived at Shrewsbury, where he practiced as a physician.
His poem on bees is written with great taste and careful
elaboration, and it describes the habits of bees with a degree of
accuracy only attainable after continuous scientific observation.
The queen may very readily be distinguished from the rest of the
bees by the greater length of her body, and the comparative
shortness of her wings; her legs are longer, and are not furnished
with either brushes or baskets as those of the working bee, for being
constantly fed by the latter, she does not need those implements; the
upper surface of her body is of a brighter black than the other bees,
whilst her colour underneath is a yellowish brown; her wings, which
do not extend more than half the length of her body, are sinewy and
strong; her long abdomen tapers nearly to a point; her head is
rounder, her tongue more slender, and not nearly so long, as that of
the working bee, and her sting is curved; her movements are
measured and majestic, as she moves in the hive the other bees
form a circle round her, none venturing to turn their backs upon her,
but all anxious to show that respect and attention due to her rank
and station. Whenever in the exercise of her sovereign will the
queen wishes to travel amongst her subjects, she experiences no
inconvenience from overcrowding; although the part of the hive to
which she is journeying may be the most populous, way is
immediately made, the common bees tumbling over each other to
get out of her way, so great is their anxiety not to interfere with the
royal progress.
It is the chief function of the queen to lay the eggs from which all
future bees originate, the multiplication of the species being the
purpose of her existence, and she follows it up with an assiduity
similar to that with which the workers construct combs or collect
honey. A queen is estimated to lay in the breeding season from
1,500 to 2,000 eggs a-day, and in the course of one year is
supposed to produce more than 100,000 bees. This is indeed a vast
number; but when there is taken into consideration the great number
required for swarms, the constant lessening of their strength by
death in various ways, and the many casualties attending them in
their distant travels in search of the luscious store, it does not seem
that the case is over stated.
In a Glass Unicomb Hive,—which we shall hereinafter describe,
—all the movements of the queen-bee may be traced; she may be
seen thrusting her head into a cell to discover whether it be occupied
with an egg or honey, and if empty, she turns round in a dignified
manner and inserts her long body—so long, that she is able to
deposit the egg at the bottom of the cell; she then passes on to
another, and so continues industriously multiplying her laborious
subjects. It not unfrequently happens when the queen is prolific, and
if it be an early season, that many eggs are wasted for want of
unoccupied cells; for in that case the queen leaves them exposed at
the bottom of the hive when they are greedily devoured by the bees.
The queen-bee, unlike the great majority of her subjects, is a stayer
at home; generally speaking, she only quits the hive twice in her life.
The first occasion is on the all-important day of her marriage, which
always takes place at a great height in the air, and generally on the
second or third day of her princess-life; she never afterwards leaves
the hive, except to lead off an emigrating swarm. Evans, with proper
loyalty, has duly furnished a glowing epithalamium for the queen-
bee:—thus.

When noon-tide Sirius glares on high,

Young love ascends the glowing sky,
From vein to vein swift shoots prolific fire.
And thrills each insect fibre with desire;
Then Nature to fulfil thy prime decree,
Wheels round in wanton rings, the courtier Bee;
Now shyly distant, now with bolder air,
He woos and wins the all-complying fair;
Through fields of ether, veiled in vap'ry gloom
They seek, with amorous haste, the nuptial room;
As erst the immortal pair, on Ida's height,
wreath'd round their noon of joy, ambrosial night,

The loyalty and attachment of bees to their queen is one of their

most remarkable characteristics; they constantly supply her with
food, and fawn upon and caress her, softly touching her with their
antennæ, a favour which she occasionally returns. When she moves
about the hive, all the bees through whom she successively passes
pay her the same homage; those whom she leaves behind in her
track close together, and resume their accustomed occupations.
The majestic deportment of the queen-bee and the homage paid
to her is, with a little poetic license, thus described by Evans:—

But mark of royal port and awful mien.

Where moves with measured pace the insect Queen!
Twelve chosen guards, with slow and solemn gait.
Bend at her nod, and round her person wait.