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ORGANIZATIONAL
behavior

R o b e "： Kreitner | A n g e : Kinioki

W i t h love to m y precious little family，M a r g a r e t
a n d o u r cats Y a h o o a n d S w e e t i e Pie.

-B.K.

W i t h resp ect a n d admiration to D 「William

G p ㊀ars. His w o r k h a s r e d u c e d th㊀ c a r b o n
footprint of m a n y schools, hospitals, a n d
c h u r c h e s . H e also is a role m o d ㊀Ifor e d u c a t o r s
a n d entrepr ene urs ㊀v ㊀r y w h e r ㊀.I a m p r o u d to
b e his friend.

-A.K.

1216484 2015/08/27 110.52.101.59

Preface
Whatever the size and purpose of the organization
and the technology involved, people are the common New and Improved
denominator when facing today’s immense chal­
lenges. Success or failure hinges on the ability to at­ Coverage
tract, develop, retain, motivate, and lead a diverse Our readers and reviewers have kindly told us how
array of appropriately skilled people (and to do so much they appreciate our efforts to keep this text­
in an ethical manner). The human factor drives every­ book up-to-date and relevant. Toward that end, you
thing. To know more about workplace behavior is to will find the following important new and signifi­
gain a valuable competitive edge. The purpose of this cantly improved coverage in the tenth edition:
textbook is to help present and future organizational
participants better understand and manage people at
work. C hapter 1
Although this tenth edition of Organizational New chapter-opening case about Zappos.com. New
Behavior is aimed at undergraduate business stu­ discussion of employee engagement，as a preview of
dents in similarly named courses, previous editions comprehensive coverage in Chapter 6. New discus­
have proven highly versatile. Organizational Behav­ sion of Internet/social media revolution as a preview
ior has been used effectively in MBA programs， of comprehensive coverage in Chapter 14. Four new
executive education and management development Real World/Real People boxed features. New chapter-
programs, and industrial and organizational psy­ closing case about Whole Foods’ CEO John Mackey.
chology programs around the world. (Note: Special New Legal/Ethical Challenge, at the end of the chap­
Canadian and European editions are available.) ter, about education reform.
This textbook is the culmination of our combined
65+ years of teaching experience and research of
organizational behavior and management in the C hapter 2
United States, Pacific Rim, and Europe. Thanks to New chapter-opening case about sexual harassment.
detailed feedback from students, professors, and Expanded discussion of sexual harassment. New
practicing managers，this tenth edition is state- discussion of electronic harassment. Updated work­
of-the-art in both content and delivery. Many force demographics pertaining to gender, race, age,
new changes have been made in this edition, re­ and education. Table 2-1 about generational differ­
flecting new research evidence, new management ences expanded and revised. Five new Real World/
techniques, new media, and the fruits of our own Real People boxed features. New Legal/Ethical Chal­
learning process. lenge about workplace drug policies.
Organizational Behavior, tenth edition，is user
driven (as a result of carefully listening to our
readers). It was developed through close team­ C hapter 3
work between the authors and the publisher, and New discussion of ethical cultures in organizations.
is the product of continuous improvement. This New key term， PEfit, and discussion of how students
approach has helped us achieve a difficult com­ can determine the PE fit of potential jobs. Updated
bination of balances. Among them are balances example of the functions of culture at Southwest
between theory and practice, solid content and in­ Airlines. New examples to illustrate the culture
teresting coverage, and instructive detail and read­ types within the Competing Values Framework.
ability. Students and instructors say they want an New Figure 3-4 to summarize research on relation­
up-to-date, relevant, and interesting textbook that ships between organizational culture and measures
actively involves the reader in the learning process. of organizational effectiveness. New examples of the
Our efforts toward this end are evidenced by doz­ 11 ways companies can change organizational cul­
ens of new topics，many new real-life examples, a ture. New discussion about using social media for
stimulating art program, and timely new cases and networking. Three new and one updated Real World/
boxed features. A Legal/Ethical Challenge exercise Real People boxed features. New chapter-closing case
at the end of each chapter (13 new; 2 updated) is about Chrysler，s Sergio Marchionne.
instructive and useful for either individual consid­
eration or team discussion. We realize that read­
ing a comprehensive textbook is hard work, but we
C hapter 4
also firmly believe the process should be interesting New chapter-opening case about conducting training
(and sometimes fun). in Israel. New Table 4-1 depicting the United States

as a nation of immigrants. New research evidence
about how multicultural experiences improve creative
performance. New data on foreign students in the
United States and U.S. students studying abroad.
Expanded coverage of cultural intelligence (knowl­
edge, mindfulness, and skills) from book by David C
Thomas and Kerr Inkson, Cultural Intelligence: Liv­
ing and Working Globally, 2009. New subhead section
and new Table 4-4: Countries Achieve High Overall
Management Scores by Emphasizing Different Prac­
tices. Detailed new coverage of cross-cultural train­
ing research. One new and one updated Real World/
Real People boxed features. New chapter-closing
case about China. Updated Legal/Ethical Challenge
about corruption in Russia.
C hapter 5
New chapter-opening case about Facebook’s CEO
Mark Zuckerberg during his Harvard days. New
section on changes in self-esteem during adult­
hood. New discussion of napping rooms at Nike and
Google. New research evidence about emotional in­
telligence from two recent meta-analyses. Three new
Real World/Real People boxed features. New Legal/
Ethical Challenge that discusses how some managers
play the guilt card.
C hapter 6
New chapter-opening case. Updated research and
examples on managing work-family balance with a
focus on generational differences. New section on em­
ployee engagement. New key term， employee engage­
ment, and new discussion identifying the causes and
consequences of employee engagement and the prac­
tical takeaways. Updated research on generational
differences in job satisfaction and consequences of
job satisfaction. Three new Real World/Real People
boxed features. New Legal/Ethical Challenge about
spying on students with Web cameras.
C hapter 7
New chapter-opening case on vulnerability. Updated
material on sex-role stereotypes. New examples of
the fundamental attribution bias and the self-serving
bias. Two new Real World/Real People boxed fea­
tures. New Legal/Ethical Challenge about people
walking away from their mortgages.
C hapter 8
New chapter-opening case about Michelle Rhee
and teacher evaluation. Chapter learning objectives
simplified. Major overhaul of section on job design,
now organized around three categories of job design:
Preface ix
top-down approaches, bottom-up approaches，and
idiosyncratic deals (i-deals). Two new key terms, job
crafting and idiosyncratic deals. New Table 8-3 with
examples of job crafting. Five new Real World/Real
People boxed features. New chapter-closing case
about how managers need to handle tough employ­
ment decisions.
C hapter 9
New chapter-opening case about NuStar Energy.
Rewitten section on three-step goal-setting process.
New research on goal ladders. New key term: goal
ladders. New example of 360-degree feedback at
BlackRock. New example for variable reinforcement.
Two new Real World/Real People boxed features.
New chapter-closing case about DineEquity’s CEO
Julia A Stewart (leaders as teachers). New Legal/
Ethical Challenge about staffing.
C hapter 10
New chapter-opening case about how Intel’s Pat
McDonald handled a plant closing. New social capi­
tal example. New section about social loafing. New
key term, cyberloafing. New Table 10-6: Dealing with
Social Loafing in the Internet Age. Four new Real
World/Real People boxed features. Updated Legal/
Ethical Challenge about being an online “friend”
with the boss.
C hapter 11
New chapter-opening case about customer service
being like a team sport at Wynn Resorts. New data
on lack of trust in government and business lead­
ers. Expanded definition and explanation of trust.
Recent research evidence about shared intense emo­
tional experiences and socioemotional cohesive­
ness. New example of managing virtual teams at
Ernst & Young. New example of Stephanie Thanos，
20-person cross-functional team at Lifespan Hospi­
tals. Expanded discussion of team leadership with
findings from three recent studies. Four new Real
World/Real People boxed features. New chapter-
closing case about Google’s “Three-Thirds” HR
team. New Legal/Ethical Challenge about working
from the beach.
C hapter 12
New chapter-opening cases about decision making
at Google. New key terms, opportunity (relative to ra­
tional model of decision making) and evidence-based
decision making. Major new section about evidence-
based decision making with new model in Fig­
ure 12-2. Revised and improved model of intuition
X Preface

in Figure 12-4. New section titled “Contextual Char­ C hapter 16

acteristics Associated with Creativity.” Five new Real
World/Real People boxed features. New chapter-
closing case about BP Gulf of Mexico oil disaster.
New Legal/Ethical Challenge about keeping your
colleagues honest.
C hapter 13
New data on workplace bullying. New union-
management cooperation example for desired con­
flict outcomes. Stephen Covey on finding “a third
way” when resolving conflict. New data on how long
it takes to become a top-notch negotiator, plus the
Golden Rule of Negotiation. New section on the five
emotional elements of negotiation. Three new Real
World/Real People boxed features. New chapter-
closing case about conflict.
C hapter 14
Improved chapter learning objectives. New chapter-
opening case about Best Buy， s CEO Brian Dunn.
How iPads are used at Medtronic. Major new section:
How social media are changing the communication
landscape. New discussion of two important impacts
of social media. New example of mismatched words
and body language. Condensed and revamped sec­
tion on linguistic styles and gender. New research
evidence on employees， self-censorship. New mate­
rial on listening to and involving middle managers.
New research evidence about positive aspects of gos­
sip. New section titled: Needed: A Policy for Social
Media Use in the Workplace. IBM ， s social comput­
ing guidelines. New Table 14-9: Workplace Policy
Guidelines for Using Social Media. Four new Real
World/Real People boxed features. New chapter-
closing case about Soraya Darabi’s social media
world. New Legal/Ethical Challenge about electronic
monitoring of employees.
New chapter-opening case about the exit of Time
Inc/s CEO Jack Griffin. Expanded coverage of traits
possessed by bad leaders. New section titled 6CCa-
veat When Applying Situational Theories.” New il­
lustration of transactional leadership with Stephen
Green, founder of Hartwell Pacific. New illustration
of transformational leadership with GE CEO Jeff
Immelt. Three new Real World/Real People boxed
features. New chapter-closing case on Lynn Tilton,
founder and CEO of Patriarch. New Legal/Ethical
Challenge revolving around James O’Keefe’s use of
subversive techniques to make NPR look bad.
C hapter 17
12164842015/08/27 110.52.101.59
New chapter-opening case on office technology and
innovation. Expanded coverage of learning organi­
zations including learning from success and failure.
New key term, team mental model. Three new Real
World/Real People boxed features. New chapter-
closing case about innovation communities. New
Legal/Ethical Challenge about tracking Internet
browsing.
C hapter 18
New chapter-opening case about Nokia’s need to
change. New key term, telepresence，discussed as
a technological force for change. New example of
Esquel making changes related to sustainability due
to social and political forces for change. New coverage
of US Army’s resilience training. New discussion and
new key term, psychological detachment. New cover­
age of Martin Seligman?s ABCDE model of cognitive
restructuring, a stress reduction technique. Updated
statistics on wellness programs. Five new Real World/
Real People boxed features. New chapter-closing case
about organizational change at HCL Technologies.

C hapter 15 AACS巳 Coverage

New chapter-opening case about Deborah Dunsire，
use of power. Expanded discussion of reward power
(importance of shaping behavior with recognition
and positive reinforcement). How Hilton’s Home­
wood Suites hotel chain empowers its employees.
New research data on nonmanagerial employees’
trust for supervisors. New research data on perceived
empowerment and intrinsic motivation, creativity，
and openness to change. New material on 4 Ps of
political success. Four new Real World/Real People
boxed features. New chapter-closing case about
Trader Joe， s retired president Doug Rauch. New
Legal/Ethical Challenge about getting even with a
coworker.
s
In keeping with the curriculum recommendations for
AACSB International (the Association to Advance
Collegiate Schools of Business, www.aacsb.edu) for
greater attention to managing in a global economy,
managing cultural diversity, improving product/ser­
vice quality, and making ethical decisions， we feature
this coverage:
• A full chapter on international organizational
behavior and cross-cultural management
(Chapter 4). Comprehensive coverage from
the landmark GLOBE project and a new
17-country study about how management
practices differ across countries. To ensure
 Preface xi

integrated coverage of international topics,
several of the Real World/Real People boxed
features have a global theme.
• A full chapter on managing diversity (Chap­
ter 2) offers comprehensive and up-to-date
coverage of managing diversity. Many of the
Real World/Real People boxed features also
have a diversity theme.
• Principles of total quality management (TQM)
and the legacy of W Edwards Deming are
discussed in Chapter 1 to establish a quality^
improvement context for the entire textbook.
Also， many quality-related examples have been
integrated into the textual presentation.
As outlined next, the tenth edition includes
comprehensive coverage of ethics-related
concepts， cases, and issues. Many of the Real
World/Real People boxed features have an eth­
ics theme, with specific attention called out by
an ethics label.
The tenth edition test bank available on the
OLC has each question tagged to the AACSB
knowledge category it covers.

Integrative Topics (with specific page references)

INTERNATIONAL INTERNET/ TEAMS/

CHAPTER ETHICS DIVERSITY OB SOCIAL MEDIA TEAMWORK

1 5， 13 ，16 ，20-26 ， 20-22 14-16 17

25 ，29-30

2 33 ，38 ，46 ，56 ， Entire Chapter 53 51

58-59

3 64-65, 71,7 4, 87 82 70 ，74 ，79，86 76 ，77 ，78 ，

83 ， 60 ，67-68 ，76 ，
84 79

4 105 90 ，
91 ，
93 ，
96-97, Entire Chapter 114
98 ，
99-101,
110-11,112

5 126, 129-130 ， 122 ，123 ，131 ， 124 ，132，144 121

133-134, 139 ， 137-138，139
146-147, 149

6 154 ，155 ，161 ， 157 ，168，170 167，176 163 ，166 ，167 ，

173-174，177 169

7 179 ，180 ，185 ， 184 ，

188 ，190-191， 187 179 ，182，196
191-194 ，200，203 194，200

8 205 ，210 ，213 ， 208-209，221 227 216 211-212 ，220 ，

217 ，222 ，225 ， 227-228, 229,
234-235 231,232, 234

9 241,253, 257 ， 246，250 240 ，

243，246 255
258，263

10 267 ，
268 ，279 ， 279 ，
283 ，
286-289， 270-271,276, 272 ，294-295 269-271
281,283, 289 ， 296-297 280 ，
284, 285 ，
290 ，291 ，
292，297 287 ，
2 91,293

11 310 ，312-313，327 311 299 ，

301 ，303 ， 316-319 Entire Chapter
309-310,
311-312, 322 ，
323

12 331-332 ，337 ， 343 ，348-351, 343, 351，359 331 ，354-356, 329 ，340 ，341,
346-348, 361-363 353-356 358 343 ，348 ，
352 ，353-356,
361-363
xii Preface

INTERNATIONAL INTERNET/ TEAMS/

CHAPTER ETHICS DIVERSITY OB SOCIAL MEDIA TEAMWORK

13 368 ，
369 ，372-373， 372 ，
373-374，381 376-378, 383 ， 369 367-368 ，
374-375, 386-388, 385 ，386，388 369-370, 371
391

14 406 ，411 ，414 ， 398 ，

399 ，406 ， 398 ，
401,406, 395-396, 414，423
415, 418, 420 ， 408-411,421 418 402-403,
424-425, 429 416-417,
421-422,
425-427,
428-429

15 434 ，439 ，440-441， 435-436, 438 ， 431-432,436 ， 438 4 3 5 ,4 4 1 ，447

448 ，452, 453 ，
454 ， 440, 453，457 438 ，
440 ，
446 ，
455, 458-459 455-456

16 467 ，
475 ，
482, 492 469 ，
480-481 ， 480-481,487 461,469, 475 ，
484-485 478 ，
480-481

17 526-527 512 498 ，505-506 ， 495, 507-508, 495, 498 ，

508 ，509 ，510, 521 ，526-527 501 ，507-508 ，
512-513, 525-526
514-515 ，516 ，
518，519，
520
18 533 ，
534，564 5 31,533 529 ，5 31 ,53 2 ， 532, 542, 563 532 ，536, 538,
533 ，534 ， 540 ， 563
542, 563

Comprehensive Ethics knowledge. Some of the most significant pedagogical

features of this text are the following:
Coverage
Ethics is covered early and completely in Chapter 1
to set a proper moral tone for managing people at
work. Ethical issues are raised throughout the text,
with additional significant coverage of the Ethical
Decision-Making Tree in Chapter 12 and a discus­
sion of the moral aspect of leadership in Chapter 16.
In nearly every chapter, one or two of the Real World/
Real People boxed features are ethically based and
are highlighted with an ethics label. Also in this tenth
edition are 18 Legal/Ethical Challenges (one follow­
ing each chapter). They raise hard-hitting ethical is­
sues and ask tough questions, virtually guaranteeing
a lively discussion/debate for cooperative learning.
These Legal/Ethical Challenges (13 are new to this
edition; 2 have been updated), along with the Real
World/Real People boxes, are constant reminders of
the importance of ethical management.
Pedagogical Features
The tenth edition of Organizational Behavior is de­
signed to be a complete teaching/learning tool that
captures the reader’s interest and imparts useful
• Classic and modern topics are given bal­
anced treatment in terms of the latest and
best available theoretical models, research
evidence, and practical applications. Each
chapter follows a Theory-Research-Practice
approach. Students reading each chapter will
gain an understanding of the basic theories
about OB, learn whether or not the theories
are valid by drawing on research to make
summary conclusions, and will see how the
theories and research apply in real-world
examples.
• Several concise learning objectives open each
chapter to focus the reader’s attention and
serve as a comprehension check. Look for a
wolf paw print icon calling attention to each
learning objective within the text. Additionally，
the chapter summary is written to correlate
with chapter learning objectives.
• Every major section in all 18 chapters is ac­
companied by a feature in the margin called
“To the Point.55The integrative questions in
this key pedagogical feature focus the student’s
attention on test-relevant material, with the
goal of improving their grade.
 P reface xiii

A colorful and lively art program includes cap­ DineEquity， Intel，Wynn Resorts，Google， BP, Best
tioned photographs and figures. Buy, Takeda，Trader Joe， s，Time Inc，and Patriarch.
Hundreds of real-world examples involving Every chapter opens with a real-name， real-world
large and small, public and private organiza­ short case to provide a practical context for the mate­
tions have been incorporated into the textual rial at hand. All of the chapter-opening vignettes are
material to make this edition up-to-date, inter­ new.
esting, and relevant. This tenth edition is filled with current and rele­
vant examples from both research and practice per­
spectives. In fact，you will find several hundred source
material references dated 2010 and 2011.
Streamlined End-of-
Chapter Materials Real World/Real People
The end-of-chapter materials for the tenth edition of
Organizational Behavior were carefully selected for While theory and research are important to the study
their use as a study guide for students. Each chapter of OB, current examples of real people in real organi­
contains zational situations are needed to bring OB to life for the
reader. The tenth edition contains 69 Real World/Real
• A Summary of Key Concepts correlating with People boxed features strategically located through­
the Learning Objectives for that chapter. out the text. Sixty-three (91%) are new to this edition.
• A list of Key Terms (with text page notations). They are up-to-date (mostly drawn from 2010 and 2011
• An OB in Action Case Study (16 are new in sources), often provocative, and definitely interesting.
this edition). The Real World/Real People features tend to be short,
designed for quick reading, and tightly linked to the ac-
• A Legal/Ethical Challenge (13 are new in this
comj:
12164842015/0：
^ textual discussion. They show real people
Lpanying
and organizations in action at their best and sometimes
• A rem inder about the resources available on at their worst. Among the diverse selection of organi­
the Web. zations featured are American Express， Sodexo， Card-
First BlueCross BlueShield, CVS Caremark，BMW，
UnitedHealthcare, Apple, AT&T, GlaxoSmithKline,
McDonald、 United Health Group, Nutrisystem,
Fresh Cases, Updated Unilever, Home Depot, Satyam Computers, General
Motors, Starwood, Ford, Sky Factory, Tyson Foods,
Research, and New Facebook，College Hunks Hauling Junk, Netflix，
BE, Whole Foods, 37signals， Toro, Republic Airways,
Examples Johnson & Johnson，New York Philharmonic, BAE
Our continuing commitment to a timely and relevant Systems, Cascade Engineering, US Coast Guard,
textbook is evidenced by the 16 (89%) new chapter- Toyota， IBM ，and Ohio Health.
opening cases and 13 (72%) new chapter-closing Real World/Real People features that involve
cases. These cases highlight male and female role ethical issues are highlighted with an ethics label. In
models and large and small public and private orga­ response to reviewer feedback, we’ve also included a
nizations. Among the diverse array of organizations discussion question with each box that ties it to the
featured are Zappos.com, Walmart, Williams- chapter content, to serve as a learning aid and class
Sonoma， Chrysler, Facebook， NuStar Energy, discussion starter.
Words of Appreciation
This textbook is the fruit of many people’s labor. Our
colleagues at Arizona State University have been sup­
portive from the start. Through the years, our organi­
zational behavior students at ASU， Thunderbird, and
the University of Tirana (Albania) were enthusiastic
and candid academic “customers.” We are grateful for
their feedback and we hope we have done it justice in
this new edition. Sincere appreciation goes to Mindy
West, of Arizona State University, for her skillful and
dedicated work on the Instructor s Resource Manual.
Thank you to Brad Cox of Midland Tech for creating
the unique and dynamic PowerPoint presentations
and Floyd Ormsbee of Clarkson University for his
work on Connect. Thank you to Terri Lawson for a
very professional job of managing our permissions.
To the manuscript reviewers spanning the prior
nine editions go our gratitude and thanks. Their
feedback was thoughtful, rigorous, constructive,
and, above all，essential to our goal of kaizen (con­
tinuous improvement). Our reviewers for this edi­
tion were
Grace Auyang, Ph.D.
University of Cincinnati
M. Suzanne Clinton
University of Central Oklahoma
Elizabeth Cooper
University of Rhode Island
Tim DeGroot
Midwestern State University
Kathy Edwards
University of Texas at Austin
Leslie Elrod
University of Cincinnati RWC
Sean D. Jasso, Ph.D.
University of California, Riverside
Dr. Christopher McChesney, Ph.D.
Indian River State College
xiv
Ellen J. Mullen, Ph.D.
Iowa State University
Jeff Peterson
Woodbury School of Business, Utah Valley University
Mary Pisnar
Baldwin- Wallace College
Consuelo M. Ramirez, Ph.D.
University of Texas at San Antonio
Donald R Schreiber
Baylor University
Jerry Stevens
Texas Tech University
Jerald T Storey
Western Governors University
Ethan P. Waples
University of Central Oklahoma
Special thanks go to our dedicated “pack” at
McGraw-Hill/Irwin: our editors Mike Ablassmeir
and Kelly Pekelder; our marketing manager Anke
Weekes; and our design and production team Matt
Diamond, Dana Pauley，Michael McCormick, and
Jeremy Cheshareck.
Finally, we would like to thank our wives,
Margaret and Joyce, for being tough and caring
“first customers” of our work. This book has been
greatly enhanced by their common sense， reality test­
ing, and hands-on managerial experience. Thanks in
large measure to their love, moral support, and pa­
tience, this project once again was completed ahead
of schedule and it strengthened rather than strained
a treasured possessionour friendship.
We hope you enjoy this textbook. Best wishes for
success and happiness!
B o b Kreitner
A n g e l o Kinicki
G u i d e d Tour
The perfect balance of theory, research and practice
aThis edition of Kreitner/Kinicki is a good marriage of research and applications of organiza­
tional behavior. Utilizing story telling, experiential activities, on-line technology as well as tradi­
tional materials, this text will appeal both to the student and the professor/1 Elizabeth Cooper,
University of Rhode Island
Up-to-date, interesting and relevant—Filled with current and relevant examples involving
large and small, public and private organizations from both research and practice perspectives
(several hundred source material references dated 2010 and 2011).
"Kreitner/Kinicki provides solid coverage o f key OB topics and gives real examples of how
the topics relate to managerial and organizational reality. The text and supplements provide
good tools to communicate with students and engage them in the learning process .w Mary
Pisnar, Baldwin-Wallace College
Cites meta-analysis studies—When citing research many competitors will summarize
only a few research studies and then draw a conclusion. Instead, Kreitner and Kinicki cite
meta-analysis studies, which statistically summarize numerous studies before arriving at
conclusions—a more efficient and statistically accurate process.
"The writing is excellent. Kreitner and Kinicki explain constructs, theories, and models
effectively, while also making the material interesting to read (not dry)!" Ellen Mullen, Iowa
State University

Provocative and interesting—Each chapter opens with a real-name, real-world short case
to provide a practical context for the material at hand. All of the chapter-opening vignettes are
new (16) or updated (2) for this edition.
"The book itself is interesting and informative; it is thought-provoking yet reader-friendly.
The authors have incorporated many tools to effectively reach all types oflearners and make the
course very manageable for the instructor, Ellen Mullen, Iowa State University
Back to the Opening Case—Throughout the chapter, stu­
dents are asked to apply what theyVe learned to the open­
ing case via thoughtfully crafted questions. This enables Back to the Chapter-Opening Case
students to see the practical application of chapter material What evidence of a 21 st-century organization, based on Table 1-3, can you find in the
Zappos.com case?
and actively involves them in the learning process.
"Absolutely, the book emphasizes practicality! As a for­
mer manager, I believe it is critical that the students be able to
apply the theory in OB textbooks. Your textbook is a 'dream come true’ for me!" Consuelo M.
Ramirez, University of Texas at San Antonio
real WORLD/real PEOPLE-In addition
to the vast number of examples throughout ^ real W O R L D // real PEOP L E
the text, this boxed feature highlights male
and female role models and large and small W ill Happy Employees Mean Happy Customers for American Express?
public and private organizations. [L]ast year when [American Express] gave its global cus­ SOURCE: Excerpted from C Tkaczyk, "American Express," Fortune,
August 16.2010, p 14.
tomer service division a makeover, it decided to focus on
"K&K provides excellent real-world sections making life better for its 26,000 call-center employees.
H ie theory: Happier employees mean happier customers.
and applications through case studies, indi­ 'W e've learned the importance of the attitude of the em­
vidual and group activities, etc.—these are ployee," saysJim Bush, EVPofworid service. AmExstarted
by asking customer service employees what they wanted
great for providing student hand-on experi­ to see—and then delivered better pay, flexible schedules,
ence with the chapter material/1 Suzanne and more career development. It also switched from a
Clinton, University of Central Oklahoma directive to keep calls short and transaction-oriented to
engaging customers in longer conversations. Collectively,
the moves have boosted service margins by 10%_ "Great
C onnect® Integration—Assignable, service starts with the people who deliver it," says [CEO
auto-graded Interactive Application ex­ Ksn] Chenault. "We want American Express to be the
company people recommend to their friends."
ercises found in McGraw-Hill Connect®
Based on Table 1-3, w hat evidence of 21st-century
allow students to apply chapter concepts m anagem ent can you find here? American Express CEO Kenneth I Chenault.
and practice what they have learned, while
saving instructors time grading. Icons in the
margin indicate what topics can be prac­
ticed online.
Legal/Ethical Challenge exercise at the end of each chapter (13 new; 2 updated) is instruc­
tive and useful for either individual consideration or team discussion.
xv
 Ethics integrated throughout—Highlighted with an ethics label, Real World/Real People
features with discussion questions get the reader actively involved in the learning process and
serve as a learning aid and class discussion starter.
“Kreitner/Kinicki has an applied approach that is relevant to today’s student. The embedded
charts make material easier to understand. The strong ethics influence is a critical focus to
organizational behavior." Leslie Elrod, University of Cincinnati, Raymond Walters College
“To the Point.， ，一The integrative questions in this key pedagogical feature focus the student’s
attention on test-relevant material, with the goal of improving their grade.
TO THE POINT
How does organizational Comprehensive Supplements
culture influence
organizational outcomes?
for Instructors and Students
“The depth of supplementary materials is astounding and I had no idea of this fa ct, Tim
DeGroot, Midwestern State University

Instructor’
s Manual
Prepared by Professor Mindy West of Arizona State University, each chapter includes a chap­
ter summary, back to the chapter-opening case solution, lecture outline, Legal/Ethical Chal­
lenge interpretation, OB in Action case solutions, video resources, and much more.

Test Bank
The test bank includes more than 100 test questions per chapter, including true-false, multiple
choice, and essay with answers, page references, and Bloom's Taxonomy level coding. Each
test question is also tagged to the Learning Objective it covers in the chapter and the AACSB
Learning Standard it falls under.

EZTest 12164842015/08/27 110.52.101.59

McGraw-Hiirs flexible and easy-to-use electronic testing program allows in­
structors to create tests from book-specific items. It accommodates a wide
range of question types, and instructors may add their own questions. Mul­
tiple versions of the test can be created, and any test can be exported for use with course
management systems such as WebCT or Blackboard. EZ Test Online allows you to administer
EZ Test-created exams and quizzes online.

PowerPoint
The PowerPoint slides have been prepared by Professor Brad Cox of Midlands Technical
College and are designed to be meaningful lessons for students that encourage active think­
ing and participation and allow the instructor to have at his or her fingertips the information he
or she wants to convey for each slide.

McGraw-Hill Connect Management

Less Managing. More Teaching. Greater Learning
McGraw-Hill Connect Management is an online assignment
and assessment solution that connects students with the tools
and resources they，
ll need to achieve success.
McGraw-Hill Connect Management helps prepare students
for their future by enabling faster learning, more efficient studying, and higher retention of
knowledge.

McGraw-Hill Connect Management features

Connect Management offers a number of powerful tools and features to make managing as­
signments easier, so faculty can spend more time teaching. With Connect Management stu­
dents can engage with their coursework anytime and anywhere, making the learning process
more accessible and efficient. Connect Management offers you the features described below.
Online Interactives Online Interactives are engaging tools that teach students to apply key
concepts in practice. These Interactives provide them with immersive, experiential learning op­
portunities. Students will engage in a variety of interactive scenarios to deepen critical knowl-
xvj edge on key course topics. They receive immediate feedback at intermediate steps throughout
each exercise, as well as comprehensive feedback at the end of the assignment. All Interac­
tives are automatically scored and entered into the instructor gradebook.
Student progress tracking Connect Management keeps instructors informed about how
each student, section, and class is performing, allowing for more productive use of lecture and
office hours. The progress-tracking function enables you to:

• View scored work immediately and track individual or group performance with assignment
and grade reports.
• Access an instant view of student or class performance relative to learning objectives.
參 Collect data and generate reports required by many accreditation organizations, such as
AACSB.
Sm art grading When it comes to studying, time is precious. Connect Management helps
students learn more efficiently by providing feedback and practice material when they need
it, where they need it. When it comes to teaching, your time also is precious. The grading
function enables you to:
• Have assignments scored automatically, giving students immediate feedback on their work
and side-by-side comparisons with correct answers.
• Access and review each response; manually change grades or leave comments for students
to review.
• Reinforce classroom concepts with practice tests and instant quizzes.
Simple assignment management With Connect Management, creating assignments is
easier than ever, so you can spend more time teaching and less time managing. The assign­
ment management function enables you to:
• Create and deliver assignments easily with selectable end-of-chapter questions and test bank
items.
• Streamline lesson planning, student progress reporting, and assignment grading to make
classroom management more efficient than ever.
• Go paperless with the eBook and online submission and grading of student assignments.

Instructor lib rary The Connect Management Instructor Library is your repository for ad­
ditional resources to improve student engagement in and out of class. You can select and use
any asset that enhances your lecture. The Connect Management Instructor Library includes:
• Instructor Manual
• PowerPoint files
• Test Bank
• Management Asset Gallery
• eBook

Student study center The Connect Management Student Study Center is the place for
students to access additional resources. The Student Study Center：
• Offers students quick access to lectures, practice materials, eBooks，and more.
• Provides instant practice material and study questions, easily accessible on the go.
• Gives students access to the Personalized Learning Plan described below.

Lecture capture via Tegrity Campus Increase the attention paid to lecture discussion by
decreasing the attention paid to note taking. For an additional charge, Lecture Capture offers
new ways for students to focus on the in-class discussion, knowing they can revisit important
topics later. See page xviii for further information.

McGraw-Hill Connect Plus Management McGraw-Hill reinvents the textbook learning

experience for the modern student with Connect Plus Management A seamless integration of
an eBook and Connect Management, Connect Plus Management provides all of the Connect
Management features plus the following:

• An integrated eBook, allowing for anytime, anywhere access to the textbook.

• Dynamic links between the problems or questions you assign to your students and the loca­
tion in the eBook where that problem or question is covered.
• A powerful search function to pinpoint and connect key concepts in a snap.
In short, Connect Management offers you and your students powerful tools and features that
optimize your time and energies, enabling you to focus on course content, teaching, and stu­
dent learning. Connect Management also offers a wealth of content resources for both instruc­
tors and students. This state-of-the-art, thoroughly tested system supports you in preparing
students for the world that awaits.
For more information about Connect, go to www.mcgrawhillconnect.com, or contact
your local McGraw-Hill sales representative.

Tegrity Campus: Lectures 24/7

■ ©egrity Tegrity Campus is a service that makes class time avail­
able 24/7 by automatically capturing every lecture in
a searchable format for students to review when they
study and complete assignments. With a simple one-click start-and-stop process, you capture
all computer screens and corresponding audio. Students can replay any part of any class with
easy-to-use browser-based viewing on a PC or Mac.
Educators know that the more students can see, hear, and experience class resources,
the better they learn. In fact, studies prove it. With Tegrity Campus, students quickly recall key
moments by using Tegrity Gampus， s unique search feature. This search helps students effi­
ciently find what they need, when they need it, across an entire semester of class recordings.
Help turn all your students1study time into learning moments immediately supported by your
lecture.
Lecture Capture enables you to
• Record and distribute your lecture with the click of a button.
• Record and index PowerPoint® presentations and anything shown on your computer so it is
easily searchable, frame by frame.
• Offer access to lectures anytime and anywhere by computer, iPod, or mobile device.
• Increase listening and class participation by easing students5 concerns about note taking.
Lecture Capture will make it more likely you will see students，faces, not the tops of their
heads.
To learn more about Tegrity, watch a 2-minute Flash demo at http://tegritycampus.mhhe.com.

Assurance of Learning Ready

Many educational institutions today are focused on the notion of assurance of learning, an
important element of some accreditation standards. Organizational Behavior is designed spe­
cifically to support your assurance of learning initiatives with a simple, yet powerful solution.
Each test bank question for Organizational Behavior maps to a specific chapter learning
outcome/objective listed in the text. You can use our test bank software, EZ Test and EZ Test
Online, or in Connect Management to easily query for learning outcomes/objectives that di­
rectly relate to the learning objectives for your course. You can then use the reporting features
of EZ Test to aggregate student results in similar fashion, making the collection and presenta­
tion of assurance of learning data simple and easy.

A A C S B Statement
The McGraw-Hill Companies is a proud corporate member of AACSB International. Under­
standing the importance and value of AACSB accreditation, Organizational Behavior, 10e rec­
ognizes the curricula guidelines detailed in the AACSB standards for business accreditation by
connecting selected questions in [the text and/or the test bank] to the six general knowledge
and skill guidelines in the AACS 巳standards.
The statements contained in Organizational Behavior, 10e are provided only as a guide for
the users of this textbook. The AACSB leaves content coverage and assessment within the
purview of individual schools, the mission of the school, and the faculty. While Organizational
Behavior, 10e and the teaching package make no claim of any specific AACSB qualification or
evaluation, we have within Organizational Behavior, 10e labeled selected questions according
to the six general knowledge and skills areas.

McGraw-Hill and Blackboard

McGraw-Hill Higher Education and Blackboard have teamed up. What does this mean for
you?
 1. Your life, simplified. Now you and your students can access McGraw-Hill’s Connect™ and
Create™ right from within your Blackboard course—all with one single sign-on. Say goodbye
to the days of logging in to multiple applications.
2. Deep integration of content and tools. Not only do you get single sign-on with Con­
nect™ and Create™, you also get deep integration of McGraw-Hill content and content
engines right in Blackboard. Whether you’re choosing a book for your course or building
Connect™ assignments, all the tools you need are right where you want them—inside of
Blackboard.
3. Seamless Gradebooks. Are you tired of keeping multiple gradebooks and manually syn­
chronizing grades into Blackboard? We thought so. When a student completes an integrated
Connect™ assignment, the grade for that assignment automatically (and instantly) feeds your
Blackboard grade center.
4. A solution for everyone. Whether your institution is already using Blackboard or you just
want to try Blackboard on your own, we have a solution for you. McGraw-Hill and Black­
board can now offer you easy access to industry leading technology and content, whether
your campus hosts it, or we do. Be sure to ask your local McGraw-Hill representative for
details.

McGraw-Hill Customer Care Contact Information

At McGraw-Hill, we understand that getting the most from new technology can be chal­
lenging. That，s why our services don’t stop after you purchase our products. You can e-mail
our Product Specialists 24 hours a day to get product-training online. Or you can search
our knowledge bank of Frequently Asked Questions on our support website. For Customer
Support, call 800-331 -5094, e-mail hmsupport@mcgraw-hill.com, or visit www.mhhe.
com/support. One of our Technical Support Analysts will be able to assist you in a timely
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McGraw-Hill's Expanded M anagement Asset Gallery!

McGraw-Hill/Irwin Management is excited to now provide a one-stop shop for our wealth of
teaching/learning assets, making it quick and easy for instructors to locate specific materials
to enhance their courses.

xix
 All of the following can be accessed within the Management Asset Gallery:

Manager's Hot Seat

This interactive, video-based application puts students
in the manager's hot seat, builds critical thinking and
decision-making skills, and allows students to apply con­
cepts to real managerial challenges. Students watch as
15 real managers apply their years of experience when
confronting unscripted issues such as bullying in the
workplace, cyber loafing, globalization, intergenerational
work conflicts, workplace violence, and leadership versus
management.

Self-Assessment Gallery
Unique among publisher-provided self-assessments, our 23 self-assessments give students
background information to ensure that they understand the purpose of the assessment. Stu­
dents test their values, beliefs, skills, and interests in a wide variety of areas, allowing them to
personally apply chapter content to their own lives and careers.
Every self-assessment is supported with PowerPoints® and an instructor manual in the
Management Asset Gallery, making it easy for the instructor to create an engaging classroom
discussion surrounding the assessments.

Test Your Knowledge

To help reinforce students’ understanding of key management concepts, Test Your Knowledge
activities give students a review of the conceptual materials followed by application-based
questions to work through. Students can choose practice mode, which gives them detailed
feedback after each question, or test mode, which provides feedback after the entire test has
been completed. Every Test Your Knowledge activity is supported by instructor notes in the
Management Asset Gallery to make it easy for the instructor to create engaging classroom
discussions surrounding that materials that students have completed.

Management History Timeline

This Web application allows instructors to present and students to learn the history of manage­
ment in an engaging and interactive way. Management history is presented along an intuitive
timeline that can be traveled through sequentially or by selected decade. With the click of
a mouse, students learn the important dates, see the people who influenced the field, and
understand the general management theories that have molded and shaped management as
we know it today.

Video Library DVDs

McGraw-Hill/Irwin offers the most comprehensive video support for the Organizational Be­
havior classroom through a course library video DVD. This discipline has a library volume DVD
tailored to integrate and visually reinforce chapter concepts. The library volume DVD contains
more than 40 clips! The rich video material, organized by topic, comes from sources such as
PBS, NBC, BBC, SHRM，and McGraw-Hill. Video cases and video guides are provided for
some clips.

Destination CEO Videos

Video clips featuring CEOs on a variety of topics. Accompanying each clip are multiple-choice
questions and discussion questions to use in the classroom or assign as a quiz.

Online Learning Center (OLC)

www.mhhe.com/kreitner1 Oe Find a variety of online teaching
and learning tools that are designed to reinforce and build on the
text content. Students will have direct access to the learning tools
while instructor materials are password protected.

xx
 eB ook Options
eBooks are an innovative way for students to save money
CourseSmart
LcamSnwi Gioose Smart
and to “go green." McGraw-Hill’s eBooks are typically
40% off the bookstore price. Students have the choice
between an online and a downloadable CourseSmart
eBook.
Through CourseSmart, students have the flexibility to access an exact replica of their text­
book from any computer that has Internet service without plug-ins or special software via the
online version, or to create a library of books on their hard drive via the downloadable version.
Access to the CourseSmart eBooks lasts for one year.
Features CourseSmart eBooks allow students to highlight, take notes, organize notes, and
share the notes with other CourseSmart users. Students can also search for terms across
all eBooks in their purchased CourseSmart library. CourseSmart eBooks can be printed (five
pages at a time).
More info and to purchase Please visit www.coursesmart.com for more information
and to purchase access to our eBooks. CourseSmart allows students to try one chapter of the
eBook, free of charge, before purchase.

Create

m create Craft your teaching resources to match the way you teach!
With McGraw-Hill Create, www.mcgrawhillcreate
.com, you can easily rearrange chapters, combine ma­
terial from other content sources, and quickly upload
content you have written, like your course syllabus or teaching notes. Find the content you
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Brief Contents
Preface viii chapter nin㊀
Im proving Job Performance w ith
Goals, Feedback, Rewards, and Positive
part o n e Reinforcement 236
T h e W o r l d of Or g a n i z a t i o n a l
Behavior 1
part t h 「
ee
chapter one G r o u p a n d Soc ia l P r o c e s s e s 265
Organizational Behavior: The Quest for
People- Centered Organizations chapter ten
and Ethical Conduct 2 Group Dynamics 266

chapter two chapt㊀「gI㊀

vsn
M anaging Diversity: Releasing Every Developing and Leading Effective
Employee’s Potential 32 Teams 298

chapter three chapter twelve

Organizational Culture, Socialization, Individual and Group Decision
and Mentoring 60 M aking 328

chapter four chapter thirteen

International OB: M anaging across 12164842015/08/27 110.52.101.59a n d
Cultures 88 Negotiating 364

part t w o part four

Individual B e h a v i o r in Organizational P r o c e s s e s 393

Organizations 119 chapter fourteen

Comm unicating in the D igital
chapter five
Age 394
Key Individual Differences and
the Road to Success 120 chapter fifteen
Influence, Empowerment, and
Chapter six
Politics 430
Values, Attitudes, Job Satisfaction,
and Counterproductive Work chapter sixt©㊀门
Behaviors 150 Leadership 460
chapter seven ch3pt0「sovont㊀8 门
Social Perception and Organizational Design, Effectiveness,
Attributions 178 and Innovation 494
chapter eight chapter eighteen
Foundations of M otivation 204 M anaging Change and Stress 528

xxii
 Brief Contents

Learning Module A: Self-Management: A P h o t o Credits PC1

Social 匕㊀aming M o d ㊀丨( W ㊀b)
Endnotes EN1
Learning Module B: Performance Appraisal
Glossary/Subject Index IND1
(Web)
N a m e / C o m p a n y Index IND16
Learning Module C: Additional Leadership
Models (Web)

Learning Module D: Research Methods in O B

(Web)
This page intentionally left blank
part one

Behavior
O r g a n i z a t i o n a l B e h a v i o r : T h e Q u e s t for P e o p l e -
C e n t e r e d O r g a n i z a t i o n s a n d Ethical C o n d u c t

M a n a g i n g Diversity: R e l e a s i n g E v e r y E m p l o y e e ' s
Potential

3 O r g a n i z a t i o n a l Culture, Socialization, a n d M e n t o r i n g

International O B : M a n a g i n g a c r o s s C u l t u r e s
 c h a p te r 1

Organizational Behavior: T h e Q u e s t
for P e o p l e - C e n t e r e d O r g a n i z a t i o n s
a n d Ethical G o n d u c t

ng Objectives____
W h e n you finish studying the material in this chapter, you should be able to:

LO.1 Define the term organizational behavior, and contrast McGregor's Theory X and
Theory Y assumptions about employees.

LO.2 Identify the four principles of total quality management (TQM).

LO.3 Define the term e-business, and describe the Net Generation.

LO.4 Contrast h u man and social capital, and explain w h y w e need to build both.

LO.5 Define the term management, and identify at least five of the eleven managerial skills
Wilson’s profile of effective managers.

LO.6 Characterize 21 st-century managers.

LO.7 Describe Carroirs global corporate social responsibility pyramid, and discuss the
problem of moral erosion.

LO.8 Identify four of the seven general ethical principles, and explain h o w to improve an
organization's ethical climate.

LO.9 Describe the sources of organizational behavior research evidence.

Why Is Zappos.com So Good at Zapping the Competition?
There's a good chance you have never heard of Tony
Hsieh (pronounced HShay” )，C E O of Zappos.com. But if
you are among the legions of satisfied and loyal custom­
ers of the online retailerof footwear and other goods, you
owe him an enthusiastic high five. Initiallyas an investor/
adviser and eventually CEO, Hsieh guided Zappos from
a struggling Internet start-up to a merger with Amazon,
c o m in 2009 for $1.2 billion. Along the way, he helped
Zappos develop a zany corporate culture of close-knit
employees obsessed with great 24/7 customer service.
“Customer Service Isn’ tJust a Department!” trumpets the
firm's website. W h e n the Amazon deal was announced,
Hsieh told an all-hands meeting of employees that each
of them would receive a free Kindle e-book reader and a
retention bonus equal to 4 0 % of their annual salary. Most
importantly, he vowed to maintain the company's cher­
ished culture. The following excerpt from Hsieh's new
book, Delivering Happiness: A Path to Profits, Passion,
and Purpose, highlights how Zappos.com came to put
people— customers and employees— first.
I e-mailed the entire company several times and got a
lot of suggestions and feedback on which core values
were the most important to our employees.
I was surprised the process took so long, but we
wanted to make sure not to rush through the process
because whatever core values we eventually came
up with, we wanted to be ones that we could truly
em brace.. . .
We eventually came up with our final list of ten core
values [from an initial list of 37], which we still use today:
1. Deliver WOW Through Service
2. Embrace and Drive Change
3. Create Fun and a Little Weirdness
4. Be Adventurous, Creative, and Open-Minded
5. Pursue Growth and Learning
6. Build Open and Honest Relationships with Com­
munication
7. Build a Positive Team and Family Spirit
8. Do More with Less
9. Be Passionate and Determined
10. Be Humble.. . .
Be Humble is probably the core value that ends up
affecting our hiring decisions the most. There are a lot
of experienced, smart and talented people we interview
that we know can make an immediate impact on our top
or bottom line. But a lot of them are also really egotisti­
cal, so we end up not hiring them.
Our philosophy at Zappos is that we’re willing to
make short-term sacrifices (including lost revenue or
profits) if we believe that the long-term benefits are worth
it. Protecting the company culture and sticking to core
values is a long-term benefit.1
4 Part One The World of Organizational Behavior

Tony Hsieh does more than just talk about the im­
portance of his company’s people; he trusts, em­
powers, and listens to them. No surprise then that
Zappos.com ranked number 6 on Fortune’s 2011 “100
Best Companies to Work For” list.2 Hsieh helped
create what Stanford University’s Jeffrey PfefFer
calls a “people-centered， ，organization. Research evi­
dence from companies in both the United States and
Germany shows the following seven people-centered
practices to be strongly associated with much higher
profits and significantly lower employee turnover:

1. Job security (to eliminate fear of layoffs).

2. Careful hiring (emphasizing a good fit with the
Zappos's C E O Tony Hsieh likes to mix hard work and fun at company culture).
the online retailer.
3. Power to the people (via decentralization and
self-managed teams).
4. Generous pay for performance.
5. Lots of training.
6. Less emphasis on status (to build a “we” feeling).
7. Trust building (thrc12164842015/08/2711052101591information).3
Importantly, these factors are a package deal, meaning they need to be in­
stalled in a coordinated and systematic m a n n e rn o t in bits and pieces.
According to PfefFer, only 12% of today， s organizations have the systematic
approaches and persistence to qualify as true people-centered organizations, thus
giving them a competitive advantage.4To us，an 88% shortfall in the quest for
people-centered organizations represents a tragic waste of human and economic
potential. PfefFer recently couched his call for greater people-centeredness in the
“green management” term sustainability: “Just as there is concern for protecting
natural resources, there could be a similar level of concern for protecting human re­
sources.555There are profound ethical implications as well, especially during the re­
cent deep recession with millions of layoffs. At people-centered organizations (see
Real World/Real People for an inspiring example), layoffs are a very last resort, not
a knee-jerk first response to bad news. Both practical experience and research tell us
that layoffs hurt everyone, including the “survivors” who keep their jobs. A recent
study of 318 companies led to this conclusion: “Three-fourths of 4,172 workers
who have kept their jobs say their productivity has dropped since their organiza­
tions let people go.， ，
6Of course, layoffs are sometimes unavoidable. But imagina­
tive people-centered organizations can make layoffs a last resort with tactics such
as across-the-board pay cuts and/or reduced hours and voluntary unpaid leaves of
absence. Additionally, consider these unique people-centered tactics:

Example. Vermont’s Rhino Foods, which makes the cookie dough for Ben & Jerry’s
ice cream, recently sent 15 factory workers to nearby lip balm manufacturer Autumn
Harp for a week to help it handle a holiday rush. The employees were paid by Rhino,
which then invoiced its neighbor for the hours worked. President Ted Castle is looking
to adopt a similar approach with salaried managers, too. “It’sa lot easier to just do the
layoff，，
， s not easier for the business/，
says Castle. “But in the long term, it，
Matt Cooper, vice-president of Larkspur (Calif.) recruiting firm Accolo, asked
employees to take five days of unpaid leave this quarter but won’t dock paychecks
until March. If big deals come through, he’ll lift the pay cut.7

Each of us needs to accept the challenge to do a betterjob of creating and main­

taining people-centered organizations, whatever our role(s) in society^employer/
 Chapter One Organizational Behavior 5

1 real WORLD // real PEOPLE: ethics

L ola G onzalez L a id Herself O ff First!
Like countless small-business owners, Lola Gonzalez ago­
nizingly resolved to trim her firm's nine-person staff when
the economic recovery began to sputter … [inearly 2010].
Unlike other entrepreneurs, she picked an unlikely
employee to lay off: herself.
The owner of Accurate Background Check in Ocala,
Fla., says she couldn't bear to fire employees who have
worked there for years. So she stopped paying herself
a six-figure salary and got a job for less than half the pay
as a social worker.
"How could you letsomebody go that you trusted and
that trusted you?" says Gonzalez, 51, who's still a social
worker. __ _
Employees initiallyfroze in fear [during her announce­
ment], then erupted in laughter. Until they realized she
was
' serious....
Besides putting in a 40-hour week,... Gonzalez gets
twice-weekly phone updates on goings-on at her busi­
ness and still does certain background checks herself
without
' getting paid.
,
，
W h a t are th e broader long-term benefits o f this
peop le-cen tered practice?
SOURCE: Excerpted from P Davidson, “How a Boss Saved Jobs:
She Laid Herself Off," USA Today, November 26，2010, p 1B.

entrepreneur, employee, manager, stockholder, student, teacher, voter, elected

official，social/political activist. Toward that end, the mission of this book is to
help increase the number o f people-centered and ethically managed organizations
around the world to improve the general quality of life.8
The purpose of this first chapter is to define organizational behavior (OB);
examine its contemporary relevance; explore its historical, managerial, and ethical
contexts; and introduce a topical road map for the balance of this book.

Welcome to the World of OB

Organizational behavior deals with how people act and react in organizations of
TO THE POINT
all kinds. Think o f the many organizations that touch your life on a regular basis; Why is it important to
organizations that employ, educate, connect, inform, feed, heal， protect, and en­ study organizational
behavior, regardless of
tertain you. Cradle to grave, we interface with organizations at every turn. Ac­
one，s organizational level
cording to Chester I Barnard’s classic definition, an organization is “a system of
or specialty?
consciously coordinated activities or forces o f two or more persons.， ，
9 Organiza­
tions are a social invention helping us to achieve things collectively that we could
not achieve alone. For better or for worse, they extend our reach. Consider the
inspiring example of the W orld Health Organization (W HO):

Example. In 1967，10 to 15 m illion people around the globe were struck annually by
smallpox. That year, the World Health Organization set up its smallpox-eradication
unit. In 13 years it was able to declare the world free of the disease. In 1988，350,000
people were afflicted by polio when the W H O set up a similar eradication unit.
Since then it has spent $3 billion and received the help of 20 m illion volunteers from
around the world. The result: in 2003 there were only 784 reported cases of polio.10

O n the other hand, organizations such as al-Qaeda kill and terrorize, and oth­
ers such as failed banks and businesses squander our resources. Organizations are

organization System of consciously

coordinated activities of two or more
people.
 Part One The World of Organizational Behavior

the chessboard on which the game of life is played. To know more about organi­
zational behavior^life within org anizatio n sis to know more about the nature,
possibilities，and rules of that game.

l o .1 Organizational Behavior: An Interdisciplinary Field

Organizational behavior, commonly referred to as OB, is an interdisciplinary field
dedicated to better understanding and managing people at work. By definition,
organizational behavior is both research and application oriented. Three basic
levels of analysis in OB are individual, group, and organizational. OB draws
upon a diverse array of disciplines，including psychology, management, sociology,
organization theory, social psychology, statistics，anthropology, general systems
theory, economics, information technology, political science, vocational counsel­
ing, human stress management, psychometrics, ergonomics, decision theory, and
ethics.11This rich heritage has spawned many competing perspectives and theories
about human work behavior. By 2003，one researcher had identified 73 distinct
theories about behavior within the field of OB.12

Some FAQs about Studying OB

Through the years we (and our colleagues) have fielded some frequently asked
questions (FAQs) from our students about our field. Here are the most common
ones, along with our answers.

W hy S tu d y OB? If you thoughtfully study this book, you will learn more
about yourself, how to interact effectively with others, and how to thrive (not just
survive) in organizations. Lots of insights about your own personality, emotions,
values, job satisfaction, perceptions, needs，and goals are available in Part 2. Rela­
tive to your interpersonal effectiveness，you will learn about being a team player,
building trust，managing conflict, negotiating, communicating, and influencing
and leading others. We conclude virtually every major topic with practical how-
to-do-it instructions. The idea is to build your skills in areas such as self-man­
agement, making ethical decisions, avoiding groupthink, listening, coping with
organizational politics，handling change, and managing stress. Respected OB
scholar Edward E Lawler III created the “virtuous career spiral” in Figure 1-1
to illustrate how OB-related skills point you toward career success. “It shows that
increased skills and performance can lead to better jobs and higher rewards.”13

If I ，
m an Accounting (or Other Technical) Major, Why Should I
Study OB? Many students in technical fields such as accounting, finance,
computer science, and engineering consider OB to be a “soft” discipline with little
or no relevance. You may indeed start out in a narrow specialty, but eventually your
hard-won success will catch up with you and you will be tapped for some sort of su­
pervisory or leadership position. Your so-called soft people skills will make or break
your career at that point. Also，in today’s team-oriented and globalized workplace,
your teamwork, cross-cultural, communication, conflict handling，and negotiation
skills and your powers of persuasion will be needed early and often. Jack Welch, the
legendary CEO of General Electric, and Suzy Welch, the former editor of Harvard
Business Review, offered this answer to a business school professor’s question about
how best to prepare students for today’s global business environment:

Example. We?d make the case that the nitty-gritty of managing people should rank
higher in the educational hierarchy. In the past two years we’ve visited 35 B-schools
around the world and have been repeatedly surprised by how little classroom at­
tention is paid to hiring, motivating, team-building, and firing. Instead, B-schools
seem far more invested in teaching brainiac concepts^disruptive technologies,
 Chapter One Organizational Behavior

fig u re 1 -1 OB-Related Skills Are the Ticket to R ide the Virtuous fll 59
Career Spiral

SOURCE: Edward E Lawler III, Treat People Right! How Organizations and Individuals Can Propel Each Other
into a Virtual Spiral of Success, Jossey-Bass, 2003, p 21. Reprinted with permission of John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

complexity modeling, and the like. Those may be useful, particularly if you join a
consulting firm, but real managers need to know how to get the most out of people.
We hope you have the clout to make sure people management is front and
center at your university. I f you do ，
you’ll launch your students5careers with a real
head start.14

Can I Get a Job in OB? Organizational behavior is an academic designation.

W ith the exception of teaching/research positions, OB is not an everyday job cat­
egory such as accounting, marketing, information technology, or finance. Students
of OB typically do not get jobs in organizational behavior, per se. This reality in no
way demeans OB or lessens its importance in effective organizational management.
OB is a horizontal discipline cutting across virtually every job category, business
function, and professional specialty. Anyone who plans to make a living in a large
or small, public or private, organization needs to study organizational behavior.

A Historical Perspective of OB
A historical perspective of the study of people at work helps in studying organi­
zational behavior. According to a management history expert, this is im portant
TO THE POINT
because: What lessons from
McGregor and Deming
can help managers
build human and social
Exam ple. Historical perspective is the study of a subject in light o f its earliest phases
capital?
and subsequent evolution. Historical perspective differs from history in that the ob­
ject of historical perspective is to sharpen one’s vision o f the present, not the past.15

organizational behavior Interdis- understanding and managing

ciplinary field dedicated to better people at work.
8 Part One The World of Organizational Behavior

In other words, we can better understand where the field of OB is today and
where it appears to be headed by appreciating where it has been and how it is being
redirected.16Let us examine four significant landmarks in the understanding and
management of people in the workplace.
1. The human relations movement.
2. The quality movement.
3. The Internet and social media revolution.
4. The age of human and social capital.

The Human Relations M ovem ent

^connect' Go to
www.mcgrawhillconnect.com
for an interactive exercise
to test your knowledge on
the history of organizational
behavior.
A unique combination of factors during the 1930s fostered the human relations
movement. First, following legalization of union—management collective bargain­
ing in the United States in 1935，management began looking for new ways of
handling employees. Second, behavioral scientists conducting on-the-job research
started calling for more attention to the “human” factor. Managers who had lost
the battle to keep unions out of their factories heeded the call for better human
relations and improved working conditions. One such study, conducted at Western
Electric，s Chicago-area Hawthorne plant，was a prime stimulus for the human
relations movement. Ironically，many of the Hawthorne findings have turned out
to be more myth than fact.

The Hawthorne Legacy Interviews conducted decades later with three

subjects of the Hawthorne studies and reanalysis of the original data with
modern statistical techniques do not support initial conclusions about the posi­
tive effect of supportive supervision. Specifically， money, fear of unemploy­
ment during the Great Depression, managerial discipline，and high-quality raw
materials—not supportive supervision—turned out to be responsible for high
output in the relay assembly test room experiments.17Nonetheless，the human
relations movement gathered momentum through the 1950s，as academics and
managers alike made stirring claims about the powerful effect that individual
needs，supportive supervision, and group dynamics apparently had on job
performance.

The W ritings of Mayo and Follett Essential to

These relay assembly test room employees in the
classic Hawthorne Western Electric studies turned in
record performance. Why? No one knows for certain,
and debate continues today. Supportive supervision
was long believed to be the key factor. Whatever the
reason, Hawthorne gave the budding human relations
movement needed research credibility.
the human relations movement were the writings of Elton
Mayo and Mary Parker Follett. Australian-born Mayo,
who headed the Harvard researchers at Hawthorne, ad­
vised managers to attend to employees， emotional needs in
his 1933 classic The Human Problems of an Industrial Civil­
ization. Follett was a true pioneer, not only as a woman
management consultant in the male-dominated industrial
world of the 1920s， but also as a writer who saw employees
as complex combinations of attitudes, beliefs, and needs.
Mary Parker Follett was way ahead of her time in telling
managers to motivate job performance instead of merely
demanding it, a “pull” rather than “push” strategy. She
also built a logical bridge between political democracy and
a cooperative spirit in the workplace.18
M cG regor’s Theory Y In I960, Douglas McGregor
wrote a book entitled The Human Side of Enterprise,
which has become an important philosophical base for the
modem view of people at work.19Drawing on his experi­
ence as a management consultant, McGregor formulated
 Chapter One Organizational Behavior 9

ta b le 1—1 McGregor，
s Theory X and Theory Y

OUTDATED (THEORYX) ASSUMPTIONS MODERN (THEORY Y) ASSUMPTIONS

ABOUT PEOPLE AT WORK ABOUT PEOPLE AT WORK

1 . Most people dislike work; they avoid 1 . Work is a natural activity, like play
it when they can. or rest.

2. Most people must be coerced and 2. People are capable of self­

threatened with punishment before direction and self-control if they are
they will work. People require close committed to objectives.
direction when they are working.

3. Most people actually prefer to be 3. People generally become committed

directed. They tend to avoid respon­ to organizational objectives if they
sibility and exhibit little ambition. are rewarded for doing so.
They are interested only in security.

4. The typical employee can learn to

accept and seek responsibility.

5. The typical member of the general

population has imagination,
ingenuity, and creativity.

SOURCE: From D McGregor, The Human Side of Enterprise, McGraw-Hill, 1960, Ch 4. Copyright © 2008
The McGraw-Hill Companies. Reprinted with permission.

two sharply contrasting sets of assumptions about hum an nature (see Table 1-1).
His Theory X assumptions were pessimistic and negative and, according to M c­
Gregor^ interpretation, typical of how managers traditionally perceived employ­
ees. To help managers break with this negative tradition, McGregor formulated
his Theory Y, a modern and positive set o f assumptions about people. McGregor
believed managers could accomplish more through others by viewing them as self­
energized, committed, responsible, and creative beings.
Unfortunately, according to ongoing research on employee engagement，
McGregor’s Theory Y is still a distant vision in the American workplace:

Example. The August 2009 G allup Employee Engagement Index reported that
only 33 percent o f workers are engaged in their jobs, 49 percent are not engaged,
and 18 percent are actively disengaged. The G allup Organization defines the
categories as follows:
Engaged employees work with passion and feel a profound connection to their
company. They drive innovation and move the organization forward.
Non-engaged employees have essentially “checked o u t." They sleepwalk
through workdays. They put in time but don’t approach their work with energy or
passion.
Actively disengaged employees aren’t just unhappy at work; they’re busy act­
ing out their unhappiness. Every day, these workers undermine what engaged co­
workers accomplish.

Theory Y McGregor’s modern

and positive assumptions about
employees being responsible and
creative.
10 Part One The World of Organizational Behavior

Gallup researchers, who base the Employee Engagement Index on a survey of

nearly 42,000 randomly selected adults, estimate that disengaged workers cost US
businesses as much as $350 billion a year.20

Employee engagement，and many ways to improve it，are discussed in later

chapters.

New Assumptions about Hum an Nature Unfortunately, unsophisti­

cated behavioral research methods caused the human relationists to embrace some
naive and misleading conclusions.21 For example，human relationists believed in
the axiom, “A satisfied employee is a hardworking employee.” Subsequent re­
search, as discussed later in this book, shows the satisfaction performance link­
age to be more complex than originally thought.
Despite its shortcomings, the human relations movement opened the door to
more progressive thinking about human nature. Rather than continuing to view
employees as passive economic beings, managers began to see them as active social
beings and took steps to create more humane work environments.

The Quality M ovem ent

In 1980， NBC aired a television documentary titled “If Japan Can . . . Why Can’t
We?” It was a wake-up call for North American companies to dramatically im­
prove product quality or ccntinTd o M n g m r iretrifcpj'e to Japanese electronics and
automobile companies. A full-fledged movement ensued during the 1980s and
1990s. Much was written, said, and done about improving the quality of both
goods and services.22
Thanks to the concept of total quality management (TQM) and Six Sigma
programs, the quality of the goods and services we purchase today is significantly
better than in years past. Six Sigma was developed in 1986 at Motorola by engi­
neer Bill Smith to achieve an astounding 99.9997% quality target by eliminating
defects and cutting waste. It was licensed to companies such as General Electric
that became avid users. An estimated 35% of US companies have adopted Six
Sigma.

Example. Six Sigma, broadly speaking, expresses a way of thinking about busi­
ness problems that encourages precision and predictability. The mantra of Six
Sigma “black belts” is D M A IC , for “define，
measure, analyze, improve, control•”
The “sigma” refers to the Greek letter, which in statistics is used to measure how
far something deviates from perfection. The “six” comes from the goal to be no
more than six standard deviations away from that perfect measure.23

The underlying principles of TQM and Six Sigma are more important than
ever given customers’ steadily rising expectations:

Example. Establish a reputation for great value, top quality, or pulling late-night
miracles in time for crucial client meetings, and soon enough, the goalposts move.
“Greatness” lasts only as long as someone fails to imagine something better. Inevi­
tably, the exceptional becomes the expected.
Call it the performance paradox: If you deliver, you only qualify to deliver
more. Great companies and their employees have always endured this treadmill of
expectations. But these days，the brewing forces of technology, productivity，and
transparency have accelerated the cycle to breakneck speed.24
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
is all. I hope you are satisfied. Let us go away again. You ought
really to give us some more dollars for what we have done.’ There
was, however, really next to nothing to see. In the darkness I could
just make out the tabernacle inside the holy of holies. It was a kind of
ark, covered with cheap draperies and surmounted by a crucifix. A
few lanterns lay about. That was all. At any rate, that was all that we
could induce the priest to show us.”[149]
Mr. Hormuzd Rassam has given a sketch of a tabot in his book,
with the following description: “The tabot is a square block of wood
on which the emblem of the cross, with some appropriate passage of
Scripture, is sometimes represented. No church can be consecrated
without it, and in the church from which it has been removed the
Lord’s Supper cannot be celebrated. It is placed upon the altar in the
centre of the holy of holies, and by the ignorant clergy is regarded
with as much veneration as the consecrated elements.”[150]
Annually, on the eve of the festival which commemorates Christ’s
baptism, the tabot is carried out of the church by the chief officiating
priest, “and left all night covered in a tent or hut erected for the
purpose near a stream or pool. At daybreak the following morning it
is taken to the water, and after being sprinkled with a few drops is
again enveloped in the church-cloth, and replaced under the tent
until the time arrives for its formal restoration to the church—a grand
religious ceremony, accompanied with singing of psalms and
dancing.” In this recessional solemnity, which Mr. Rassam saw, “the
priests led the way, bearing various sacred symbols, and chanting
psalms all the while, followed by a train of about three hundred men
and a score of damsels, all dancing, singing, and screeching as they
went.”[151]
The appearance of Abyssinian churches has already been alluded
to, but the following general description, given by Major Harris, may
serve to bring the principles of their construction clearly before the
reader. “There are, perhaps, more churches in Abyssinia than in any
other part of the Christian world; and he who has erected one
believes that he has atoned for every sin. But even the best are very
miserable edifices of wattle plastered with mud, only to be
distinguished from the surrounding hovels by a thin coating of
whitewash, which is dashed over the outside to point with the finger
of pride to the peculiar privilege of the two great powers in the land.
Circular in form, with a door to each quarter of the compass, and a
conical thatch, they have an apex surmounted by a brazen cross,
which is usually adorned with ostrich eggs; and the same depraved
and heathenish taste pervades the decorations of the interior.
Sculpture is strictly forbidden; but the walls are bedaubed with
paintings of the patron saint of the church, the Blessed Virgin, and a
truly incongruous assemblage of cherubim and fallen angels, with
the evil one himself enveloped in hell flames. Timbrels and crutches
depend in picturesque confusion from the bare rafters of the roof,
and no ceiling protects the head from the descent of the lizard and
the spider.”[152] Mr. Hormuzd Rassam has given a sketch of the
ground plan of an Abyssinian church, showing the entrances and
“courts.”[153] According to him “the outer enclosure is for the
congregation generally, male and female, the former occupying the
western portion, and praying with their faces towards the east; the
latter standing opposite to them and facing the west.”[154]
The “crutches” mentioned by Major Harris astonished Mr. Vivian
at a later date. He saw them in a monastery, and “imagined they had
been contributed by lame people, to whom the saint of the place had
restored the use of their legs. As a matter of fact, however, they were
merely the crutches which every priest uses in the ritual of the
dance.”[155] The manner in which these singular adjuncts of the
priestly office are employed has been described by Mr. Vivian. He
attended a service at Trinity Church in Addis Abiba, and has given a
very interesting account of the ceremonies. At a certain stage “all the
priests grasp their long crutches and go through a kind of gymnastic
exercise, which reminds me of the use of spears at a Somali dance.
The crutches are five feet long, and must, I imagine, have originally
taken their origin from spears, adapted for civilian use. The tops are
either of ivory or brass, some of them elaborately carved. . . . One
priest acts as conductor, and the others imitate his movements, all
singing loudly through their noses. . . . The crutches are held in the
middle and darted at the ground, now near, now far, with a forward
movement made by slightly bending the right knee. It is as though
spears were being poised and aimed playfully at objects on the floor.
The crutches are then lifted, crook end up, a foot into the air, they
are poised, they are swung, with ever-increasing vigour. All of a
sudden the whole exercise ceases without any warning
whatever.”[156]
Major Harris wrote, with regard to certain other clerical functions
—“The Father Confessor is bound to the strictest secrecy; and it is
believed that on this point a dread oath is taken before ordination,
when all the mysteries are expounded by the Abouna, and especially
those which have reference to the preparation of bread for the holy
supper. In a small house styled Bethlehem,[157] which rises
immediately behind every church, the mysterious ceremony is
performed. The deacon can alone bake the cake; and the most
vigilant guard is invariably preserved against the approach or
intrusion of females or other improper visitors during the hour of
solemn preparation.”[158]
The first appendix to Vol. III. of Major Harris’s book contains a list
of the sacred writings used by the Abyssinian Church. These
include, inter alia—
The Old Testament.
The four gospels with readings, and all the other books of the New Testament.
Genset. A book used in funeral solemnities, ascribed to Athanasius, and stated to
have been discovered by Helena at the digging out of the Holy Cross.
Retna Haimanot. The orthodox faith.
Henoch. The prophecies of Enoch.
Gadela Tekla Haimanot. Life of Tekla Haimanot. (And the lives of many other
saints.)
Synodos. Canons of the Church, attributed to the Apostles.
Sena Febrak. History of the Creation; containing certain fabulous traditions
concerning the Creation and the Antediluvian world, said to have been
communicated to Moses on Mount Sinai, but not recorded in the Book of
Genesis.
Tamera Mariam. Miracles of the Holy Virgin, wrought during her sojourn in
Abyssinia, where she is said to have tarried three years and six months with the
infant Jesus, before her return to Palestine.
Nagara Mariam. Words of the Holy Virgin.
Ardeet. Words said to have been spoken by Christ before his ascension.
Kedasie. Liturgy of the Abyssinian Church.
Gadela Adam. History of Adam.
Auda Negest. Book for prognostication.
Kufalik. Mysteries revealed to Moses on Mount Sinai, not written in the
Pentateuch.
Serata beita Chrestian. Institutions of the Christian Church.
Degwa. Book of anthems, in which all the pieces of the liturgy that are chanted are
set to music by St. Yareed, a native of Simien, who lived thirteen centuries ago
and is believed to live still.
Lefafa Zedik. Prayers and spells against evil spirits and diseases, a book much
esteemed, and buried along with the corpse.
Zalota Musa. Prayers of Moses against the influence of evil spirits.
Melka Michael. Prayers to St. Michael.
Mazafa Tomar. A letter which Christ is said to have written.
Germama. Prayers to frighten evil spirits.
Fekaric Yasoos. Christ’s prophecy of the consummation of the world.
Haimanot Abao. Doctrines of the Abyssinian Church, comprising extracts from the
Holy Scriptures, from synods, councils, and writings of the Fathers.
Gelota Monakosat. Prayers of the monks.
Felekisus. Book on monastic subjects.
Gadela Yob. Life of Job.
Raia Miriam. Dream of the Holy Virgin.
Gadela Samoetal. Lives of the martyrs.

The second appendix of the same volume contains a summary of

the “Senkesar, or Synaxaria, being a Collectio Vitarum Sanctarum
together with the Calendar of the Ethiopic Christian Church.” The
compiler of the summary wrote, “The following calendar, translated
from the Latin of Ludolf, has been considerably enlarged by a
comparison at Ankóber with a complete copy of the ‘Senkesar.’ The
lives of the Saints, or the detail of miracles written against each day,
are publicly read in the churches at the services beginning at the
cock’s first crowing.”
The first month of the Abyssinian year is September. It is not
surprising that in the long list of saints, patriarchs, prophets, martyrs,
virgins, hermits, kings, “Fathers,” presbyters, emperors, and male
and female ascetics whose deeds are commemorated between New
Year’s Day (September 1, by Ethiopian reckoning) and the festival of
St. Andrew and Moses, Bishop of Ferme, (being the thirtieth and last
day of August according to the same computation), there should
occur many names of worthies who are unknown to most European
readers. For instance—
Abba Anbasa, who rode upon a lion.
Eustathius, who brought a dead child back to life. (This miracle is attributed to
many of the saints.)
Ananias, who baptized St. Paul.
Pantaleon.
Jemrah, a martyr. On the spot where his blood was spilt there grew up a fine vine.
Naakweto-Laab, the last Emperor of Ethiopia, of the family of Zague. He did not
die.
Cosmus, Metropolite. It is said that the image of Mary shed tears when it beheld
his excruciating tortures.
The two hundred and ninety-two brothers and forty-nine sisters of Cosmus.
Abba Marina, who was discovered after death to have been a woman.
Barsufius.
Johannes Cama, whose fingers and nails seemed burning like candles during
prayer.
Abba Libanus, who brought water out of a rock.
Daniel, the woman-hater, who vowed never to look at a woman.
The forty-nine old hermits.
Joseph, who was saved out of a fiery oven.
The 80,107 martyrs with Isidorus.
Atom and Arianus.
Eusebius, who, “being threatened to be burnt, was taken to heaven by Uriel the
archangel, and remained there fourteen years.”[159]

And many others whose sanctity is as little known in the Western

Churches.
If there is anywhere a leisured and adventurous student of
comparative hagiology, he would obtain some interesting results by
tracing the origin and growth of the legends which glorify these
worthies.
A survey of what has been said shows that Consul Plowden was
fully justified when he wrote, “the Christianity professed and taught in
Abyssinia is much materialized.” Nevertheless, the credulity and
superstition which prevail in the country are not in essence grosser
than the unwarranted beliefs which were accepted in Europe when
the Aurea Legenda passed as sound devotional reading, and it
would be as unjustifiable to judge the intellectual capability of the
Habashes by their faith in myths as it would have been to estimate
the ability of our forefathers by a similar standard. Nor is it certain
that any sudden reformation would improve the religious state of the
people. An intemperate zeal for enlightening them might, by
introducing an ideal far above their real sympathies and
comprehension, discredit the old conceptions without effectually
substituting the new. Moreover, the fabulous feats of the saints may
require a cautious and sparing criticism; for to differentiate the
degrees of probability in miracles, among an unscientific but
argumentative race, would, perhaps, be more likely to promote
scepticism as to all thaumaturgy than to lead to the repudiation of
certain miracles and the continued acceptance of others.
It is, of course, the fact that at present “religion” consists of little
more than a mere series of outward observances. Veneration of the
fabric of the church takes the place of devotion within its precincts.
Dufton wrote:—“The prayers are read in Ethiopic” (Geez), “a
language which the people know nothing about, so that little profit
can be derived from the service. Indeed, most persons content
themselves with kissing the floor or the walls of the edifice, and such
is a criterion of a man’s piety; he kisses the church, they say, and so
esteem him a good Christian. Some will utter a prayer. The petition
takes a form similar to the following, which an old woman was heard
to offer up during my visit, though the last clause is probably in most
cases omitted—
“‘O Lord, give me plenty to eat and drink, good raiment, and a
comfortable home, or else kill me outright!’”
Mr. Vivian visited the Church of the Blessed Virgin at Entotto, and
noticed that all the Abyssinians who were with him “hastened to kiss
the floor-beam and side-posts or lintels of the door in the outer wall.”
And at Trinity Church in Addis Abiba “whenever a peasant
approached the church on a mule, he dismounted and kissed a large
black stone which stood some twenty yards away. Other persons of
a more pious turn of mind went right up to the entrance and kissed
not only the lintels, but even the floor-beam of the doorway. This was
also done by everybody who was coming to church, and my servant,
in whom I had never detected any semblance of piety on the road,
was particularly punctilious in this respect.”[160]
But it is not the case that the Habashes avoid all religious duties
that are irksome. Parkyns wrote: “Their fasts are more numerous
perhaps than those of any other Christian people, more than two-
thirds of the year being assigned to abstinence. Nor in their fasting
do they get off as easily as Roman Catholics; for it is not sufficient
that they should abstain from animal food only; an Abyssinian, during
fast-time, neither eats nor drinks anything till late in the afternoon. . .
. It is true the Mohammedans do nearly the same during their month
of Ramadan; but they only change the day into night, feasting during
the night-time on more luxurious food than many of them could allow
themselves during the remainder of the year; while the Abyssinian,
when he does eat, confines himself to dried peas, dressed in a sort
of bad oil, or to an equally unpalatable dish made of a kind of
spinach, called ‘hamly’ or ‘goummen.’ . . . Many of the Abyssinian
fasts are of long duration. The time of day when the people may eat
is determined by the length of a man’s shadow, measured by his
own feet, and varies in different fasts. Thus the fast of Advent is
during the last ten days of the month Hedar (October) and the whole
of Tahsas (November), and during each day till a man’s shadow
measures nine and a half feet. The fast of Lent lasts till sunset during
fifty-five days. . . . Besides these are the Wednesdays and Fridays,
making nearly 260 days of fasting. . . . Some of the priests are very
rigorous in keeping all these fasts, and many even voluntarily add a
number for their own observance. The people, too, in general are
tolerably attentive to this duty; and I have frequently met with men
undergoing extreme labour, yet persevering in what they have been
brought up to consider as one of the most essential parts of their
religion; for, strictly speaking, a man who has been known to neglect
the rules of the Church is looked upon almost as an infidel, and
should he die in such a state of disobedience, his body would be
refused sepulture in the churches. Good Friday and the following day
are passed by the priests and the rigidly devout in an absolute fast of
forty-eight hours.”[161]
 Plowden remarked: “So much do they attach importance to this
(fasting) and other outward forms that a man of Hamazayn[162] will
slay his near relative, and returning home calmly, will be horror-
stricken should his wife have ground flour on a saint’s day, or
prepared his meal before the hours of fasting have expired.”[163]
It must be owned that the Habashes recompense themselves as
far as possible for the severity of their abstinence by gluttony at the
numerous feasts which the Church also ordains.
Major Cornwallis Harris drew attention to a singular custom in the
following words—“Fasts, penances, and excommunication form the
chief props of the clerical power; but the repentant sinner can always
purchase a substitute to undergo the two former, and the ban of the
Church is readily averted by a timely offering.”[164] This seems to
indicate an opinion among the Abyssinians that a sin is expiated not
by the contrition of the evil-doer, but by a formal amount of
punishment undergone somewhere by some one—no matter by
whom.
The Abyssinian Church teaches, and the great majority of the
people accept, the doctrine of transubstantiation. Those who hold
this belief “assert that the actual body and blood of our Saviour are
partaken of by the faithful, but that an angel takes them away from
an unbeliever, and restores the bread and wine, in his hands, in their
natural state, such as they were previous to the benediction. The
wine is merely an infusion of dried raisins.”[165] Stern tells the story
of a miracle which is supposed to have established the fact of
transubstantiation, and adds, “The erudite reject the legend, and, in
their sentiments, approximate to the Lutheran doctrine of
consubstantiation.”[166] The Church also teaches the doctrine of
purgatory and that “prayers for the dead are necessary, and
absolution indispensable. The souls of the departed do not
immediately enter upon a state of happiness, the period being in
exact accordance with the alms and prayers that are expended upon
earth.”[167] Stern declared that “the number of masses requisite for
the repose of the soul has not been defined by the Church, and thus
the misery or bliss of the defunct is at the mercy of niggardly
relatives and exacting priests.”[168] Both writers attribute the
introduction of this opinion to the Jews.
The badge of Ethiopian Christianity, worn by all classes, is the
mateb, a blue neck-thread of silk or wool. This is the distinctive mark
of the Abyssinians’ creed; they hardly believe that one who does not
wear it is in reality a Christian, and, said Dufton, besides disdaining
their Mohammedan and Jewish neighbours, “they often include in
their contempt every form of Christianity even which does not
conform to their own”[169]—in which prejudice they are not so
singular as at a first glance they may appear to be. Commonly a
silver ring or cross is attached to the cord.
The general character of the clergy appears from what has
already been related. Parkyns saw them in remote places and in
their least spiritual aspect. For instance, in describing the feast on St.
Michael’s day at Addy Harisho, he wrote: “An old priest came up to
me and offered, on the part of himself and his brethren, to perform, if
I pleased, the religious dance and song used by them on such
occasions. I never shall forget their ludicrous efforts to appear
graceful, at the same time staggering every step; while the
expression of devotion they affected to assume was reduced to a
languid smile and thickening eyelids, expressive of nothing but
liquor. A hiccup or two occasionally interfered with the solemn words
they were chanting; and the stately movements they had begun with
changed gradually, and by degrees the dance became a reel, or
rather reeling movement, the words only which accompanied it
remaining solemn. At last an old priest, suddenly forgetting the
original chant, changed its words to those of a jovial drinking ditty:
‘Don’t you stop the liquor, and I will dance for ever!’ Instead of the
marks of disapprobation from his fellow-priests, they only burst into a
loud laugh, and, declaring the entertainment to be changed for the
better, all with one consent followed his example and his tune.”[170]
 Nevertheless, Parkyns wrote of the priests with tolerance and
good humour. And it is worthy of note that two other British writers
who knew the country well have had a good word to say for the
clergy. Plowden, after mentioning some of their faults, observed: “It
is just to say that they have preserved the Christian faith, impure
indeed, but still alive, in the midst of foreign invasion, domestic
degradation, and the extinction of Government, and that it is under
their protection that agriculture flourishes, and villages are built
where deserts would else be seen.”[171] Mr. Augustus Wylde, among
several remarks in a similar sense, said: “I have found the clergy, if
left alone, peaceable, simple-minded men, very hospitable and
always willing to do me a good turn, and ready to help me and pass
me on to their neighbouring friends, and I expect other travellers
would find them the same as long as they treated them
properly.”[172]
An interesting instance of the survival of a Jewish institution
among the Christians of Abyssinia is that of Cities of Refuge.
Plowden wrote, “All the larger towns are entirely under their (the
priests’) control, and being cities of refuge, sacred even from the
Ras, are filled with dissolute and dangerous characters.”[173]
Parkyns mentioned Axum as a place of this kind, and added, “at
Adoua the whole of that part called after the church, in fact the
parish, is sanctuary (‘guddam’), and no person having taken refuge
there can be arrested, although he walk about the public streets in
broad daylight, so long as he does not pass the parish
boundaries.”[174] Stern alluded to the subject, and had formed the
impression that churches in general were sanctuaries. “In most
cases the murderer may elude the violent rage of his pursuers by
taking refuge in a church, where the priests will negotiate the price of
his release.”[175] He mentioned also certain rivers—the Taccazze
and the Abai—forming the limits of provinces, which the “avenger of
blood” may not pass.[176]
The Jewish Sabbath is still held in veneration by the Abyssinian
Christians. Parkyns observed that a feast called “adam Souaur,” or
“left Saturday,” was observed, “as that day was formerly the Jewish
Sabbath, but given up by the Christians for the Sunday at the time of
the resurrection of our Saviour. The priests collect a quantity of
rushes, and bless them in the church; and then a priest and a
deacon take them out into the parish, the deacon carrying the
bundle, and the priest distributing the rushes to all passers-by,
binding them on the head of the receiver. They also visit the houses
with them, and generally receive a handsome present.”[177] It would
be interesting to discover the origin of this custom. Major Harris,
writing in 1843, said, “The Jewish Sabbath is strictly observed
throughout the kingdom. The ox and ass are at rest. Agricultural
pursuits are suspended. Household avocations must be laid aside,
and the spirit of idleness reigns throughout the day.”[178] The same
writer has given a brief history of the observance.[179]
It is well known that at one time Abyssinia was, so far as the
Emperor’s power extended at that period, converted to Roman
Catholicism by the instrumentality of Portuguese missionaries. The
connection with Portugal commenced in 1499, when Pedro Covilham
penetrated by way of the Mediterranean and the Red Sea, to Shoa,
where the Emperor then held his court. He was well received. An
ancient Ethiopian law decreed that no foreigner who reached
Abyssinia should be allowed to leave the country, but Covilham was
permitted to send home an account of his experiences. At a later
date a further communication from the traveller induced the
Portuguese Government to despatch an embassy, which, after many
privations and adventures, arrived in Shoa in October, 1520. It
brought no presents, and was not cordially welcomed. However, the
Emperor desired to send an answer to the King of Portugal, and
therefore—in defiance of the ancient usage—allowed the
ambassador to return to Lisbon, taking with him an Ethiopian envoy.
But certain of the Portuguese were detained in Abyssinia, among
whom was a priest named John Bermudez.
Some years later this man was appointed Abouna, or Patriarch,
on the death of the incumbent of that office. He made his way to
Rome, where Pope Paul III. confirmed his title, and he thence
proceeded, in accordance with the Emperor’s desire, to Portugal,
and solicited the aid of European troops to assist the Abyssinians in
repelling the Mohammedan invasion which then threatened the
country.
The Portuguese Government despatched an expedition of some
four hundred men under Don Christopher de Gama. These troops
disembarked at Massowah in 1542. In an engagement with the
Mohammedan forces on August 30 of that year the Abyssinian allies
took to flight, and the Portuguese were surrounded. They cut their
way through the enemy and effected their retreat, but Don
Christopher, who had been wounded, was captured by the enemy
and murdered by the Mohammedan commander. His skull was sent
to Constantinople as a trophy. The surviving Portuguese besought of
the Emperor an opportunity to avenge their leader, and they shortly
afterwards took part in an action in which the Mohammedan forces
were routed with great slaughter.
These circumstances added to the influence of Bermudez, but he
insisted rigorously on the complete acceptance of Roman doctrine
and ritual by the Abyssinians, and thus incurred the resentment of
the Emperor. As a consequence he lost the advantages which he
and his compatriots had gained, and finally abandoned his task and
quitted the country, embarking at Massowah, where he had landed.
A subsequent mission under the leadership of Oviedo, Bishop of
Hieropolis, which reached Massowah in 1558, failed equally, after
many adventures—including an Abyssinian Council at which the
Emperor and the bishop publicly and heatedly disputed about points
of doctrine—and in 1560 Oviedo received orders from Rome to
withdraw from Ethiopia and proceed to Japan.
Peter Paez was the next missionary who attempted to bring
Abyssinia into communion with the Catholic Church. After suffering
shipwreck in the Red Sea and enduring a seven years’ captivity in
the hands of the Turks he landed at Massowah in 1600. Paez was a
man of prudence and ability. He prepared himself for his task by
learning the Geez language and opening a school at Maiguagua, in
which he was able to study the character of the Abyssinian people.
He acquired a reputation as a teacher and disputant, and in 1604
was summoned to the court, where the reigning Emperor, Za
Dengel, received him as a person of distinction. He soon acquired
influence over this monarch, who sanctioned the use of the Roman
ritual and shortly became a convert to Catholicism. A rebellion—one
of the ordinary incidents of Abyssinian politics—was organized
against him, and he was slain. A period of civil war ensued, during
which his successor shared the same fate.
The crown then passed to the Emperor Segued (called also
Socinios and Susneus).[180] Paez aroused his interest by his skill in
architecture and his other talents, was received into favour, and for
the second time induced the ruler of the country to recognize the
authority of the Catholic Church. Letters announcing the event,
signed by the Emperor himself, were sent to the Pope and the King
of Portugal. Paez died in 1623, shortly after receiving Segued’s
formal abjuration of heresy and administering to him the sacrament
of penance.
Upon receipt of the Emperor’s letter, the Pope, in 1624,
despatched to Ethiopia a mission headed by Alphonso Mendez, a
Jesuit and doctor of divinity. This envoy and his followers reached
Abyssinia in 1625. On February 11, 1626, before the court and the
magnates of the country, the Emperor avowed his submission to the
head of the Catholic Church, and took the oath of obedience to the
Holy See. A proclamation was then made that “all persons intended
for priests should embrace the Catholic religion under pain of death,
and that all should follow the forms of the Church of Rome in the
celebration of Easter and Lent under the same penalty.”
The change of creed was not popular in the country. It was
opposed by force, and became the occasion of a renewal of civil war.
The Emperor found that he had alienated his subjects, and, in spite
of the protests and resistance of Mendez, he issued, in 1632, an
edict by which he restored the ancient religion to its former authority,
and abdicated in favour of his son. Segued died a few months
afterwards, still professing the Catholic faith. His successor banished
Mendez and his retinue, whereupon they sought protection with the
Prince of Bar, who had been at enmity with the Abyssinian king; but
this chieftain delivered them to the Turks. Father Jerome Lobo, who
wrote a history of the mission, and some of his companions, reached
Europe after many adventures; others were ransomed from the
Pasha of Souakim and proceeded to India, and the few Jesuits who
had remained in Abyssinia were put to death.
Of nine Capuchins who endeavoured to enter the country soon
after these events, seven were killed, the three who arrived last
being murdered by the Pasha of Souakim, at the Emperor of
Abyssinia’s request, as soon as they reached the coast.
No subsequent attempt of similar importance was made to
convert the Abyssinian nation to Catholicism, and the story of the
struggle between the Roman and the Alexandrian forms of belief
may be said to have ended with the banishment of Mendez.
There have been theological contentions in the Abyssinian
Church as in others, and it has not escaped schism. The fiercest
dispute arose about the number of the births of Christ, and the sword
has been used—as elsewhere—to lend force to arguments. Major
Harris wrote: “At the expense of a bloody civil war, Gondar, with
Godjam, Damot, and all the south-western provinces of Amhára, has
long maintained the three births of Christ—Christ proceeding from
the Father from all eternity, styled ‘the eternal birth;’ His incarnation,
as being born of the holy Virgin, termed His ‘second or temporal
birth;’ and His reception of the Holy Ghost, denominated His ‘third
birth.’ The Tigre ecclesiastics, on the other hand, whose side is
invariably espoused by the Primate of Ethiopia, deny the third birth,
upon the ground that the reception of the Holy Ghost cannot be so
styled.”[181] Bishop Samuel Gobat, whose book was published in
1834, gave a fuller account of the controversy, which Parkyns
quoted.[182] In Stern’s time the Abouna (primate) was supported by
King Theodore in his opposition to the doctrine of the three births,
and “the royal herald made proclamation that in future all who
adhered to the obnoxious dogma of the threefold birth would be
taught obedience by the giraffe (scourging). The Shoa clergy
denounced this decision as arbitrary and tyrannical, as indeed it was;
but an application of the promised whip wrought a wonderful change
among that insubordinate body.”[183] The same author on one
occasion saw about a dozen priests in chains, who were brought
before the Abouna to be admonished because “they had
pertinaciously clung to the abolished dogma of the three births of
Christ.”[184] The penalty which they incurred “consisted of several
months’ successive fasts, divers fines, and the promise of the
giraffe.”
For a detailed account of Abyssinian Christianity and
ecclesiastical history, reference should be made to the books already
mentioned in this volume—Bruce, Gobat, Harris, Lobo, Legrand,
Stern, Dufton, Plowden, and Parkyns especially—and to the works of
F. Alvarez[185] and Job Ludolphus.[186] A digest of the writings of the
early travellers and missionaries in Abyssinia was published by F.
Balthazar Tellez, and translated into English by John Stevens (1710).
Mention has already been made of the Falashas (Jews) of
Abyssinia. These people, said Stern, “claiming a lineal descent from
Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, pride themselves on the fame of their
progenitors and the purity of the blood that circulates in their own
veins. Intermarriages with those of another tribe or creed are strictly
interdicted,[187] nay, even the visit to an unbeliever’s house is a sin,
and subjects the transgressor to the penance of a thorough lustration
and a complete change of dress before he can return to his own
home. Their stern uncompromising sectarian spirit has been highly
beneficial in excluding from their community that licentious profligacy
in which all the other inhabitants of Ethiopia riot; and it is generally
admitted that Falasha men and women seldom, if ever, stray from
the path of virtue, or transgress the solemn law of the
decalogue.”[188]
Various accounts, of which two have already been mentioned, are
given of the origin of the Jewish colony in Abyssinia. It is commonly
believed among the people that a large retinue returned with
Maqueda, Queen of Sheba, from her visit to King Solomon. Harris
remarked, “The tradition of Queen Maqueda has been ascribed to
the invention of those fugitive Jews, who, after the destruction of
Jerusalem by the Emperor Titus, emigrated into the northern States
by way of the Red Sea, who disseminated it with the design of
obtaining the desired permission to settle in the country, and whose
descendants are the Falashas still extant among the mountains of
Simien and Lasta.”[189] According to Stern, “the most probable
conjecture is that at a very early period—perhaps when Solomon’s
fleet navigated the Red Sea—some adventurous Jews, impelled by
love of gain, settled among the pleasant hills of Arabia Felix; whilst
others of a more daring and enterprising spirit were induced to try
their fortune in the more remote mountain scenes of Ethiopia. . . .
Subsequent troubles in Palestine and the final overthrow of the
Jewish monarchy by Nebuchadnezzar increased the number of the
emigrants, and in the lapse of a few centuries the Jews formed a
powerful state in Arabia, and a formidable and turbulent people in
the Alpine regions between Tigre and Amhara in Ethiopia.”[190] Mr.
Vivian alluded to “a colony of aboriginal Jews up in the mountains of
Tigre. They live in pastoral fashion, like the old Hebrew patriarchs,
upon the produce of the flocks and herds. They have been there for
centuries, perhaps even for thousands of years, and the Abyssinians
confess that they have always failed to dislodge them from their
inaccessible fastnesses.”[191] Falashas are also found in the
provinces bordering on Lake Tsana, including Godjam, and it was in
this district that Stern visited them. It seems probable that the Jews
who have retained their religion are the descendants of those who
refused to conform to the doctrines of the Coptic Church when they
were generally adopted in the country. Bruce mentions that “about
one hundred and eighty years after the establishment of Christianity,
a religious war is said to have taken place between the converted
and unconverted Abyssinians (the Christians and the Jews),”[192]
and if one may judge by the steady and successful opposition which
Hebrews in other countries have offered to the most strenuous
methods of conversion, it appears likely that a portion of those in
Abyssinia adhered to their ancient creed.
There is a tradition that in the tenth century the Jews obtained
ascendency in Ethiopia, and preserved their supremacy for about
three centuries. “In the year 960 the Jews, supported by their king
and by his daughter Judith, a woman of great beauty, resolved to
attempt the subversion of the Christian religion and the destruction of
the race of Solomon (Queen Maqueda’s descendants having been
converted to the Alexandrian doctrines). They surprised the
mountain of Damo, the residence of the Christian princes, the whole
of whom, about four hundred, were massacred, excepting one infant,
who escaped into the powerful and loyal province of Shoa. A solitary
representative of the blood of Solomon and the Queen of Sheba was
thus preserved. Judith took possession of the throne, and not only
enjoyed it herself for forty years, but transmitted it to five of her
posterity. On the death of the last of these the crown descended to
one of his relations, a Christian, and is said to have remained in his
family (who, though Christians, were not of the line of Solomon) for
five generations. Finally, Tekla Haimanot, the famous saint,
persuaded the reigning king to restore the crown to the house of
Solomon, whose descendants had survived in Shoa.”[193]
Differing accounts of the former political status of the Hebrews in
the land have been given by various writers; Stern said that in their
“mountain fastnesses of Simien and Bellesa they maintained, under
their own kings and queens, called Gideon and Judith, a chequered
and independent existence till the beginning of the seventeenth
century.”[194] Harris, following Bruce more closely, wrote,
“Christianity became the national religion of Abyssinia in the
beginning of the fourth century. The Falashas, descendants of the
Jews who were believed to have accompanied Menelek from
Jerusalem, had meanwhile waxed extremely powerful, and refusing
to abandon the faith of their forefathers, they now declared
independence. Electing a sovereign of their own creed, they took
possession of the almost impregnable mountain fastnesses of
Simien, where their numbers were augmented by continual
accessions from the Jews who were expelled from Palestine and
from Arabia. Under the constant titles of Gideon and Judith, a
succession of kings and queens held a limited sway until, in the
middle of the tenth century,” the Princess Esther brought about the
revolution which Bruce ascribed to Judith—one writer probably using
the name and the other the title of the usurper in question. Whatever
the circumstances may really have been, there seems reason to
believe that the Jews were at one time sufficiently influential to
impose a dynasty of their choice upon the nation.
 Stern has given a full and very interesting account of the Falashas
whom he saw. According to this they dwell as a rule, though not
invariably, apart from the remainder of the population, and “their
settlements are strikingly distinguished from the Christian villages by
the red earthen pot on the apex of their mesquid, or place of
worship, which towers from the centre of the thatched huts by which
it is environed. . . . Husbandry and a few simple trades—such as
smiths, potters, and weavers—constitute the sole occupations in
which they engage; commerce they unanimously repudiate as
incompatible with their Mosaic Creed, and it is quite a
disappointment not to find a single merchant among a quarter of a
million of people, the lineal descendants of those who are supposed
to have acquired a taste for traffic and riches on the very eve of their
emancipation from Egyptian servitude.”
Though they had very few copies of the Scriptures in Stern’s time
they were well acquainted with the Old Testament, especially the
Pentateuch and the Psalms. “Their sacrifices,” he wrote, “are most
capriciously offered, and with the exception of the Paschal Lamb,
neither the offering on the Sabbath nor on the day of atonement is in
accordance with the original command. . . . Every Falasha
settlement has a hut at its outskirts, and there the unclean and
impure must take refuge during the prescribed number of days. This
ritual scrupulosity involves many social hardships and inflicts on
numbers many a keen pang. Particularly in the hour of dissolution,
when the sweet expressions of friendship and love are so soothing
to the agonized soul and anguished frame, the dying Falasha has no
affectionate hand clasped in his, and no words of comfort from
beloved objects whispered in his ears. The inflexible law forbids the
last offices to the weeping relative, and the helpless sufferer is in
death’s agonizing convulsions dragged from the weary couch into
the open air, where the polluted and unclean remove him from the
bare ground to the tainted and lonely hut.”
On the Sabbath “the service, which consists in chanting psalms
and hymns relieved by allegorical stories and a few verses or a
chapter of the book of Leviticus, lasts a considerable time, and in
some places the plaintive notes of the worshippers may even be
heard across the quiet valley and around the lonely hill throughout
the night. . . . Broad phylacteries and the garments of fringes are
utterly unknown among them, nor do they wash the cup or practise
any of the decrees of the rabbins. . . . About the advent of the
Messiah they have no intelligent or definite idea. ‘We believe that
Jerusalem will again be rebuilt,’ is the answer on the lip of every
Falasha, when questioned as to the future destiny of his nation. This
event they regard as the consummation of their brightest hopes—the
realization of their fondest mundane visions. . . .”
Asceticism, borrowed from the Christian hermits, has become a
practice among the Falasha priests, who “after their initiation
frequently pass months and years in swampy marshes, stern wilds
and poisonous jungles, where roots or dried peas, which latter they
carry with them, are their only means of subsistence. Numbers
succumb to the noxious influence of the atmosphere, others perish
of famine, whilst not a few become the prey of the lion, hyena, and
other voracious beasts which inhabit those unsightly tracts.” There
are also Falasha monks, and “the dwellings and convents of these
ascetics are carefully isolated from the abodes of the impure and
unholy people.”
There were, in Stern’s day, three Falasha high-priests in
Abyssinia, one in the province of Quara, the other in Armatgioho,
and the third, Aboo Maharee, in Dembea. The missionary had some
indecisive discussion with the last-named, a man about sixty years of
age, “of a noble and commanding figure, swathed in a white shama,
and holding a long bamboo staff, which in the distance looked like
the crosier of a bishop.” He had a “high and expressive forehead,
melancholy restless eyes, and a countenance once no doubt mild
and pleasing, but to which self-imposed penances and a repulsive
practice had imparted an expression most strange and unearthly.”
“The common people have all an erect, upright carriage;” the
women are intelligent and sympathiques, and the younger of them
attractive. To judge by Stern’s description,[195] the Falashas are
generally a worthy, simple and devout race, bigoted but “exemplary
in their morals, and cleanly in their habits”—in which latter respect
they form a striking contrast to their co-religionists in the slums of
London. Plowden said of the Abyssinian Jews, “They are still found
in some numbers, and, though despised, are not persecuted; this
may be owing to their poverty. They know nothing of the Hebrew
tongue, but some read the Mosaic books in Geez, and are as
scrupulous in their ceremonials as their brethren elsewhere. They
are the best masons in the country.”[196]
“The mesquids, like the Christian churches, consist of three
divisions, with an entrance towards the east. The admission into
these different courts is rigorously regulated by Levitical law, and the
severest penalty would be inflicted on any one who should
incautiously pollute the sacred edifice. In the rear of every place of
worship is a small enclosure with a huge stone in the centre; and on
this crude altar the victim is slaughtered, and all other sacrificial rites
performed.”[197]
For a notice of a curious superstition of which a class of Jewish
people are often the object among Christian Abyssinians, see p. 288.
In the “Jewish Year-Book”[198] for 1904 the number of Jews in
Abyssinia is computed at 50,000; the “American Jewish Year Book”
estimates it to be 120,000. Both these figures must be conjectural,
and the former differs very widely from that given by Stern, who had
had opportunities of obtaining information in the country. Considering
the fecundity of the Jews in most parts of the world it is unlikely that
their numbers have diminished in Ethiopia during the last forty years.
In Plowden’s time there was a large and prosperous
Mohammedan population in Abyssinia. He wrote: “In all large towns
they have a separate quarter, with mosques and public prayers.
From the advantage that their commerce in slaves gives them over
their Christian competitors, the Mussulman traders are the most
wealthy, and are, therefore, generally appointed to the high post of
Negadeh Ras, or collector of all customs, literally ‘head of
merchants.’ To enforce their authority these keep large bodies of
armed men, and confidently predict the final triumph of the faith of
the Prophet in Abyssinia. The Abyssinian Mussulmans, as
distinguished from the Galla, are all traders; they will not eat meat
killed by Christians, and are frequently their superiors in morality and
intelligence. They live on terms of equality, good humour and
friendship with the Christians, openly defend their creed, and receive
any proselyte that offers, and do not appear to think that the
restrictions in the Koran respecting strong drinks apply to them at
all.” Plowden added that they, like the Christians, did not generally
seclude their women.
King Theodore, early in his reign, issued an edict which “required
peremptorily the expulsion from the country, or the instant return to
the bosom of the Church of his apostate countrymen,” i.e.
Mohammedans.[199] Circumstances prevented him from enforcing
this decree. It was revived by King Johannes, and no doubt, had in
other parts of Abyssinia the effect which Stecker observed in Korata.
[200] But Mohammedans are still to be found—e.g. in the district of

Axum[201] and in Shoa.[202]

Allusion has already been made to the Waitos.[203] Plowden wrote
of them: “They call themselves Mohammedans, but are not
recognized by the other followers of that creed. They principally
reside near the Lake Tsana, and are a very handsome race. They
are regarded with as much aversion as the Jews.”[204] It must be
owned that the appreciation of their personal appearance is a matter
of taste.
Another singular sect is that known as Koomants, or Kamants.
These people, “found only in the neighbourhood of Gondar, are
acknowledged by neither Christian, Mussulman, or Jew, and have a
bastard creed, a compound of all three. They are skilful carpenters,
and supply all Gondar with wood. They are despised, but being very
courageous, and having lately shown an inclining towards
Christianity, it is not improbable that their distinctions will soon
disappear; many even now have ceased a practice which was the
chief separating cause. They hung heavy weights in the lobe of the
ear of the girls, who are thereby excluded from any chance of
marriage with Christians.”[205] Hormuzd Rassam on one occasion
halted at a village of Kamants called Saraba, north of Lake Tsana, in
the direction of Gondar. He saw there “a place of worship, which they
hold in great veneration. The entire space between the spring and
this temple, or, more strictly, grove—they have no building for their
religious services—is regarded as sacred, and no Christian or
Mohammedan is allowed to enter within the hallowed precincts.
When engaged in prayer, they take up a position under a tree, on the
banks of the stream, or in the wood about half a mile from the spring.
It is owing to this practice that the Christian Abyssinians style them
‘Worshippers of wood,’ or simply ‘Wood.’ Their religion is as great a
mystery in Abyssinia as that of the Ansairies is in Syria, and although
the late king (Theodore) obliged them to wear the ‘mateb’ cord, yet
they still continue to practise certain rites and ceremonies unknown
either to Christians or Mussulmans. They only eat meat which has
been slaughtered by themselves, and eschew fish and coffee; yet
they adopt Christian names, and have a kind of baptism, which their
Christian countrymen designate a ‘mockery.’”[206]
Stern’s first experience of these people was agreeable. In a deep
valley called Walee Dubba, on the way to Tschelga, he met some
young women who had jars of dallah, a beer made from sprouting
barley, to sell. “It was quite an unexpected surprise,” he wrote, “to
see the solitude of an African wilderness enlivened with the gay song
and sprightly converse of a number of young lasses, who, clad in
rustling leather petticoats, moved about amongst the various groups
resting under the leafy foliage, with a grace and innate modesty
which elicited admiration, whilst at the same time it forbad all
unbecoming liberty.” At Tschelga he questioned some of the
Kamants “about their knowledge of God and their hopes of eternity;
but they had so little to communicate, beyond a belief in a Supreme
Being and the existence of a future state, that the most simple query
caused them the utmost wonder and surprise. . . . Their language is
Amharic, but amongst themselves they speak in the Falasha tongue;
and the striking Jewish features of many a man and woman amongst
them inclined us to credit the report which assigns to them a Jewish
origin.” The same writer has mentioned the legendary derivation of
their name,[207] and he described them as industrious, energetic,
and active. He saw many of their women in Gondar, and remarked
that “it was a strange sight to see these young females—clad in
simple leather petticoats and equally simple earrings of wood, which,
according to the orthodox fashion, must be weighty enough to
distend in a few years the flap of the ear down to the shoulders—
walking about in the market, or groaning under a heavy burden of
wood, utterly unconcerned about everything except the graceful
ornament that dangled round their necks.”[208]
At the present time European creeds are represented in Abyssinia
by converts, whose change of faith is due to the activity of
missionaries. Mr. Wylde wrote upon this subject—“I believe the
majority of the Abyssinians care a great deal for their religion, and it
is only the more worthless ones that are found round the different
mission stations; people who are willing to change their faith the
same as they would their clothes, and when they have worn out all
that are to be got, revert to their original one again, without perhaps
being any the better or any the worse for the experience, but only to
be marked by others as being utterly worthless and unreliable
characters. I will never have a male servant in my employ that has
been near a mission, if I can help it. Female servants are different;
they usually are taught to sew, wash, and cook, and are generally
cleanly in their habits, but when they get to a certain age the majority
of them run away from these establishments, as they cannot stand
the discipline and restraint; and I don’t blame them, as a more
unlovely and monotonous life does not exist.”[209]
There is a code of law in Abyssinia, which is called Fatha Negest,
or Feth Negust. According to Major Harris this volume of “The
Judgments of the Kings” is said to have fallen from heaven in the
time of Constantine the Great, and he includes it among the books of
which MSS. are still extant in the country.[210] Plowden stated that it
was supposed “to have been compiled by the Council of Three
Hundred, in the earlier ages of the Church, and regarded originally
as of almost equal authority with the sacred writings.”[211] He further
remarked that this code “is a bad translation from that of Justinian;
three parts of it being occupied with Church affairs and regulations,
and a small portion only with the civil and criminal law, this latter
being also much mixed up with the institutions of the Pentateuch.
Bad as it is, there are probably not twenty persons in the country that
are conversant with it; and some singular judgments are given on its
authority, much after the fashion of the sortes Virgilianæ. Though it is
consulted with much ceremony, and considered a sacred volume,
law is, in fact, simplified to the will of the chief. Still, the fact of there
being a written law has assisted in retarding the degradation of the
people.”[212]
The following extract from Parkyns’s work shows the spirit of
Ethiopian jurisprudence in dealing with serious crime: “As for the
laws of the country, they are for the most part formed on the basis of
the old Mosaic dispensation. ‘An eye for an eye, and a tooth for a
tooth’ is followed nearly to the letter—so much so that, if a man kill
another, the murderer must be put to death by the nearest relatives
of the deceased with precisely the same kind of weapon as that with
which he killed his victim.”[213] The murderer may redeem his life by
paying a ransom, which, in Stern’s time, varied from fifty to two
hundred and fifty Maria Theresa dollars. If he did not possess the
requisite amount he was chained to a relative of the deceased and
obliged to beg till he had collected the stipulated sum. The severity
of the punishments in vogue varies with the temperament of different
rulers, the Emperor being the final authority in such matters, and a
right of appeal to him is admitted in favour of all accused persons.
[214] Mutilation is a common penalty.[215] “This,” said Mr. Wylde, “has
not the terrors that it would have in England, as some of the thieves
in Abyssinia have been operated on a second and a third time, and I
saw one man with his left foot being the only extremity left, and he
was being fed by the priests at the church at Adowa.”[216]
All Abyssinian litigants are required to find security. “These
securities must be persons whom the judge is certain of being able
to seize if necessary. If the charge be serious they must be persons
of property, and are liable both for the appearance of their principals,
and for the sentence whatever that may be. This custom obtains
both in civil and criminal law. In default of such security, each party is
chained by the wrist; an additional expense, as the chains must be
hired, and the jailor—that is, the person to whom he is chained, paid
a sum fixed by law. This bail is the prop of Abyssinian society; no
commercial or market transfer takes place without it. The Abyssinian
judge or creditor cares nothing for the principal in a cause; the bail is
seized, and in self-defence produces his man; and it is an
honourable trait that the principal rarely absconds. A friend will thus
become security in a case of murder, though rendering himself
thereby liable to suffer death, or to pay the price of blood, to them a
fortune.
“After both parties have given security the plaintiff only is allowed
to produce his witnesses; the defendant can, when they are called
by name, admit or reject their evidence, in almost every case great
indulgence being shown in this respect. . . . In small affairs, such as
a sudden dispute on the high road, the meeting of an absconded
debtor, or any civil matter, the first decent person to be found is
obliged to act as a temporary judge, if adjured by the ‘death of the
chief’ paramount. He must then place the accused in bonds, which is
done by tying his cloth (shama) to that of his accuser, and escort or
send them to the nearest magistrate, who, should the accused
demand it, must in like manner forward him to his immediate master
or chief, where the case is first heard, the plaintiff having right of
appeal; the law in this being, however, highly favourable to the
defendant, the plaintiff not being always disposed for a long
journey.”[217]
Every man is his own advocate. Those who wish to read an
account of the proceedings “in court” should refer to “Modern
Abyssinia,” p. 308, or “Wanderings among the Falashas,” pp. 48,
170. The hearing usually gives occasion for a good deal of
eloquence and a great deal of lying.
There is no sort of general education in Abyssinia. Men of
attainments are found in the upper classes, and some of the higher
officials are capable linguists. But as regards the bulk of the nation
learning has advanced little since the days of Harris. “The stores of
literature being bound up in a dead letter (the Geez language), few
excepting the priests and defterers can decipher them, and many of
these learned men are often more indebted to the memory of their
early youth than to the well-thumbed page in their hand. The
ignorance of the nation is, indeed, truly deplorable; for those children
only receive the rudiments of an education who are designed for the
service of the Church; and, the course of study adopted being little
calculated to expand the mind of the neophyte, a peculiar deficiency
is presented in intellectual features.”[218] Plowden remarked of the
priests that they “teach but one book to the children of the laity, ‘The
Psalms of David;’ and without forbidding other learning, discourage
it, confining it as much as possible to the clergy and the scribes.”[219]
Allusion has already been made to the classes held by the priests in
the precincts of the churches.[220] Such instruction as is obtainable is
given, of course, to all pupils under clerical supervision. There are no
secular schools, and at the present time, as Mr. Vivian remarked, “no
one in Abyssinia ever does get any education beyond learning to
read and write, and quote passages from the Gospels.”[221] Those
whose acquirements exceed this standard are not indebted for them
to native teachers.
The habits of the young girls, among the generality of the people,
do not foster any strict notions of morality. Parkyns wrote: “The boys
are turned out wild to look after the sheep and cattle, and the girls,
from early childhood, are sent to fetch water from the well or brook,
first in a gourd, and afterwards in a jar proportioned to their strength.
If the well be far from the village, the girls usually form parties to go
thither and amuse themselves on the road by singing sentimental or
love songs; while, during their halt at the well for an hour or so, they
engage in romps of all kinds, in which parties of the other sex
frequently join. This early licence lays the foundation for worse, when
at a later period they are sent to the woods to collect fuel.”[222]
Courtship can hardly be said to exist. “In Abyssinia young people
begin to think of marriage at a very early age. I have seen brides of
eight or nine years old; and boys at a proportionally youthful age are
considered marriageable. When a lad wishes to marry he only
inquires for a girl who may possess twice the number of oxen that he
can muster, or their value. His proposals are made to the girl’s father,
and, unless there is some strong motive for rejecting him, he is
accepted, and everything is arranged without consulting the lady’s
taste or asking her consent. They are usually betrothed three or four
months before marriage, during which time the bridegroom
frequently visits his father-in-law elect, and occasionally propitiates
him with presents of honey, butter, a sheep, or a goat; but he is
never allowed to see his intended wife even for a moment, unless,
by urgent entreaty or a handsome bribe, he induces some female
friend of hers to arrange the matter, by procuring him a glance at his
cruel fair one. For this purpose he conceals himself behind a door or
other convenient hiding-place, while the lady, on some pretext or
other, is led past it. Should she, however, suspect a trick, and
discover him, she would make a great uproar, cover her face, and,
screaming, run away and hide herself, as though her sense of
propriety were greatly offended by the intrusion; although previous to
his making the offer she would have thought it no harm to romp with
him, or any other male acquaintance, in the most free and easy
manner. Even after she has been betrothed, she is at home to every
one, except to him who most sighs for the light of her countenance.
“In Tigre, and especially in Shire, there is a superstition that if a
girl leave her father’s house during the interval between her betrothal
and marriage she will be bitten by a snake.
“When the wedding day approaches the girl is well washed, her
hair combed and tressed, and she is rendered in every way as
agreeable as possible. She has then to undergo a course of diet and
medicine.”[223]
Of marriages there are three kinds. The foregoing extract refers to
the usual merely civil contract; for such unions there are “bridesmen”
(arkees), who have peculiar privileges in the community, including
that of theft, remain “on duty” after the nuptials, and occupy the most
singular relation to the newly wedded damsel.[224] There are also
bridesmaids, who keep their faces covered during the wedding,
which is a very simple ceremony. Mr. Wylde and an Italian friend
obtained an illicit view of an Abyssinian bride and bridesmaids, and
were rewarded by the sight of some very charming girls. Both he and
Parkyns have written entertaining descriptions of an Abyssinian
marriage of this kind.[225]
 Rassam has given the following particulars with regard to such
contracts. “The parties simply swear, in the presence of two
witnesses, that they will live together as husband and wife. This
bond may be dissolved at any time by mutual consent; in that case,
the wife is entitled to retain whatever property she possessed before
wedlock, as also any presents which she may have received from
her husband during coverture, unless a stipulation to the contrary
was agreed to by both sides, on their union. Most Abyssinian
marriages are of this sort, and the generality of the respectable
classes so wedded live together as husband and wife until separated
by death.”[226]
Harris wrote: “In Shoa a girl is reckoned according to the value of
her property; and the heiress to a house, a field, and a bedstead is
certain to add a husband to her list before many summers have
shone over her head. Marriage is generally concluded by the parties
declaring, before witnesses, ‘upon the life of the King,’ that they
intend to live happily together, and the property of each being
produced is carefully appraised. A mule or an ass, a dollar, a shield
and a sheaf of spears on the one side,[227] are noted against the
lady’s stock of wheat, cotton, and household gear; and the bargain
being struck, the effects become joint for the time, until some
domestic difference results in either taking up their own, and
departing to seek a new mate.
“Favourite slaves and concubines are respected as much as
wedded wives. No distinction is made betwixt legitimate and
illegitimate children; and, to the extent of his means, every subject
follows the example set by the monarch (Sahela Selassie), who, it
has been seen, entertains upon his establishment, in addition to his
lawful spouse, no fewer than five hundred concubines.
“Few married couples even live long together without violating
their vow; and the dereliction being held of small account, a beating
is the only punishment inflicted upon the weaker party. The jewel
chastity is here in no repute; and the utmost extent of reparation to
be recovered in a court of justice for the most aggravated case of
seduction is but fivepence sterling.
 “Morality is thus at the very lowest ebb; for there is neither custom
nor inducement to be chaste, and beads, more precious than fine
gold, bear down every barrier of restraint. Honesty and modesty both
yield to the force of temptation, and pride is seldom offended at living
in a state of indolent dependence upon others. The soft savage
requires but little inducement to follow the bent of her passions
according to the dictates of unenlightened nature; and neither
scruples of conscience nor the rules of the loose society form any
obstacle whatever to their entire gratification.”[228]
Plowden confirms the observation that “no distinction is made
between legitimate and illegitimate children,” and adds, “all share
alike on the decease of their father.”[229]
The reader will have noticed that Rassam’s account of the
duration and even tenour of these alliances does not agree with the
comments made by Harris. Stern observed that the wedded pair
“may, perhaps, become attached to each other and live in peace and
conjugal bliss; or, as it frequently happens, they may become
disgusted with each other after the lapse of a brief period and
separate.”[230]
Parkyns wrote:—“The civil marriage may be dissolved on the
shortest notice and for the most trifling reasons. Parties have only to
express their wish to separate, and a division of property and
children takes place. The boys, if there be any, usually go to the
father, and the girls to the mother. This having been done, the parties
are at liberty to contract a second marriage as soon as they please.
It is not an uncommon thing for a man thus separated from his wife
to maintain her in a house near his own, furnish her with the
necessary means of subsistence for herself and family, and continue
apparently in perfect friendship with her, while at the same time he
takes another bride in her place.”[231]
The custom of entering into civil contracts of this kind is of old
standing; for Lobo remarked, “A husband that doth not like his wife
may easily find means to make the marriage void; and, what is
worse, may dismiss the second wife with less difficulty than he took
her, and return to the first; so that marriages in this country are only
for a term of years, and last no longer than both parties are pleased
with each other; which is one instance how far distant these people
are from the purity of the primitive believers, which they pretend to
have preserved with so great strictness. The marriages are, in short,
no more than bargains, made with this proviso that when any
discontent shall arise on either side, they may separate, and marry
whom they please, each taking back what they brought with
them.”[232]
According to Mr. Vivian, provision is sometimes made at the time
of the secular marriage for the event of divorce—“a certain sum is
agreed upon for payment by the husband. My friend, the coffee-
planter at Harrar, had to promise to pay £10 to his little Galla wife if
ever he sent her away, but that was considered an exceptionally
heavy fee.”[233]
There are, however, nuptials of greater sanctity. Rassam thus
described them: “The most binding marriage with the Abyssinians
consists of an interchange of vows between the bridegroom and
bride, confirmed by their jointly partaking of the holy Eucharist; in
fact, the union in this case is solemnized much in the same way as in
other Christian Churches. Here, however, as elsewhere, certain
breaches of their mutual vows by either party dissolves the tie and
renders the transgressor legally obnoxious to punishment; but as
Abyssinian law in such matters has been disregarded for centuries,
and Might has taken the place of Right, it follows that an offending
husband generally escapes with impunity; so also does the guilty
wife, if she happens to belong to the family of a powerful chief.
Hence, an unprincipled husband, when tired of his wife, finds no
difficulty whatever in getting rid of her; and such repudiation is
undoubtedly very common. Many cases of the kind fell under my
own cognizance, and, in nearly all, the husbands were leading
incontinent lives; on the other hand, I never heard of a single
instance of a wife who had been sacramentally married proving
unfaithful to her husband, even after his repudiation of her. Most
women so situated remain single, and many become nuns. In
consequence of this deplorable state of things, Abyssinian females