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Contents
Preface xvii
CHAPTER 1 What Is Social Work? 1

Social Work as a Profession 2
Who Are Social Workers? 3
BOX 1.1: More About … Social Work 5
Social Work Education 6
BOX 1.2: More About … Social Work Education Criteria 6
BOX 1.3: What Do You Think? 6
Central Concepts and Theories 7
Person in Environment Concept 7
Theoretical Basis for Social Work Practice 7
BOX 1.5: More About … NASW Standards for Cultural Competence in Social Work Practice 13
The Power of Language 13
BOX 1.6: Point of View 16
Social Work Values and Ethics 18
Social Workers’ Ethical Responsibilities 19
BOX 1.8: Ethical Practice … Helping Clients 20
BOX 1.9: From the Field: Herman’s Rights or Worker Safety? 20
Social Work Careers 21
Child Welfare: Working with Children and Their Families 21
People Who Are Older 22
Health Care/Medical Social Work 22
Mental Health 22
School Social Work 23
Substance Abuse 23
Violence, Victims, and Criminal Justice 23
Crisis, Trauma, and Disasters 24
Military Social Work 24
Public Welfare 24
Community Organization 24
Policy Practice 25
vi CONTENTS
Management/Administration 25
Rural Social Work 25
International Social Work 25
Is Social Work for You? 26
Personal Characteristics Suited to Social Work Practice 26
Social Workers as Change Agents 28
BOX 1.11: Becoming a Change Agent 29
Choosing Social Work as a Career 29
Conclusion 30
CHAPTER 2 The History of the Social Welfare System and the Social Work
Profession 37
How the Social Welfare System Helps People 39
The History of U.S. Social Welfare 41
Colonial Period 42
Values Reflecting the Colonial Period 42
Pre–Civil War Period 43
Values Reflecting the Pre–Civil War Period 43
The Civil War and Post–Civil War Period 43
Values Reflecting the Civil War and Post–Civil War Period 44
The Progressive Era 44
Values Reflecting the Progressive Era 45
The Great Depression and the New Deal 45
Values Reflecting the Great Depression and the New Deal 47
World War II and the Postwar Economy 47
Values Reflecting World War II and the Postwar Economy 48
The Social Reform Years 48
Values Reflecting the Social Reform Years 49
The Retrenchment Years 49
Values Reflecting the Retrenchment Years 50
Social Welfare in the New Millennium: Terrorism, War, Financial Struggles,
and Recovery 50
Values Influencing the New Millennium 51
Major Social Welfare Programs 52
Cash Assistance Programs 54
In-Kind Benefit Programs 55
The History of the Social Work Profession 57
Charity Organization Societies 57
BOX 2.4: More About … Mary Richmond 58
Settlement Movement 58
CONTENTS vii
BOX 2.5: More About … Jane Addams 59

Values, Social Welfare, and Social Work 62
Are Recipients Worthy or Unworthy? 62
Religious Values or Separation of Church and State 63
BOX 2.6: Ethical Practice … Abortion 63
Should We Change the Person or the System? 64
Impartial Professional or Advocate 64
Helping People We Know or Helping Strangers 64
Crisis or Ongoing Need 64
Conclusion 65
CHAPTER 3 Poverty and Economic Disparity 69

Defining Poverty 70
The Official Definition of Poverty 71
Who Is Poor in America? 72
The Causes of Poverty 73
Values and Blaming the Victim 74
BOX 3.2: From the Field: The Faces of Poverty 75
Employment and Income Levels 76
Jobs 76
Income Distribution 77
Race 78
The Costs of Poverty 79
Homelessness and Housing 79
Personal Costs 81
The Roles of Social Workers 81
Social Welfare Programs 83
Supplemental Security Income 83
Temporary Assistance for Needy Families 83
Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program 86
Psychosocial Interventions 86
Advocacy 87
BOX 3.5: Ethical Practice … Self-Sufficiency or Neglect? 88
Conclusion 88
CHAPTER 4 Human Rights and Social and Economic Justice 95

What Is Social Justice? 97
Social Work’s Mandate for Social Justice 98
Barriers to Social Justice 98
viii CONTENTS
BOX 4.1: More About … Oppression and Violence 100

BOX 4.4: From the Field: Doing My Civic Duty 105
Explanations of Social Injustice 106
Biological Determinism 106
The Socialization Process 107
Psychological Perspectives 107
Sociological Perspectives 108
Models of Intergroup Relations 108
Overcoming Social Injustice 110
Civil Rights 110
Protection from Discrimination 110
Civil Rights for Lesbians, Gay Men, Bisexuals, and Transgender Persons 112
Hate Crimes Prevention Act 113
Affirmative Action 113
Immigration Rights 115
Social Work Roles in Fighting Social Injustice 116
BOX 4.5: More About … Social Work’s Commitment to Social Justice 116
BOX 4.6: Ethical Practice … Social Justice 117
Social Justice and Civil Rights in the Twenty-First Century 117
Conclusion 118
CHAPTER 5 Dimensions of Diversity 123

Social Construction of Differences 124
Diversity in the United States 126
Historical Background 128
Exploration and Colonization 128
Forced Relocation and Enslavement 129
Expansion into Mexico 129
Immigration 129
Refugee Status 130
Undocumented or Unauthorized Immigrants 130
Implications for Social Work Practice 131
Influence of History 131
Barriers to Service 132
BOX 5.1: From the Field: Cultural Divide 132
Cultural Competency 133
Multiculturalism 134
Ecological Framework 135
Empowerment Practice 135
CONTENTS ix
Achieving Cultural Competency 136

Awareness of Self 136
Understanding Cultural Differences 137
BOX 5.4: More About … Core Values for Working with Diverse Populations 138
Stages of Cultural Understanding 138
Cultural Humility 139
BOX 5.6: Ethical Practice … Racism 140
Emerging Issues 140
Civil Rights for LGBT People 140
Multiethnic or Transracial Adoptions 142
Redress or Reparations for Past Social Injustices 142
Underfunded Schools 142
Environmental Justice 143
English Only Emphasis 143
New Research on Human Diversity and Genetic Makeup 143
Conclusion 144
CHAPTER 6 Generalist Social Work Practice 151

BOX 6.1: More About … Generalist Social Work Practice 153
BOX 6.2: More About … Levels of Practice 153
A Theoretical Framework for Generalist Social Work Practice 154
Ecological Systems Framework 155
The Strengths and Diversity Perspectives 155
Historical Influence of Theories of Human Behavior in Social Work Practice 156
Psychodynamic Theory 156
Cognitive-Behavioral Theory 158
Crisis Theory and Crisis Intervention 159
Generalist Social Work Practice with Individuals and Families 159
Case Management 160
Engagement and Assessment 161
BOX 6.3: More About … Empathy 161
Intervention 162
Monitoring and Evaluation 164
Family Intervention 164
BOX 6.4: From the Field: Using Multiple Practice Skills 165
Ethical Challenges in Working with Individuals and Families 167
BOX 6.5: Ethical Practice … Doing Two Things at Once? 167
Generalist Social Work Practice with Groups 168
The Unique Challenges of Rural Social Work 169
Other Types of Groupwork 169
Support Groups 169
Self-Help Groups 170
Social Action Groups 170
x CONTENTS

Ethical Challenges in Working with Groups 171
Community Practice 171
Roles 172
BOX 6.7: More About … The Goals of Organizing 173
Models of Community Practice 174
Neighborhood and Community Organizing 174
Functional Organizing 174
Community Social and Economic Development 175
Social Planning 175
Program Development and Community Liaison 175
Political and Social Action 175
Coalition Building 176
Ethical Challenges in Working with Communities 176
The Role of a Global Perspective in Generalist Practice 177
BOX 6.8: From the Field: Social Work Takes Many Forms of Practice 178
Conclusion 181
CHAPTER 7 Child Welfare: Working with Children and Their Families 185
The Importance of Theory 186
Theories of Child Development 187
Ecological Approach 188
BOX 7.2: More About … Systems and Children 189
Human Development 189
Prenatal 189
Infancy 189
Preschool Years 190
Middle Childhood 190
Adolescence 190
Other Theories 191
The Child Welfare System 191
Child Welfare 193
Child Protective Services (CPS) 193
Juvenile Justice 194
Case Management 195
Direct Practice 195
BOX 7.4: From the Field: Learning from a Child 196
CONTENTS xi
Advocacy and Policy Building 197

The Intervention Process 198
Referral 198
Assessment and Engagement 199
Determining Intervention Strategies 201
Planning and Implementation 202
Termination 202
Values and Ethics 203
Respect for the Dignity and Uniqueness of the Individual 203
Respect for Self-Determination 204
Respect for Confidentiality 204
BOX 7.6: Ethical Practice … Child Welfare 205
Critical Issues Facing Children and Families 205
Child Maltreatment 205
Foster Care 207
Alcohol and Drug Abuse 208
Decisions About Sexual Behavior 208
Delinquency 209
Divorce 210
Poverty 210
Immigration 210
Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity 211
Working with Children and Families from a Strengths Perspective 211
Conclusion 212
CHAPTER 8 Gerontology: Working with People Who Are Older 219

BOX 8.1: More About … Age Discrimination 221
Human Development within the Social Context 221
Biological and Physiological Aspects of Aging 221
Cognitive Process and Emotional/Psychological Development 222
Sociological Aspects of Aging 223
Legal, Economic, and Political Aspects 223
Social Work Practice with People Who Are Older 224
Current Context 226
BOX 8.2: More About … The Group of People Who Are Older 227
Diversity 228
Critical Public Policies 230
Current Practice Interventions 231
Older People at Risk 233
xii CONTENTS
Values and Ethical Issues 235

Critical Issues and Emerging Concerns 238
Medicare Drug Prescription Benefit and the Affordable
Care Act 238
BOX 8.5: Ethical Practice … High Cost of Care 239
Elder Abuse and Neglect 240
Alzheimer’s Disease and Dementia 241
BOX 8.6: From the Field: Quality of Life 242
Mental Health and Depression 244
Caregivers for Aging Parents 245
Grandparents Caring for Grandchildren 246
Conclusion 248
CHAPTER 9 Health Care Services 255

Health Care in America 256
Defining Health 257
The U.S. Health Care System 258
Health Care Reform: 1960s 259
Health Care Reform: 1990s 260
Health Care Reform: The States 260
Health Care Reform: The Obama Administration 261
The Current Health Care System 262
Limitations of the Current Health Care System 263
Acute Care 266
BOX 9.3: From the Field: Helping to Find the Problem 266
Ambulatory Care 269
Long-Term Care 269
Developmental Disabilities 271
Public Health Policies 272
Social Work Values and Ethics in Health Care Settings 274
Critical Issues 276
Disability 276
BOX 9.5: More About … The Americans with Disabilities Act 277
HIV/AIDS 278
BOX 9.6: Ethical Practice … Confidentiality or Health Safety? 279
CONTENTS xiii
Medical Use of Marijuana 279

Diabetes 279
Conclusion 281
CHAPTER 10 Mental Health Services 287

Mental Health and Mental Illness 289
BOX 10.1: More About … Mental Disorders 290
Biological and Psychological Factors 291
Social Factors 293
The Mental Health Care System 293
The Current System 296
Fragmentation of the System 296
Managed Care 297
Deinstitutionalization 297
Criminalization 297
Community Treatment 298
Multidisciplinary Aspects of Mental Health Care 298
Social Work Practice in Mental Health Settings 301
Social Work Roles 302
Treatment 302
Family Therapy 304
Psychotherapy Groups 304
E-Therapy 307
Culturally Responsive Practice 307
Strengths Perspective 309
BOX 10.4: From the Field: Working with People Living with Serious Mental Illness 310
Obstacles to Treatment 311
BOX 10.7: Katie A. and Increased Collaboration 314
Policy Issues 314
Iraq and Afghanistan War Veterans and Mental Health 315
Values and Ethics 316
BOX 10.8: Ethical Practice … Cost or Care? 317
Conclusion 317
CHAPTER 11 School Social Work 323

The History of School Social Work 325
School Social Work Roles and Skills 326
Responsibilities of School Social Workers 327
xiv CONTENTS
Working with Students at Risk 328

BOX 11.1: From the Field: Social Work Persistence 330
Knowledge and Skills 333
BOX 11.3: From the Field: Experiencing School Social Work 334
BOX 11.5: More About … School Social Work Credentials 336
Critical Public Policies 336
Students with Disabilities 337
Poor and Homeless Students 338
Diversity 340
Multicultural Education 341
Bilingual Education and Immigration 341
Students Who Are Deaf or Hearing Impaired 343
Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender Students 344
BOX 11.7: More About … School Social Work Standards 345
Challenges Facing School Social Workers 347
Violence Prevention 347
Teenage Pregnancy and Disease Prevention 348
Tobacco, Alcohol, and Illicit Drug Prevention 349
Dropout Prevention 349
BOX 11.8: Ethical Practice 350
Conclusion 351
CHAPTER 12 Substance Abuse 359

Substance Abuse and Human Development 362
Types of Drugs 362
BOX 12.1: More About … Alcoholism 363
Dependence and Addiction 369
Sugar and Caffeine Addiction 369
BOX 12.2: More About … Criteria in the DSM-5 for Diagnosis of Substance Use Disorders 370
Causes of Dependence and Addiction 371
Substance Abuse Treatment and Prevention 372
Current Context 374
The Role of the Social Worker 375
BOX 12.3: From the Field: The Case of Twyla 377
Diversity Issues and Populations at Risk 378
Women 378
African Americans 379
Latino Populations 380
Indigenous People 381
The LGBT Community 382
CONTENTS xv

Should Drug Use During Pregnancy Be Prosecuted? 384
Are Needle Exchange Programs Ethical? 385
Should Some Drugs Be Legalized? 385
Emerging Issues and Future Concerns 387
AOD Problems in the Workplace 387
Drugs and HIV/AIDS 388
Criminalization or Treatment 389
Steroids and Human Growth Hormone 390
BOX 12.6: Ethical Practice … Punishment or Treatment? 390
Conclusion 392
CHAPTER 13 Violence, Victims, and Criminal Justice 399

Violence, Crime, and Punishment in the United States 400
The Criminal Justice System 401
The Extent and Variety of Crime in the United States 401
Theories of Criminal Behavior Relevant to Social Work 402
Individualistic Theories 402
Sociological Theories 405
Theories and Social Work 406
The Criminal Justice System 407
Racial Imbalance 407
Women 409
Inmates with Disabilities 409
Inmates with Chronic Health Problems 410
Undocumented Immigrants and Crime 411
Social Work Roles and Skills 412
Practice Settings 415
Juvenile and Family Courts 415
Juvenile Corrections 416
Adult Corrections 417
Probation, Parole, and Community Corrections 419
Victim Assistance Services 421
BOX 13.3: More About … Victim Assistance 421
Policy Issues 422
Juvenile Offenders 422
Domestic Violence 424
BOX 13.6: From the Field: An Unexpected Journey 425
xvi CONTENTS
Crime and Mental Illness 426

Overcriminalization and Privatization 427
The Death Penalty 427
BOX 13.7: The Case of Cameron Todd Willingham: Is the System Too Fallible? 428
Victims’ Rights 430
BOX 13.9: Ethical Practice … Rehabilitation or Punishment? 432
Ethics and Values 432
Conclusion 433
CHAPTER 14 Crisis, Trauma, and Disasters 441

What Do We Mean by Crisis, Trauma, and Disaster? 442
Stress 443
Trauma 445
BOX 14.2: More About … Trauma A Unique Approach to Recovery from Trauma 446
Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder 447
BOX 14.3: More About … PTSD 448
Disasters—Natural and Human Made 449
Terrorist Attacks on American Soil—September 11, 2001 450
The Unexpected Nature of Disasters 451
International Events 452
The Iraq War 454
Secondary Traumatic Stress 455
Social Work Practice 456
BOX 14.5: From the Field: We Didn’t Start the Fire 456
Micro-Level Interventions 458
Techniques for Reducing Stress 459
Mindfulness and Stress 459
Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy 460
Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing 460
Emerging Techniques—Energy Psychology and Trauma-Releasing Exercises 461
Pharmacological Treatment 461
Macro-Level Interventions 462
Prevention 463
Military Social Work 464
Conclusion 466
APPENDIX A NASW Code of Ethics 473

APPENDIX B Web Resources 495
Glossary 501
Index 509
Preface
The twenty-first century has been a time of extraordinary social and economic
changes. The first African-American president was elected, with women candidates
running in both political parties. The steepest economic recession since the Great
Depression in the 1930s gripped the nation for 18 months. Major health care leg-
islation was passed, after decades of political debate and arguments. More
Americans struggle against poverty, and many face oppression and violence.
Millions live without adequate wages, health care, food, or education. The threat
of terrorism still lingers and challenges us to make our lives safer without turning
to hate, bigotry, or repression. Social workers are called on to address these
challenges.
WHY WE WROTE THIS BOOK

As social work educators, we are charged with preparing a new generation of
practitioners trained to help individuals, families, and communities develop and
expand the strengths they need to address their problems. Today’s social workers
face these challenges during a time of budget constraints and vocal distrust of gov-
ernment and public social welfare efforts. The task of introducing students to our
changing and demanding world often begins in social work classes.
Introductory social work courses attract a variety of students. Most are drawn
to the profession because they want to help people. An Introduction to the
Profession of Social Work: Becoming a Change Agent provides a foundation of
knowledge about social work practice that prepares students for future social
work classes and more advanced study. This book also introduces students to the
process of becoming change agents. Although wanting to help people is critical
for anyone working in human services, there is much more to becoming a profes-
sional social worker. The book provides students with information about the
breadth of social work practice and what it means to be a social worker, helping
them determine whether social work is a good fit for them. Therefore, the book is
designed to encourage knowledge building and self-exploration, both of which are
essential to developing good social work practice.
xvii
xviii PREFACE
CONTENT OF THE CHAPTERS

An Introduction to the Profession of Social Work: Becoming a Change Agent, like
many other textbooks, informs students about what it means to be a professional
social worker. Unlike some other books, it also instills interest and enthusiasm in
students about pursuing a social work career and encourages students to take an
active role in changing social conditions for the better. The chapters include
detailed, first-person stories by social work practitioners, who describe daily work
in their areas of expertise and highlight cases that illustrate their work. The stories
show the many sides of social work practice. The chapters also include “More
About …” and “Point of View” boxes with additional details and differing points
of view on topics of interest. Each chapter includes a box featuring an ethics
dilemma, an exercise in how to become a change agent, and a concluding section
on how to put into practice the concepts presented.
Pedagogically, the book includes several aids to learning and teaching. Besides
the boxed material, the book features challenging but uplifting case examples.
Some of them remind us why we do this type of work; others end less positively
and make us wonder how to make a difference. The stories give students a very
real picture of social work practice and help them better understand what it is like
to be a social worker. Each chapter is followed by a conclusion and a list of key
terms. Each term is set in bold type in the chapter and is also defined in the glos-
sary at the end of the textbook.
NEW TO THIS EDITION

New to the fifth edition is content from the newly revised Educational Policy and
Accreditation Standards (EPAS). The EPAS document is revised in periodic inter-
vals not to exceed seven years. The latest revisions will not be officially accepted
by Council on Social Work Education (CSWE*) until June 2015 but we were able
to include the most recent draft (2014) version of the new EPAS.
Throughout the text we have updated statistics and referenced new state and
federal legislation as well as recent Supreme Court decisions when appropriate.
For example, in Chapters 2 and 9, we have added new information about the
implementation of the Affordable Care Act, and in Chapter 13 we have referenced
the latest Supreme Court decisions to impact the regulations for juvenile offenders
who are treated as adults in the criminal justice system.
Chapter 4 on Human Rights and Social and Economic Justice has new content
on gender identity and the 2013 Supreme Court ruling on DOMA as unconstitu-
tional as well as enhanced content on disabilities, immigration issues, and the
NSA spying controversy. Chapter 6 provides information on the latest science on
empathy, LGBT youth, and the disproportionality of minorities in foster care.
Chapter 10 on Mental Health has a new focus on mental health recovery.
*The Council on Social Work Education’s Educational Policy and Accreditation Standards (EPAS) are revised periodically.
This version is the final draft of the EPAS 2015 and may differ slightly from the adopted EPAS 2015.
PREFACE xix
“Mental health recovery is a journey of healing and transformation enabling a per-

son with a mental health problem to live a meaningful life in a community of his
or her choice while striving to achieve his or her full potential” (SAMHSA, 2004,
p. 3). The recovery model stresses that people with mental health issues can and do
recover, and can be engaged in productive ways in their communities. The new
DSM-5 is also referenced throughout the text.
PEDAGOGICAL FEATURES
The book is a combination of textbook and workbook. Brief questions are inter-
spersed throughout the chapters to encourage students to engage more deeply
with the material. At the end of each chapter are questions that can be used for
full-class or small-group discussions or on examinations. The questions are based
on the material presented in the chapter; they encourage students to obtain addi-
tional information and explore their thoughts about important issues. The chapters
end with exercises that are designed as group or individual assignments. Many are
experiential and emphasize self-exploration as well as a review of the material pre-
sented in the chapter. There is also a set of ancillary materials, including exercises
linked to the EPAS core competencies, an instructor’s test bank, and practice ques-
tions for students. At the end of the course, each student will have a compendium
of exercises that help put into practice the material presented in the book and
reflect the new CSWE core competencies.
We have deliberately included more exercises than can be done in the available
time in order to provide choice and flexibility. Instructors and students can choose
which exercises to complete, or individuals or groups can work on different exer-
cises and report back to the class on their findings. The exercises can be used to
stimulate discussions or can be semester-long assignments. The discussion ques-
tions, change agent activities, exercises, and stories challenge students to explore
the concepts introduced in the text and relate them to their own interests.
This book was developed from our combined years of practice experience and
teaching of introductory social work courses. We are appreciative of all the assis-
tance we received from colleagues, especially those who helped write some of the
chapters, and from the professional social workers who shared their experiences.
We are also grateful to our students who, over the years, have let us know what
does and does not work in the classroom. In particular, we thank the students
who reviewed chapters and provided valuable insights from the perspective of the
target audience.
An introductory textbook cannot thoroughly cover all the topics important to
all social workers. Therefore, the responsibility for the content and design of this
book rests solely with the authors. We hope that students and instructors alike
will find An Introduction to the Profession of Social Work: Becoming a Change
Agent useful, informative, and engaging.
Liz Segal
Karen Gerdes
Sue Steiner
CHAPTER
What Is Social Work?
© Heinle Division of Cengage Learning®
2 CHAPTER 1
ane is a 32-year-old single mother with a 5-year-old son and an 8-year-old
J daughter. She has supported her family by working 30 hours a week at a

small local grocery store. Her job performance was excellent, but because of a
decline in business, she was laid off. Now she needs to find a way to support her
family. Her low-income neighborhood has very few businesses, and most of her
neighbors subsist on small amounts of earned income and public social service
programs.
Jane contacts her local family service agency for advice and direction. “My
neighbor said I should come here. I just lost my job, I have two young kids to sup-
port, my rent is due next week, and I don’t know what to do. Can you help me?”
If Jane came to you, what would you do?
This book will help you identify the resources available to Jane. You will learn
about the skills that the professional social workers at the family social service
agency will draw on to help Jane and her family. Social work is not only about
Jane and her lost job. It is also about neighborhoods and communities. It is about
the childhood experiences that have contributed to Jane’s identity and concerns. It
is about government and public policies. This book is a guide to understanding
how social workers fit into all these different areas.
Once you have learned about the resources and skills needed by a professional
social worker, you will be better prepared to decide whether a career in social
work would suit you. You will be ready to decide on your next step in pursuing a
career in this ever-changing and diverse field.
This chapter provides an overview of the field of social work. It defines con-
cepts and terms that are the basis of understanding what social workers do. The
structures in which services are provided and how social work is a part of social
change efforts are also presented. Throughout the chapter and throughout the
book, you will explore what it means to be a social worker and whether a career
in social work is right for you.
These notations reflect the link that the material in the book has to the profes-
sional accreditation standards of our national organization, the Council on Social
Work Education. You will read more about this organization later in this chapter
and how being accredited reflects the national scope of social work education.
SOCIAL WORK AS A PROFESSION

The purpose of the social work profession is to promote human and community
well-being. Guided by a person and environment framework, a global perspective,
respect for human diversity, and knowledge based on scientific inquiry, social
EP 3a work’s purpose is actualized through its quest for social and economic justice, the
prevention of conditions that limit human rights, the elimination of poverty, and
the enhancement of the quality of life for all persons, locally and globally (CSWE,
2014, p. 1).
Many professions participate in promoting and improving human and community
well-being. For example, police officers protect people and improve safety, lawyers
WHAT IS SOCIAL WORK? 3
contribute to protecting people’s civil rights, and doctors strive to save lives and keep
people healthy. People who are not professionals also help others. Neighbors watch
each other’s children or prepare meals when someone is sick. Volunteers visit the
elderly or serve as big sisters or big brothers. All these efforts are concerned with
improving social functioning. How is the profession of social work unique?
The unique contribution of social work practice is the duality of the profession’s
person and environment mandate: social workers must help society work better for
people and help people function better within society. Helping individuals fit better
EP 6a into their environments, is typically referred to as micro practice, and changing the
environment so that it works better for individuals is called macro practice. In other
words, social workers make a commitment through professional training to help
people and to improve society, and to give special attention to the interactions
between people and between people and their surroundings.
A psychologist or counselor would likely focus only on Jane’s anxiety and
depression as a result of losing her job. Although a social worker can also help
Jane deal with anxiety and depression (micro practice), the assistance would not
stop there. The social worker would also connect Jane with local, state, and federal
resources, including Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF), food assis-
tance, job training, and educational programs (micro practice). Connecting clients
with needed resources is one of the most important things a social worker can do.
For this reason, it is critical for social workers to learn about all the resources
available in every community where they work or serve. In addition, if Jane were
unable to get access to a needed resource, such as quality day care, or if the
resource were unavailable in the community, her social worker would advocate
for providing the resource and might help create it by campaigning for new social
policies and programs (macro practice). Instead of working only from their offices
and waiting for clients to come to them, social workers are out in the field trying
to change societal structures so that fewer people like Jane will need help.
In addition, social workers “understand how diversity and difference character-
ize and shape human experience and are critical to the formation of identity”
(CSWE, 2014, p. 4). As a result, we recognize how a culture’s educational, eco-
EP 2 nomic, and political structures may oppress, marginalize, and alienate some people
while at the same time create or enhance privilege and power for others. Social
workers’ keen understanding of societal forms and mechanisms of oppression has
resulted in a strong commitment to human rights, social and economic justice, and
the elimination of poverty. While other professions may ascribe to similar ideals
and values, there is no other profession that is as engaged and dedicated to ending
injustice, discrimination, and poverty as social work.
Who Are Social Workers?

Professional social workers hold social work degrees from accredited undergradu-
ate or graduate programs. Baccalaureate social work (BSW) and graduate social
work (MSW) programs are accredited by the Council on Social Work Education
(CSWE) on the basis of whether they meet the criteria discussed later. Students in
CSWE-accredited programs learn the knowledge, values, ethics, and a variety of
4 CHAPTER 1
intervention techniques or skills to work with individuals, families, small groups,

communities, and organizations in order to solve problems and create change.
On graduation from an accredited social work program, social workers must
comply with state licensing or certification requirements. Most states distinguish
among three levels of social work: (1) BSW, (2) MSW, and (3) MSW with two
years’ postgraduate clinical practice. Applicants must pass the examination appro-
priate to their level of practice. For clinical licensure, they must also complete at
least two years of post-MSW practice experience under the supervision of a
licensed clinical social worker.
MSW- and BSW-level social workers engage in micro practice or direct services
to individuals, families, and small groups. They also participate in macro practice by
conducting research into social problems and their solutions, engage in policy analy-
sis and legislative advocacy, administer programs, and organize people to fight for
social change. To effectively address problems, social workers must help individuals
and families function better and at the same time work to change societal conditions
that limit individual and family functioning. For example, a woman like Jane who
has recently lost her job can benefit from job training and help with interviewing
skills so that she can more easily get a new job. She and others like her can also be
helped by social advocacy efforts to develop new jobs in low-income areas and by
legislative efforts to provide health coverage for the unemployed and working poor.
In addition to BSW and MSW degrees, there are also two types of doctoral-level
social work degrees. Students interested in pursuing a doctorate in social work can
either get a doctor of social work (DSW) degree or a doctor of philosophy (PhD)
degree, depending on the school they attend. While the DSW was the original social
work doctoral degree, the PhD has become more common over the years. The course
work is generally the same in DSW and PhD programs, though there are recent
efforts to make the DSW more of an advanced clinical practice degree and the PhD
more of a research-focused degree. Social workers holding doctoral degrees generally
work as social work educators, researchers, administrators, or policy analysts.
The desire to help others and change social conditions does not earn a person
professional status as a social worker. The desire must be combined with the
knowledge, values, and skills delivered in one of the more than 225 graduate and
490 undergraduate programs accredited by the Council (CSWE, 2014). Even
though other human service practitioners are sometimes referred to as social work-
ers, if they have not completed an accredited social work program and met licen-
sure or certification requirements, they are not professional social workers.
Few careers rival social work for the diversity and wealth of opportunities
offered to practitioners. Social workers operate in a variety of urban and rural set-
tings, including public and private mental health centers, community centers,
courts, prisons, schools, public welfare offices, the military, hospitals, nursing
homes, businesses, and child welfare offices. They address drug and alcohol abuse,
mental and physical illness, poverty, violence, lack of community power, family
conflicts, workplace tensions, discrimination, oppression, and inadequate housing,
among other problems (see Box 1.1).
There are currently over 600,000 social workers employed in the United States
(Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2014). Forty-seven percent of social workers are
BOX 1.1 More About … Social Work

What people think they know about social work is Fact
often a myth. • About one-quarter of all child welfare cases
Myth Most social workers work for the are handled by professional social workers.
government. • About 1 percent of NASW members work in
Fact public assistance.
• Fewer than 3 percent of all professional • Professional social workers practice in many
social workers work for the federal settings: family services agencies, mental
government. health centers, schools, hospitals, corpora-
• About a third of all professional social work- tions, courts, police departments, prisons, pub-
ers are employed by federal, state, and local lic and private agencies, and private practice.
governments combined. • More than 200 professional social workers
hold elective office, including two U.S. sena-
Myth For therapy you need a psychologist or tors and seven representatives during the
psychiatrist. 113th Congress.
Fact
Myth Social service employees, casewor-
• Professional social workers are the nation’s kers, and volunteers are social workers.
most numerous providers of mental health Fact
and therapy services. Professional social
workers are often the only mental health • A social worker is a trained professional who
care providers serving residents of many has a bachelor’s, master’s, or doctoral degree
poor, rural counties. in social work.
• Social work is designated as one of the four • All states license or otherwise regulate social
core mental health professions under federal work practice.
legislation that established the National • A social service employee, caseworker, or vol-
Institute of Mental Health. unteer community worker is not a social worker
unless she or he has a social work degree.
Myth Most social workers are employed in
public welfare or child welfare. Source: naswdc.org website.
employed as child, family, or school social workers, while 43 percent are working
in the areas of health or mental health. Employment opportunities for social work-
ers are expected to grow faster than the average profession through 2022. Social
workers who specialize in services related to health care and substance abuse are
projected to have the easiest time finding a job due to growing need in these areas.
The professional organization formed to support and advocate for social work
professionals is the National Association of Social Workers (NASW). The average
NASW member holds a master’s degree in social work, has practiced social work
for 16 years, and earns on average $45,000 annually (NASW, 2014a). Hospital
social workers have the highest median salary ($56,290); school social workers
have a median salary of $54,590; and practitioners in state-funded or public social
work positions earn on average $44,370 (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2014).
6 CHAPTER 1
Social Work Education

The social work profession’s unique integration of knowledge from a number of
disciplines with the profession’s own skills, values, ethics, and knowledge can be
seen in the content of social work education. Accredited BSW programs include
relevant material from biology and from other social sciences. Most require stu-
dents to take economics, political science, human biology, philosophy, psychol-
ogy, and sociology courses. This material is combined with social work-specific
courses in human behavior and the social environment, research, practice, and
social policy.
In addition, students in accredited BSW programs complete a minimum of
400 hours of field practicum, while MSW students complete a minimum of
900 hours. In the field practicum course, students are assigned to a social service-
related agency or organization under the supervision of a social work practitioner.
Field practicum organizations include child welfare agencies, schools, hospitals,
mental health agencies, senior centers, homeless and battered women’s shelters,
and juvenile and adult probation programs, among others. (See Box 1.2.)
Many two-year colleges offer social or human service programs in which stu-
dents can earn pre-professional degrees. These programs provide important foun-
dation knowledge and skills that can lay the groundwork for a BSW degree.
Students with degrees from two-year programs can work in most areas of social
services. The positions are typically entry level, and they provide excellent work
experience should the pre-professional choose to pursue a BSW degree. Many stu-
dents who complete two-year degrees transfer into accredited BSW programs.
BOX 1.2 More About … Social Work Education Criteria

The criteria for social work education are out- reviews the school and provides a report to the
lined by the Council of Social Work Education accreditation board. The report and self-study
in its “Educational Policy and Accreditation documents are then reviewed, and a determina-
Standards.” All schools that wish to be accre- tion is made whether to grant accredited status.
dited must follow the guidelines. Every eight This process ensures uniform standards for
years, programs conduct self-studies and sub- training social workers. No matter where you
mit a comprehensive written portfolio to the choose to study, as long as it is in a CSWE-
CSWE accreditation board. As part of the accred- accredited program, your curriculum will reflect
itation process, a team of social work educators the standards and values of the profession.
BOX 1.3 What Do You Think?

What are the differences between a BSW and the different training affect the type of job a BSW
an MSW degree? What is the difference in graduate might do compared with an MSW
emphasis between the two degrees? How might graduate?
CENTRAL CONCEPTS AND THEORIES

Part of what defines a profession is a shared vision, typically referred to as a mission.
The primary mission of social work, according to the membership of NASW, is:
to enhance human well-being and help meet the basic human needs of all people,
with particular attention to the needs and empowerment of people who are vulnera-
ble, oppressed, and living in poverty. A historic and defining feature of social work
is the profession’s focus on individual well-being in a social context and the well-
being of society. Fundamental to social work is attention to the environmental forces
that create, contribute to, and address problems in living. (NASW, 2014b, p. 1)
Person in Environment Concept

Several aspects of the mission make the profession unique. One is the focus on the
“needs and empowerment of people who are vulnerable, oppressed, and living in
poverty.” The profession has a clear commitment to working with members of
society who are often left behind or left out. A second unique characteristic is the
fact that individuals’ problems are addressed in combination with the social con-
text. Social workers realize that they must pay attention to the environment in
which people live, and they work to change the environment so that it functions
more effectively for individuals, families, and communities. This dual view is
EP 7b; 8b known as the person-in-environment perspective (Karls & Wandrei, 1994).
The importance of understanding problems and directing change efforts at
both the individual and environmental levels is central to good social work prac-
tice. Which approach social workers use depends on where they see problems orig-
inating. If all change efforts are directed at individuals, social workers see the
causes of people’s problems as being inside themselves. If they focus only on the
environment, they believe that the problems begin outside the individual.
Although it is true that some problems lie exclusively within individuals and
others are purely environmental, most problems have multiple causes. Some causes
are individual, whereas others are societal or structural in nature. If social workers
do not address both individual and environmental causes, they will not be able to
solve problems effectively. For example, to help someone who is depressed, a coun-
selor might immediately engage in therapy and refer the client to a medical doctor
who can prescribe antidepressant drugs. Although these are certainly viable
approaches, the person-in-environment concept dictates also considering whether
something in the person’s environment is contributing to or even causing the
depression. If the person lives in poverty, for example, the everyday struggle to sur-
vive might result in depression. Therefore, interventions aimed at reducing poverty
would also be appropriate ways to alleviate the individual’s depression.
Theoretical Basis for Social Work Practice

Social work practice is based on a number of theories developed in a variety of
fields. For example, social workers rely on biological, sociological, anthropological,
8 CHAPTER 1
and psychological knowledge and theories to help them understand human devel-
opment. A theory is “a systematic set of interrelated statements intended to explain
some aspect of social life or enrich our sense of how people conduct [themselves]
and find meaning in their daily lives” (Rubin & Babbie, 2007, p. 41). In other
words, a theory attempts to explain why something is the way it is. Theories can
explain social relationships; for example, some theories explain why people develop
biases against members of other groups. Theories can also make predictions about
the likely outcomes of people’s efforts. For example, many types of therapies are
based on the theory that people’s understanding of what happened to them during
childhood leads to improved functioning as adults. A theory must be testable,
meaning that research can be conducted to see whether it is accurate. For social
work, theories help us practice effectively and understand our profession (Payne,
EP 4c 2014).
Theories help us understand human behavior, which is particularly impor-
tant for social workers who must apply knowledge of human behavior and the
social environment across the life span. Theories alone do not create change,
but social workers apply various theories in practice settings to create desired
change. Social workers use conceptual frameworks to help determine which
theories to apply. A conceptual framework combines theories, beliefs, and
assumptions to help us understand how people interact in their social systems
and how those systems help or block health and well-being. A conceptual
framework gives social workers a basis from which to view situations with cli-
ents and provides guidance for the assessment, intervention, and evaluation
process.
Most of the theories used by social workers today developed from a central
theoretical framework, the general systems theory developed by biologist Ludwig
von Bertalanffy (1971). Von Bertalanffy described the functioning of living systems,
including the human body. Scientists have long realized that the systems within the
human body are connected to each other. The failure of one human system often
affects the functioning of other systems and of the body as a whole. Since its devel-
opment, von Bertalanffy’s framework has been applied to systems in many fields,
including social work.
A system is a group of separate but interrelated units, or elements, that form
an identifiable whole. Each of the parts in a system interacts with other parts in
some way, and the various parts are dependent on each other to create the larger
whole. The various parts of a system affect and are affected by one another. Social
workers are most interested in social systems—the interactions and interdependence
among people that together make up society. Interacting groups can be as varied as
a family, residents of a group home, employees in a business, and residents in a
neighborhood.
Jane’s family is the point of focus for the social worker’s micro interventions.
Figure 1.1, Jane’s System, illustrates that Jane’s family system contains the subsys-
tems of Jane, her son, and her daughter. The family is itself a subsystem within
the neighborhood system or social environment. The focal system interacts with
FIGURE 1.1 JANE’S SYSTEM
Social Environment
Public Social Service System
Social Environment
Jane’s Neighborhood
Family Jane’s
Unemployment Service Former Medicaid
Insurance Agency Workplace
Focal System
Jane’s Family
Jane’s
Jane
Son
Jane’s
Daughter
Local Jane’s
School Neighbors
© Cengage Learning®
TANF
and is affected by all the subsystems in the social environment of the neighbor-
hood, including the families of Jane’s neighbors, the local school, and the family
service agency. The neighborhood is a subsystem within an even larger social envi-
ronment, the public social service system. If Jane is participating in such social ser-
vice programs as TANF, Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP), and
Medicaid, those national programs are part of her social system.
The focal system is determined by the social worker’s point of focus. If the
social worker’s macro intervention is focused on encouraging the passage of legisla-
tion that will make it easier for women like Jane to get unemployment insurance,
then the unemployment insurance program is the focal system. If the social worker
10 CHAPTER 1
is developing an after-school program that could benefit Jane’s children, the school
is the focal system.
Changes in the focal system or in a related subsystem or social environment
will affect the systems and subsystems with which it interacts. For example, if Jane
completes a job-training program at the local family service agency and secures
new employment, her children will be affected by her new job and the additional
income. The children’s school will be affected by any positive or negative changes
in the children. Likewise, any change in the school system will affect the children,
which in turn will affect their mother.
Because of the fluidity and mutuality of the relationships between systems and
subsystems, systems theory explains a person’s behavior in terms of circular or
mutual causality. In other words, Jane influences her environment, and Jane’s envi-
ronment influences her. Closely related to mutual causality is the concept of whole-
ness: “Every part of a system is so related to its fellow parts that a change in one
part will cause a change in all of them and in the total system” (Watzlawick,
Bavelas, & Jackson, 1967, p. 123).
All systems have boundaries, which make it possible to distinguish the parts
that belong in the system from those that do not belong. The boundaries of some
systems are very clear; for example, the physical boundary of a human being—the
skin—clearly separates that person from other people. Boundaries of social sys-
tems are often less clear. For example, the boundaries of Jane’s family might
depend on the situation. If a social worker were working with Jane’s daughter,
who was struggling in school, the relevant system members might include only
Jane and her son.
Yet if Jane’s family were trying to care for an aging grandparent, relevant system
members might include Jane’s parents, siblings, aunts, uncles, and cousins as well.
Using a systems perspective means looking at people in relation to all the sys-
tems in their environment that affect them. For example, a 77-year-old woman
asks a social worker in a senior center for help. She lives alone, and she is con-
cerned about her physical abilities and financial situation. The systems perspective
dictates first gaining an understanding of all the elements that make up the
woman’s social system. A social worker would assess her physical and mental
health, her financial situation, her support system, and her living situation. He or
she would also explore the larger systems in the woman’s life: the area in which
she lives, the social services with which she may interact, and whether she is con-
nected to a religious institution. Without examining the entire system, areas for
effective intervention might be missed.
The ecological systems framework builds on general systems theory. It goes
beyond looking at the systems that make up a client’s sphere to focus on the inter-
section of client systems and the larger environmental context. The ecological
framework rests on the life model, which views people and their environments as
reacting to and changing in response to each other (Germain & Gitterman, 1980).
This view requires an understanding of the nature of interactions and transactions
between people and their surroundings. The focus is on the interface, which is
what happens between people and the environment.
For example, as a result of Jane’s job loss and her residence in a neighborhood
with few employment opportunities, her life is out of balance, and the environment
is not supportive of her needs. The ecological life model emphasizes examining the
fit (or lack of fit) between Jane and her environment. The intervention goals
become trying to help Jane adapt to this situation and changing the environment
to be more supportive. One of the concerns about this approach is that adaptation
is much more manageable, so environmental change is often ignored. However,
adherence to the full ecological perspective includes addressing both the fit of the
client to the environment, and the extent of support from the environment.
The strengths perspective is a third framework used to guide social work prac-
tice. This perspective dictates building on clients’ strengths to create positive
change. It is the opposite of frameworks that encourage social workers to approach
clients from a deficit or problem base. “Social work, like so many other helping
professions, has constructed much of its theory and practice around the supposition
that clients become clients because they have deficits, problems, pathologies, and
diseases; that they are, in some critical way, flawed or weak” (Saleebey, 1992, p. 3).
The problem-based orientation of social work is not surprising, given that social
workers help solve so many problems. But although problems cannot be ignored,
the strengths perspective asserts that a problem-based approach is not the most
effective way to help clients change and grow. Focusing primarily on problems
can reinforce the negative views that clients may have of themselves and their
communities.
The strengths perspective suggests that all individuals, groups, and communi-
ties have strengths that often go unnoticed and unappreciated by the individuals,
groups, and communities themselves, as well as by the outside world. The strengths
perspective means recognizing the strengths that are inherent in individuals, groups,
and communities, and using these strengths as building blocks for change.
According to Saleebey,
A strengths perspective assumes that when people’s positive capacities are supported,
they are more likely to act on their strengths. Thus, a belief in people’s inherent
capacity for growth and well-being requires an intense attention to people’s own
resources: their talents, experiences, and aspirations. Through this active attention,
the probability for positive growth is significantly enhanced. (1992, p. 25)
When social workers first go into a neighborhood to begin bringing the resi-
dents together to work for change—a process called community organizing—they
BOX 1.4 What Do You Think?

Identify a friend or family member who is strug- Does this person have family or friends to turn to
gling with a problem. What strengths might for support or assistance? How has this person
help this person overcome the problem? What dealt with adversity in the past? Can he or she
strengths are inherent in his or her personality? draw on those past efforts to help now?
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Mask Production Division Lt. L. A. Elliott
Medical Department Major T. L. Gore
Pathological Division Lt. H. A. Kuhn
Quartermaster Capt. H. L. Hudson
Department
Finance Department Capt. C. R. Insley
Development Division
The Development Division had its origin in the research
laboratories of the National Carbon Company and of the National
Lamp Works of the General Electric Company. Both of these
companies knew charcoal, and they were asked to produce a
satisfactory absorbent charcoal. The success of this undertaking will
be seen in the chapter on Absorbents. After a short time all the
laboratory work was taken over by the National Carbon Co., while
the developmental work was assigned to the National Lamp Works.
When the final organization of the Chemical Warfare Service took
place, the National Carbon Laboratory became part of the Research
Division, while the National Lamp Works became the Defense
Section of the Development Division.
The Development Division may be considered as having been
composed of the following sections:
1. Defense
2. Offense
3. Midland
4. Willoughby
5. Special Investigation.
The work of the Defense Section consisted of the development of

a charcoal suitable for use in gas masks, and its manufacture. While
the details will be given later, it may be mentioned here that three
weeks after the organization of the Section (April 28, 1917) the
furnaces of the National Carbon Company were turning out cedar
charcoal, using a straight distillation procedure. Cedar was selected
from a large variety of materials as giving the highest absorptive
value against chlorine. But phosgene and chloropicrin were also
being used, and it was found that the cedar charcoal was not
effective against either. Proceeding on a definite hypothesis, fifty
materials were investigated to find the charcoal with the highest
density. Cocoanut hulls furnished the raw material, which yielded the
most active charcoal. By a process of air activation a charcoal was
obtained which possessed high absorptive power for such gases as
chloropicrin and phosgene. Later this air process was changed to
one in which steam is used; the cocoanut shell charcoal activated
with steam was given the name “Dorsite.”
Complete apparatus for this air process was installed at the plant
of the Astoria Light, Heat & Power Company, Long Island City, and
the first charcoal was prepared during September, 1917. This was
followed by a large amount of experimental work, relating to the raw
material, the method of activation, and the type of furnace used.
Because of the shortage of cocoanut hulls, it later became
necessary to use a mixture of cocoanuts with cohune nuts, apricot
and peach pits, cherry pits and vegetable ivory. Another substitute
for cocoanut charcoal was found in a steam activated product from
high grade anthracite coal, called “Batchite.”
The Offense Section and the Midland Section were concerned
with the manufacture of mustard gas. This work was greatly delayed
because of the unsatisfactory nature of the so-called chlorohydrin
process. Another difficulty was the development of a satisfactory
ethylene furnace. Finally in February, 1918, Pope in England
discovered the sulfur chloride method of making mustard gas. At
once all the energies of the Research Division were concentrated on
this process, and in March steps were taken to put this process into
production. An experimental plant was established at Cleveland; no
attempt was made to manufacture mustard gas on a large scale, but
the results obtained in the experimental studies were immediately
transmitted to the manufacturing plants at Edgewood Arsenal, the
Hastings-on-Hudson plant, the National Aniline & Chemical
Company (Buffalo) plant, and the Dow Chemical Company (Midland)
plant. The details of the work on mustard gas will be given in a later
chapter.
Special investigations were undertaken to develop a booster
casing and adapter for 75 mm. gas shell, and to duplicate the French
process of lining gas shell with glass.
The organization of the Development Division at the signing of
the Armistice was as follows:
Colonel F. M. Dorsey Chief of the Division
Major L. J. Willien Supt., Offense Section
Capt. O. L. Barnebey Supt., Defense Section
Supt., Experimental
Lt. Col. W. G. Wilcox
Station
Capt. Duncan Special Investigation
MacRae Section
Dr. A. W. Smith Midland Section
Capt. J. R. Duff Administrative Section
Proving Division
The Proving Division had its origin in the decision to build an
Experimental Ground for gas warfare under the direction of the
Trench Warfare Section of the Ordnance Department. While this
decision was reached about September, 1917, actual work on the
final location (Lakehurst, N. J.) was not started until March 26, 1918,
and the construction work was not completed until August 1, 1918.
However, firing trials were started on April 25, 1918, and in all 82
were carried out.
The Proving Division was created to do two things: To experiment
with gas shell before they reached the point where they could be
manufactured safely in large numbers for shipment overseas; and to
prove gas shell, presumably perfect and ready for shipment, to guard
against any mechanical inaccuracies in manufacture or filling. It is
evident that the second proposition is dependent upon the first. Shell
can not be proved to ascertain the effect of gases under various
conditions and concentrations until the mechanical details of the
shell itself, purely an Ordnance matter, have been standardized.
Unfortunately many of the tests carried out had to do with this very
question of testing Ordnance.
For field concentration work two complete and separate lines of
trenches were used and also several impact grounds. The trenches
were built to simulate the trenches actually used in warfare. Each
line of trench contained several concrete shell-proof dugouts and
was also equipped with shelves into which boxes could be placed for
holding the sample bottles. At intervals of one yard throughout the
trenches there were electrical connections available for electrical
sampling purposes. The various impact grounds were used for cloud
gas attacks, and experiments with mustard gas or in many cases for
static trials. The samples were collected by means of an automatic
sampling apparatus.
The work of the Division consisted in the first instance of
determining the proper bursting charge. While a great deal of this
work had been carried out in Europe, American gas shell were
enough different to require that tests be carried out on them. The
importance of this work is obvious, since phosgene, a substance
with a low boiling point, would require a smaller bursting charge to
open the shell and allow the substance to vaporize than would
mustard gas, where the bursting charge must be not only sufficient
to fragment the shell but also to scatter the liquid so that it would be
atomized over the largest possible area. In the case of low boiling
liquids it was necessary that the charge be worked out very carefully
as a difference of one or two grams would seriously affect the
concentration. Too small a charge would allow a cup to be formed by
the base of the shell which would carry some of the liquid into the
ground, while too great an amount of explosive tended to throw the
gas too high into the air.
After the bursting charge had been determined a large number of
shell were repeatedly fired into the trenches, wooded areas, rolling
and level ground, and the concentration of gas produced and the
effect upon animals placed within the area ascertained. From the
results of these experiments the Proving Division was able to furnish
the artillery with data regarding how many shell of given caliber
should be used, with corrections for ranges, wind velocities,
temperatures, ground conditions, etc. Trials were also held to
determine how many high explosive (H.E.) shell could be fired with
gas shell on the same area without unduly affecting the
concentration. This was important, because H.E. shell were useful in
disguising gas bombardments. Gas shell can usually be
distinguished by the small detonation on bursting.
Experiments were performed to determine the decomposition of
various gases on detonation. The shell were fired at a large wooden
screen and burst on impact. Samples of gas were taken immediately
and analyzed.
Co-operative tests were carried out with the Gas Defense
Division to determine the value of given masks under field
conditions. Companies of infantry, fully equipped for the field, would
wear masks for hours at a time digging trenches, cutting timber,
drilling, etc., and imitating in every way, as far as possible, actual
field conditions. During these activities tons of gas in cylinders were
released in such a way that the men were enveloped in a far higher
concentration than would probably ever be the case in actual battle.
These tests gave valuable data for criticizing gas mask construction.
Another line of activity consisted of a study of the persistency and
relative effectiveness of various samples of mustard gas, in which
the liquid was distributed uniformly upon the surface of grassy zones
one to three feet in width, which formed the periphery of circular
areas 14 to 21 feet in diameter, the central part of each circle being
occupied by animals.
The work of the Proving Division was brought to an end (by the
Armistice) just at the time when it had reached its greatest
usefulness. Not only were the physical properties and personnel of
the Division developed to the maximum degree, but the production of
gas shell in this country for shipment to France had just reached the
stage where the Proving Ground could have been used to its fullest
extent in their proving.
Training Division
From the standpoint of the man at the front the Training Division
is one of the most important. To him gas warfare is an ever present
titanic struggle between poisonous vapors that kill on one side, and
the gas mask and a knowledge of how and when to wear it, on the
other. Because of this it is rather surprising that we did not hear more
about this branch of the Service. It did exist, however, and credit
must be given to those camp gas officers who remained in the
United States performing an inconspicuous and arduous duty in the
face of many local obstacles.
Fig. 8.
The Field Training Division of the Gas Defense Service in the

United States was organized in September, 1917, and consisted of
Major J. H. Walton and 45 first lieutenants, all chemists. These men
were given a three months’ military training at the American
University. The arrival of Major (now Colonel) Auld during this time
was very helpful, as he was able to give the Section first-hand
knowledge. About 12 of the 45 men wore sent to France, while the
remainder, together with British Gas Officers, were assigned to
various Divisions still in training. There was little idea at that time as
to what constituted real gas training. No one knew how much gas
training would be received in France, and since little was often
received due to lack of time, many men went into action with no idea
of what this training really meant. Moreover, an order that the gas
officers should not go to France with their Divisions had, as was only
natural, a discouraging effect upon the men and upon gas training
and discipline generally.
In January, 1918, the gas officers were transferred to the
Engineers, and designated as the 473d Engineers. Later an Army
Gas School was established at Camp Humphreys. Because of the
rapidly changing personnel, owing to overseas assignments, the
policy was adopted of sending specialized gas officers only to
Divisional Camps and the larger training centers. The need of a
larger unit and increased authority was recognized by all intimately
associated with the work, but little was accomplished until the
transfer to the Chemical Warfare Service. Upon the appointment of
Brigadier General H. C. Newcomer as Assistant Director of the
Chemical Warfare Service, he was placed in charge of all military
affairs of the Service, and the administrative officers of the Training
Section became his “military assistants.” A few weeks later the
Training Section of the Administration Division, C.W.S. was formed.
At this time new duties fell to the lot of this
Section, among the more important being:
(1) The organization of gas troops and casual
detachments for overseas duty;
(2) The establishment of a Chemical Warfare
Training Camp;
(3) The procurement and training of officers for
overseas duty.
For this purpose a training camp was established near the
Proving Ground (Camp Kendrick) to hold 1300 officers and men.
Line officers were sent from the larger camps for training, the best of
whom might later be transferred to the Chemical Warfare Service for
duty as Gas Officers.
The work of the Section eventually grew to such proportions that
it was recognized as the Training Division of the Chemical Warfare
Service. It differed from other Divisions in that all administrative
routine was carried on through the offices of the Director, and with
the assistance and co-operation of its various Sections.
Because of the formation of the Chemical Warfare Service and
the apparent need for officers, the office was soon flooded with
applications for commissions. These were carefully examined and
the men were sent first, by courtesy of the Chief of Engineers, to
Camp Humphreys for a month’s course of military training. At the
end of this period they were sent to Camp Kendrick as students of
the Army Gas School. Toward the last of October all the officers and
enlisted men were transferred to Camp Kendrick where an Officers’
Training Battalion was organized.
It is obvious that the gas training of troops was the most
responsible duty of the Training Division. There was constantly in
mind an ideal of supervised and standardized training for all troops in
the United States, and the Division, at the time of the Armistice, for
the first time found itself with a nearly adequate corps of officers
through whom this ideal could be realized.
Medical Division
Dr. Yandell Henderson of Yale University was the logical man to
inaugurate the medical work of the Bureau of Mines, because of his
experience with oxygen rescue apparatus. A member of the first
committee of the Bureau, he secured, in July, 1917, an appropriation
for the study of toxic gases at Yale. This was in charge of Doctors
Underhill, therapy; Marshall, pharmacology; and Winternitz,
pathology. When the American University Station was opened
Marshall was given charge of the pharmacology. About the same
time a factory protection unit was organized under the direction of
Doctors Bradley, Eyster and Loevenhart. At first this committee
reported to the Ordnance Department, but later the work was
transferred to the Gas Defense Service.
In December, 1917, the Medical Advisory Board was organized.
This included all the men who were carrying on experimental work of
a medical nature. This board had as its object the correlation of all
medical work; new work was outlined and attempts were made to
secure the co-operation of scientific men throughout the country. The
following groups of workers assisted in this effort: At Yale, Underhill
studied therapy, turning his animals over to Winternitz for
pathological study. Henderson was specially interested in the
physiology of aviation. At the American University Marshall carried
on pharmacological research, specially as regards mustard gas, the
toxicology being covered by Loevenhart. A pathological laboratory
was also started, under Winternitz, where many valuable studies
were made.[14] At Cleveland Sollmann was busy with mustard gas
and protective agents. Pearce, working in co-operation with Dr. Geer
of the Goodrich Rubber Company, perfected the Goodrich Lakeside
Mask. His study was very valuable as concerning the physiology of
the gas mask. At Ann Arbor Warthin and Weller[15] were studying the
physiology and pathology of mustard gas. Wells, Amberg, Helmholz
and Austin of the Otho Sprague Memorial Institute were interested in
protective clothing, while at Madison, Eyster, Loevenhart and Meek
were engaged in a study of the chronic effect of long exposures to
low concentrations, and later expanded their work to protective
ointments and certain problems in pathology.
In the spring of 1918 many of these men were commissioned into
the Gas Defense Service of the Sanitary Corps, and were later
transferred to the Chemical Warfare Service as the Medical Division,
with Colonel W. J. Lyster, M.C., in charge.
One of the most important functions of this Division was the daily
testing of a large number of compounds for toxicity, lachrymatory or
vesicant properties. The accuracy of these tests might and probably
did save a large amount of unnecessary experimental work on the
part of the Research Division. These tests are described in a later
chapter.
Very interesting and likewise valuable was the study of mustard
gas by Marshall, Lynch and Smith. They were able to work out the
mechanism of its action and the varying degrees of susceptibility in
individuals (see page 171).
Another interesting point was the fact that in the case of certain
gases there is a cumulative effect. With superpalite and mustard gas
the lethal concentration (that concentration which is fatal after a
given exposure) is lower on longer exposures. On the other hand
there is no cumulative effect with hydrocyanic acid. Whether the
action is cumulative or not depends on the rate at which the system
destroys or eliminates the poison.
Liaison Officers
This chapter should not be closed without reference to the
Liaison Service that was established between the United States and
her Allies, especially England.
During the early days no one in the States was familiar with the
details of gas warfare. At the request of the Medical Corps, upon the
urgent representations of the Gas Service, A.E.F., Captain (now
Major) H. W. Dudley was sent to this country (Sept., 1917) to assist
in the development and manufacture of gas masks. For some time
he was the Court of Appeal on nearly all technical points regarding
matters of defense. Dudley’s continual insistence on the need for
maintaining the highest possible standard of factory inspection was
one of the factors resulting in the excellent construction of the
American Mask. In March, 1918, Lieut. Col. Dewey and Captain
Dudley made a trip to England and France, during which the idea of
a liaison between the defense organizations of the two countries
originated. Dudley was transferred to the Engineers, promoted and
placed in charge of the Liaison service. While the time until the
Armistice was too short to really test the idea, enough was
accomplished to show the extreme desirability of some such
arrangement.
Probably the best known liaison officer from the British was
Colonel S. J. M. Auld, also sent upon the urgent representations of
the Gas Service, A.E.F. He arrived in this country about the middle of
October, 1917, in charge of 28 officers and 28 non-commissioned
officers, who were to act as advisers in training and many other
military subjects besides gas warfare. Since Auld had had personal
experience with gas warfare as then practiced at the front, his advice
was welcomed most heartily by all the different branches of the Army
then handling gas warfare. On questions of general policy Auld was
practically the sole foreign adviser. The matter of gas training was
transferred from the Medical Corps to the Engineers, and was
greatly assisted by four pamphlets on Gas Warfare issued by the
War College, which were prepared by Major Auld with the assistance
of Captain Walton and Lieut. Bohnson. Later Auld gave the
American public a very clear idea of gas warfare in his series of
articles appearing in the Saturday Evening Post, and re-written as
“Gas and Flame.”
Major H. R. LeSueur, who was at Porton previous to his arrival in
this country in December, 1917, rendered valuable aid in
establishing the Experimental Proving Ground and in its later
operations.
Towards the close of the war the British War Office had drawn up
a scheme for a Gas Mission, which was to correlate all the gas
activities of England and America. This was never carried through
because of the signing of the Armistice.
The French representatives, M. Grignard, Capt. Hanker and Lt.
Engel furnished valuable information as to French methods, but they
were handicapped by the fact that French manufacturers did not
disclose their trade secrets even to their own Government.
About August, 1918, Lieut. Col. James F. Norris opened an office
in London. His duties were to establish cordial and intimate relations
not only with the various agencies of the British Government which
were connected with gas warfare, but also with the various
laboratories where experiments were being conducted, that
important changes might be transmitted to America with the least
possible delay. The English made Colonel Norris a member of the
British Chemical Warfare Committee. Here again the signing of the
Armistice prevented a full realization of the importance of this work.
CHAPTER IV
THE CHEMICAL WARFARE SERVICE
IN FRANCE
It is worth noting here that the Chemical Warfare Service was

organized as a separate service in the American Expeditionary
Forces nearly ten months before it was organized in the United
States, and that the organization in the United States as heretofore
described was patterned closely on that found so successful in
France.
Very soon after the United States declared war against the
Central Powers, a commission was sent abroad to study the various
phases of warfare as carried on by the Allies, and as far as possible
by the enemy. Certain members of this commission gave attention to
chemical warfare. One of those who did this was Professor Hulett of
Princeton University. He, with certain General Staff officers, gathered
what information they could in England and France concerning the
gases used and methods of manufacturing them, and to a very slight
extent the methods of projecting those gases upon the enemy. Some
attention was paid to gas masks, but there being nobody on the
General Staff, or anywhere else in the Regular Army, whose duty it
was to look out particularly for chemical warfare materials, these
studies produced no results.
As has already been stated, the Medical Department started the
manufacture of masks, and the Bureau of Mines, under the
leadership of the Director, Mr. Manning, began studies upon
poisonous gases and the methods of manufacturing them just before
or shortly after war was declared.
Nevertheless, although American troops left for France in May,
1917, it was not until the end of August—the 17th to be exact—that
definite action was taken toward establishing a Chemical Warfare
Service, or, as it was then known, a Gas Service in the American
Expeditionary Forces. On that date a cablegram was sent to the
United States to the effect that it was desired to make Lieut. Col.
Amos A. Fries, Corps of Engineers, Chief of the Gas Service, and
requesting that no assignments to the regiment of gas troops
authorized in the United States be made which would conflict with
this appointment. On August 22d, Lieut. Col. Fries entered upon his
duties as Chief of the Gas Service.
There were then in France about 30 miles from the German lines,
some 12,000 American troops without any gas masks or training
whatever in Chemical Warfare. Immediate steps were taken to teach
the wearing of the masks, and English and French gas masks were
obtained for them at the earliest possible moment. At the same time
efforts were made to obtain officer personnel for the C. W. S., and to
have sent to France a laboratory for making such emergency
researches, experiments, and testing as might become necessary.
From that time to the end of the war the C. W. S. continued to
develop on broad lines covering research, development, and
manufacture; the filling of shell and other containers with poisonous
gases, smoke and incendiary materials; the purchase of gas masks
and other protective devices, as well as the handling and supply of
these materials in the field; the training of the Army in chemical
warfare methods, both in offense and defense; and the organization,
equipment and operation of special gas troops.
This gave an ideal organization whereby research was linked
with the closest possible ties to the firing line, and where the
necessities of the firing line were brought home to the supply and
manufacturing branches and to the development and research
elements of the Service instantly and with a force that could not have
been obtained in any other manner. The success of the C. W. S. in
the field and at home was due to this complete organization. To the
Commander-in-Chief, General Pershing, is due the credit for
authorizing this organization and for backing it up whenever
occasion demanded. Other details of this work will be considered
under the following heads: Administrative; Training; Chemical
Warfare Troops; Supply; Technical; Intelligence; and Medical.
Administrative Duties
The duties of administration covered those necessary for a
general control of research, of supply, of training, and the operation
of special gas troops. At first the Chief of the Gas Service comprised
the whole of the Service since he was without personnel, material,
rules, regulations, or anything else of a chemical warfare nature.
The experience in getting together this organization should be
sufficient to insure that the United States will never place on any
other man’s shoulders the burden of organizing a new and powerful
service in the midst of war, 4,000 miles from home, without
precedent, material, or anything else on which to base action. It is
true the Americans had available the experience of the English and
the French, and it should be said to the credit of both of these
nations that they gave of their experience, their time, and their
material with the greatest freedom and willingness, but just as
Americans are Americans and were Americans in 1917, just so the
methods of the French and English or of the enemy were not entirely
suitable to American conditions.
If there is any one thing needed in the training of U. S. Army
leaders of today and for the future, it is vision—vision that can
foresee the size of a conflict and make preparations accordingly. We
do not mean vision that will order, as happened in some cases, ten
times as much material as could possibly be used by even 5,000,000
troops, but the sort of vision that could foresee in the fall of 1917 that
2,000,000 men might be needed in France and then make
preparations to get materials there for those troops by the time they
arrived.
In order to cover the early formative period of the C. W. S. in
France and to show some of the difficulties encountered, the
following running account is given of some of the early happenings
without regard to the subdivisions under which they might properly
be considered.
Assignment of Chief of the Gas Service. Sailing from the
United States on the 23d of July, 1917, Fries arrived in Paris on the
morning of August 14, 1917, and was immediately assigned the task
of organizing a highway service for the American Expeditionary
Forces. Five days later and before the highway order was issued, he
was asked what he would think if his orders were changed so as to
make him Chief of the newly proposed Gas Service. Being given one
night to think it over he told the General Staff he would undertake the
work. The road work was immediately closed up and on the 22d of
August the organization of a Gas Service was actively started.
At that time some information concerning gases and gas troops
had been gathered by Colonel Barber of the General Staff. Likewise,
Colonel (later Brigadier General) Hugh A. Drum had made a rough
draft of an order accompanied by a diagram for the establishment of
the Gas Service. This information was turned over to Fries who was
told to complete the draft of the order, together with an organization
chart, for the action of the Commander-in-Chief. After one and a half
days had been put on this work the draft and chart were considered
in good enough shape to submit to General Pershing, Commander-
in-Chief.
First Trip to British Gas Headquarters. Noting that the
proposed organization provided for the handling of 4-inch Stokes’
mortars by gas troops, General Pershing asked why this work could
not be done by regular trench mortar companies. He was told that
gas operations were too technical and dangerous to be intrusted to
any but especially trained troops, and that, furthermore, it was
understood that 4-inch Stokes’ mortars were used only by the British
troops. General Pershing said, “You had better beat it to the British
Gas Headquarters in the field and settle definitely that and certain
other minor points.” Fries told him he was only too glad to do this,
and, having completed preparations, left on the morning of August
25th with Colonel Church and Captain Boothby, both of the Medical
Department, for St. Omer, Headquarters of the British Gas Service in
the Field.
Colonel Church of the Medical Department had been in France
nearly one and a half years prior to the entry of the United States
into the war, and had taken sufficient interest in Gas Warfare to
collect considerable information and a number of documents from
French sources bearing on the defensive side of the subject. Captain
Boothby had done the same with the British, including a course in a
British Gas Defense School. On this trip they took up the defensive
side with the British, while Fries took up the offensive side of the
Service. The latter included gases used, gas troops, and ammunition
and guns used in Gas Warfare by the Artillery and other branches of
the Service. The trip included a brief visit to the headquarters of the
First British Army in the vicinity of Lens, where the British Gas
Service had a large depot of offensive gas material.
Order Forming Service. Returning on the 28th of August the
order, together with a chart organizing the Service, was completed
and submitted to the General Staff. This was published as G. O. 31,
September 3, 1917. As a result of a study of the information
submitted by Colonel Barber and General Drum, together with his
own observations of British organization and work, Fries decided it
was advisable to make the Service cover as complete a scope as
possible and to make the order very general, leaving details to be
worked out as time and experience permitted. This proved to be a
very wise decision, because the entire absence of gas knowledge
among Americans either in France or the United States made it
necessary to build from the bottom up and do it rapidly. At that time,
and at all times since, it was found utterly impossible to separate the
defensive side from the offensive side. Indeed, many of the worst
troubles of the British with their Gas Service throughout nearly the
whole war arose from such a division of duties in their Service. Thus,
the development of masks must be kept parallel with the
development of gases and methods of discharging them. Otherwise
a new gas invented may penetrate existing masks and preparations
be carried far towards using it before the development of masks are
undertaken to care for the new gas. Obviously a gas which our own
masks will not take care of cannot be safely used by our own troops
until new masks are developed to protect against it.
American and British Masks. Just prior to Fries’s assignment
as Chief of the Gas Service twenty thousand American-made masks
or box respirators were received from the United States. Through the
energy of Captain Boothby several of these had been sent at once to
the British for test. The test showed that the granules in the canisters
were entirely too soft, the charcoal of poor quality, and more than all
else, the fabric of the face piece was so pervious to gases that
chloropicrin became unbearable to the eyes in less than a minute
under the standard test used by the British. A cable containing this
information had been framed and sent to the United States just prior
to Fries’s appointment as Chief of the Service.
August 23d, the day after Fries took charge, it was decided to
adopt the British mask or box respirator as the principal mask and
the French M-2 as an emergency, both to be carried by the soldier,
the French M-2, however, to be used only when the British mask
became lost or unfit for use. A requisition for one hundred thousand
of each was at once submitted and very shortly approved by the
General Staff.
Getting Gas Supplies. It should be stated here that inasmuch as
no Gas Service had been organized in the United States, no money
appropriation had been made for it, thereby making it necessary for
the Gas Service to obtain all its supplies through other departments
ordinarily handling the same or similar materials. Thus defensive
supplies were obtained through the Medical Department and
offensive supplies through the Ordnance Department, while other
miscellaneous equipment was obtained through the Engineer
Department, the Quartermaster Department, or the Signal Corps.
This procedure proved exceedingly embarrassing, cumbersome and
inefficient. To begin with it was necessary to get some agreement
between the departments as to what each would supply. This was
very difficult, resulting in delays and consumption of time which was
urgently needed on other work.
Not only was there trouble in getting orders accepted and started
on the way but following them up became practically impossible.
None of the Departments furnishing the materials were especially
interested in them nor in many instances did they realize the vital
nature of them. Accordingly in order to get any action it was
necessary to continually follow up all orders and doing this through
another department created friction and misunderstanding. Officers
of these departments took the attitude that the whole question of
obtaining supplies should be left to them, once the requisition was
turned in. This could not be done. The Chief of the Gas Service was
absolutely responsible for gas supplies, and he fully realized that no
excuses would be accepted, no matter who stood in the way. It was
necessary to get action. Finally the matter was settled, some six
months after the Service was organized, by giving the Chemical
Warfare Service the right of direct purchase.
Purchase of Offensive Gas Supplies. Realizing the difficulty
that would probably be encountered in getting supplies at all times
from the British and French, two requisitions for offensive gas
supplies to be purchased from the British were submitted on
September 8th and 10th respectively. It would seem proper to state
here that investigation showed the British gas organization to be far
superior to the French. Indeed, the latter practically had no
organization.
Consequently it was determined to purchase complete equipment
for gas troops and for the defensive side of the service from the
British and to make no attempt to produce new materials, methods
or equipment until ample supplies of the standard equipment of the
British were at hand or in process of manufacture or delivery. This
was another exceedingly wise conclusion. No supplies of any kind
were received from the United States for the next eight months, and
then only masks and certain defensive supplies. Indeed, no
cylinders, mortars, projectors or artillery shell containing gas were
received from the United States until just before the Armistice,
though gas had been available in the United States for months in
large quantities, over 3,600 tons having been shipped in one ton
containers to the English and French. The Ordnance material was
what was lacking.
Obtaining Personnel. On September. 8, Colonel R. W. Crawford
was assigned to duty with the Gas Service. This matter of obtaining
personnel became immediately, and continued for almost a year to
be, one of the most serious difficulties facing the new Gas Service.
The troubles here again were the same as those in respect to
supplies. None of the old departments were especially interested in
gas and hence none of them desired to let good officers be
transferred.
Officers were scarce in the early days in France in every
department of the Service, consequently a new department with no
organization in the United States and no precedents or opportunities
for promotion made the obtaining of officers almost a matter of
impossibility. Further than this, while the Engineer Department was
at first supposed to furnish most of the officer personnel, it failed to
do so, apparently looking upon the Gas Service as an unimportant
matter when compared with the regular work of the Engineers. It was
necessary to make direct application to the Chief of Staff to obtain
Colonel Crawford and shortly thereafter to cable directly to the
United States for officers. A year later enough officers were obtained
but only after the organization of a separate Service in the United
States.
Supplies for Gas Troops. Colonel Crawford was at once put in
Charge of all supplies for the Gas Service, including the location and
construction of separate depots for that Service. Prior to this the
General Staff had decided to have chemical supplies stored in
depots separate from those of other supplies on account of the
poisonous nature of the gases which might prove very annoying if
leakage occurred near any other class of supplies. Colonel Crawford
took hold of this work with zeal and energy and so conducted it as to
relieve the Chief of the Gas Service of all anxiety in that matter. As
before stated, on the 10th of September a requisition for a very large
quantity of offensive supplies for gas troops was submitted to the
General Staff for approval. Inasmuch as this involved approximately
50,000 gas cylinders, 50,000 Liven’s drums, with at least 20,000
Liven’s projectors and a large number of Stokes’ mortars and
bombs, there was considerable difficulty in getting it approved.
Finally Colonel Malone of the Training Section, who took an active
interest in the Chemical Warfare Service, got it approved. Then
began the difficulty of getting the order placed and of trying to
expedite the filling of the order on time. These difficulties were never
overcome until after the entire purchase of supplies was, as
previously related, taken care of by the Gas Service.

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Empowerment Series: An Introduction

to the Profession of Social Work 5th

Empowerment Series: An Introduction to the Profession

Introduction to Social Work: An Advocacy Based

(Original PDF) Social Work An Empowering Profession

Empowerment Series: Research Methods for Social Work

Empowerment Series: Direct Social Work Practice: Theory

Introduction to the Counseling Profession 7th Edition,

Empowerment Series: Foundations of Social Policy:

Empowerment Series: Social Work with Groups:

Printed in the United States of America

CHAPTER 1 What Is Social Work? 1

BOX 2.5: More About … Jane Addams 59

CHAPTER 3 Poverty and Economic Disparity 69

CHAPTER 4 Human Rights and Social and Economic Justice 95

BOX 4.1: More About … Oppression and Violence 100

CHAPTER 5 Dimensions of Diversity 123

Achieving Cultural Competency 136

CHAPTER 6 Generalist Social Work Practice 151

BOX 6.6: What Do You Think? 170

Advocacy and Policy Building 197

CHAPTER 8 Gerontology: Working with People Who Are Older 219

Values and Ethical Issues 235

CHAPTER 9 Health Care Services 255

Medical Use of Marijuana 279

CHAPTER 10 Mental Health Services 287

CHAPTER 11 School Social Work 323

Working with Students at Risk 328

CHAPTER 12 Substance Abuse 359

Social Work Values and Ethics 383

CHAPTER 13 Violence, Victims, and Criminal Justice 399

Crime and Mental Illness 426

CHAPTER 14 Crisis, Trauma, and Disasters 441

APPENDIX A NASW Code of Ethics 473

WHY WE WROTE THIS BOOK

CONTENT OF THE CHAPTERS

NEW TO THIS EDITION

“Mental health recovery is a journey of healing and transformation enabling a per-

What Is Social Work?

© Heinle Division of Cengage Learning®

ane is a 32-year-old single mother with a 5-year-old son and an 8-year-old

J daughter. She has supported her family by working 30 hours a week at a

SOCIAL WORK AS A PROFESSION

Who Are Social Workers?

intervention techniques or skills to work with individuals, families, small groups,

BOX 1.1 More About … Social Work

Social Work Education

BOX 1.2 More About … Social Work Education Criteria

BOX 1.3 What Do You Think?

CENTRAL CONCEPTS AND THEORIES

Person in Environment Concept

Theoretical Basis for Social Work Practice

FIGURE 1.1 JANE’S SYSTEM

BOX 1.4 What Do You Think?

The work of the Defense Section consisted of the development of

The Field Training Division of the Gas Defense Service in the

It is worth noting here that the Chemical Warfare Service was

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