Equivalent Circuit of an Ideal Operational Amplifier

The input voltage Vd is the difference voltage between two input terminals of an
Op-Amp, thus:

The output voltage V0 is directly proportional to difference between the two input
voltages.

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 Different parameters of Op-amp

•Open Loop Gain, (Avo): Infinite

•Input impedance, (ZIN): Infinite

•Output impedance, (ZOUT): Zero

•Offset Voltage, (VIO): Zero

•Common mode rejection ratio (CMRR): Infinite 2

Ideal Characteristic of Op-amp

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 Common mode rejection ratio (CMRR)
When the same signal having equal magnitude is applied to both inputs, the expected
output should be zero. The capability of the amplifier to reject the common mode signal
is indicated in terms of CMRR. Thus CMRR is the ratio of differential mode gain Ad to
common mode gain Ac of the amplifier.

Differential mode gain:

Common mode gain:

A good quality differential amplifier possesses smaller common mode gain Ac. Ideally it
should be zero.
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 Common mode rejection ratio (CMRR)

_
V1

Vd Vout_d Vout_d=AOL(V2-V1)  AdVd

V2 +

_
VOCM
VOCM ACM  1
VCM
VCM +

Vout  AdVd  ACM VCM

Ad  A 
CMRR  CMRR  20 log10  d 
ACM  ACM 
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Open-loop amplifier

where AOL is the open-loop gain of the

amplifier.

Closed-loop amplifier

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 Inverting Amplifier
Input signal is given to the inverting input terminal.

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 Inverting Amplifier

where Af is the gain of amplifier with feedback. The open loop gain A of the Op-Amp is
very large, hence

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 Non-inverting Amplifier
Input signal is given to the non-inverting input terminal and feedback signal is connected to
inverting input.

Af
9
Voltage follower or unity gain buffer

RF = 0 R2 = ∞

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Differential Amplifier

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 Why do we use instrumentation amplifier
more than differential amplifier?

• Differential amplifier, may produce significant common mode voltages at the

exit due to resistance mismatch.

• While an instrumentation amplifier provides most of the gain through a single

resistance Rgain of its first stage, it does not require a resistance match.

• In addition, the difference amplifier has a low input impedance.

• Instrumental amps are designed to offer low noise, high stability, high common
mode rejection dc precision and gain accuracy maintained within a noisy
environment, and where large common-mode signals (usually at the ac power
line frequency) are present. They usually offer input buffers too.

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Disadvantages of Differential amplifier: Common mode rejection ratio (CMRR)

_
Vout = (R3/R1) (V2-V1)

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Why do we use instrumentation amplifier more than differential amplifier?

R3

R2

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Why do we use instrumentation amplifier more than differential amplifier?

R3

R2

R3

R2

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 Instrumentation Amplifier

A
Vo1
E

C H

D F
Vo2

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 Instrumentation Amplifier
Applying Ohm’s law between the
nodes E and F, Vo1
A
I = (Vo1-Vo2)/(R1+Rgain+R1) E
I = (Vo1-Vo2)/(2R1+Rgain) ——— 1 B

Since no current is flowing to

the input of the op-amps 1 & 2, G
the current I between the nodes
G and H can be given as, C H
I = (VG-VH)/Rgain = (V1-V2)/Rgain —— 2

Equating equations 1 and 2,

D F
(Vo1-Vo2)/(2R1+Rgain) = (V1-V2)/Rgain Vo2
(Vo1-Vo2) = (2R1+Rgain)(V1-V2)/Rgain —— 3

The output of the difference amplifier is given as,

Vout = (R3/R2) (Vo2-Vo1)

Therefore, (Vo1 – Vo2) = - (R2/R3)Vout 17

 Instrumentation Amplifier

A
Vo1
E

C H

D F
Vo2

Substituting (Vo1 – Vo2) value in the equation 3, we get:

-(R2/R3)Vout = (2R1+Rgain)(V1-V2)/Rgain

i.e. Vout = (R3/R2){(2R1+Rgain)/Rgain}(V2-V1)

Gain= (R3/R2){(2R1+Rgain)/Rgain} 18
Advantages of Instrumentation Amplifier
The advantages of Instrumentation Amplifier are:
•Offset voltage is minimized.
•Voltage Gain is high as the configuration uses high precision resistors.
•The Gain of the circuit can be varied by using specific value of resistor.
•Input impedance is very high.
•Common-mode rejection is very high.

Disadvantage of Instrumentation Amplifier

The biggest disadvantage of Instrumentation Amplifier is the occurrence of
noise when used for long range transmission purpose.

Applications of Instrumentation Amplifier

The applications of Instrumentation Amplifier are:
•They are used extensively in Bio-medical applications like ECG’s and EEG’s.
•Instrumentation Amplifiers are used where long-term stability is essential like
Industrial applications that includes automation.
•Instrumentation amplifiers are incorporated with pressure transducers in
Weighing Systems to monitor various physical quantities such as weight, force,
pressure, displacement and torque.
•Instrumentation Amplifiers are also used in hand held batteries. 19