HEAT TRANSFER

Category: Professional Core Course

(Theory and Practice)
Course code: 21ME54
Faculty: Dr P R Venkatesh, Associate Professor, Mech Dept, RVCE, Bengaluru
Room No 2, Ground Floor, Department of Mechanical Engineering, RVCE
Mob: 9620117755 Email: venkateshpr@rvce.edu.in

Dr P R Venkatesh, Mech Dept, RVCE, Bengaluru-59

 Unit II
Heat transfer from finned surfaces:
Governing equations, solutions for different boundary conditions, fin
efficiency and effectiveness, Selection of fins. problems
Transient Heat Conduction:
Lumped system analysis, transient heat conduction in large plane walls, long
cylinders, use of charts for Transient heat conduction in semi-infinite and
infinite solids. Numerical problems

Dr P R Venkatesh, Mech Dept, RVCE, Bengaluru-59

Transient heat conduction:
• If the temperature of a body does not vary with time, it is said to be in a steady
state. T=f(x,y,z)
• But, if there is an abrupt change in its surface temperature, the body attains an
equilibrium temperature or a steady state after some period.
• During this period, the temperature varies with time, and the body is said to be in
an unsteady or transient state. (Time dependent) i.e. T=f(x,y,z,t)
• Conduction of heat in unsteady state refers to the transient conditions wherein
the heat flow and the temperature distribution at any point of the system vary
continuously with time.
• Transient conditions occur in; Cooling of IC engines, Heating and cooling of metal
billets, Cooling and freezing of food, Heat treatment of metals by quenching, brick
burning, Vulcanization of rubber, etc.
Dr P R Venkatesh, Mech Dept, RVCE, Bengaluru-59
 LUMPED PARAMETER MODEL

• It is also known as lumped heat capacity system.

Lumped heat capacity system
• Heat is received from or given to the
This model is applicable when a body with a
known or specified temperature level is exposed
suddenly to surroundings at a different
temperature level and when the temperature
level in the body as a whole increases or
decreases without any difference of temperature
within the body. i.e., T = T(t) only.
surroundings at the surface and this causes a
temperature change instantly all through the
body. The model is shown in Fig.

Dr P R Venkatesh, Mech Dept, RVCE, Bengaluru-59

The body with surface area As , Volume V , density  , specific heat c and temperature T at
the instant of time zero is exposed sudddenly to the surroundings at T by convection (h)
This causes the body temperature T to change to (T + dT ) in the time interval dt .
The relationship between dT and dt can be established by the energy conservation principle.

Heat convected over the boundary = Change in internal energy over a time period dτ
If dT is the temperature change during the time period dτ then the following relationship results:
hAs (T − T )dt = −   c  V  dT [The minus sign indicates that the internal energy decreases with time]
Let  = (T − T )  hAs dt = −   c  V  d Rearranging the terms;
 t
 d   hAs   d   hA     hAs 

 
=
   cV


dt Integrating, we get,  
0 
 

= −   cV  

s

0
dt  log e

 0
 = −   cV

t


 hA 
  − s
  cV
t
Taking antilog,   = e 
where 0 = (T0 − T ), To is the temperature at time t = 0
 0 
Dr P R Venkatesh, Mech Dept, RVCE, Bengaluru-59
This shows that the temperature decays or builds up exponentially and the rate depends
 hAs 
on the parameter   as shown in Fig.
  cV 

V 
The ratio   = L is known as the equivalent length. The values of L for simple geometric shapes are;
 As 
4 3 
 V   LBH  L  V  R L  R
2
V  3  R  R
Flat plate : L =   =   = ; Cylinder : L =   =   = 2 , Sphere : L =  A  =  4 R 2  = 3
 s 
A 2 BH  2  s 
A 2  RL   s  
 
 V   a3   a 
Cube : L =   =  2  =   where a is the side of the cube.
 As   6a   6  Dr P R Venkatesh, Mech Dept, RVCE, Bengaluru-59
 V 
Substituting   as the equivalent length L,  = (T − T ) and 0 = (T0 − T );
 As 
 h 
 T - T  − τ
 ρcL 
the expression for temperature variation becomes  =e
 T0 - T 
Applicability of the above relationship depends on several factors, but the condition can be
checked by using the relative temperature drop within the solid compared to the temperature
drop from the outside surface to the fluid. Heat is conducted within the solid and this can be
kA ( T ) s
obtained using the equations derived in the case of a slab as; Q = .....(i )
L
where ( T ) s is the temperature drop in the solid, L is the thickness and k thermal conductivity.
This heat is convected at the surface and is given by Q = hA ( T ) c .....(ii ) where ( T ) c is the
kA ( T ) s
convection temperature drop. Equating the RHS of the above equations; = hA ( T ) c
L
( T ) s hL
 =  → Dimensionless number known as Biot Number
( T )c  k 
Dr P R Venkatesh, Mech Dept, RVCE, Bengaluru-59
( T ) s hL
=  → Dimensionless number known as Biot Number
( T )c  k 
If this number is small, then ( T ) s will be small and so the temperature difference in the body
is small and so it can be taken as the check for the applicability of lumped parameter model.
If Biot number Bi < 0.1, the lumped capacity model can be used without appreciable error.
 hA 
Electrical Analogy : The term  s  can be used to visualise an electrical analogy in terms
  cV 
of a capacitance − resistance circuit and the process of heating or cooling as charging and
 1 
discharging the capacitor. The convective resistance is   and (  cV ) is the capacitance
 hAs 
of the analogous electric circuit.
  h 
The quantity   τ can also be expressed as a product of two dimensionless numbers
 ρcL 
As 1
by rearranging the terms as below, taking = where L is the equivalent length.
V L
 h   hL   k t   hL   t  k
 ρcL  τ =  k     c  L2  =  k    L2  = Bi × Fo where; =  c → Thermal diffusivity
         
 hL   t 
Bi =   is the Biot number and Fo =  2  is the Fourier number
 k  L 
The Fourier number signifies the heat penetration depth in time t , w.r.t the body dimension.
Fourier number should be large for quick heating or cooling. Leaving out the time, higher the
value of thermal diffusivity or smaller the body dimension, quicker will be the heating up or
cooling down.

Dr P R Venkatesh, Mech Dept, RVCE, Bengaluru-59

The response characteristics of a body with respect to heating or cooling is compared by using
 1
the time required for the temperature difference to drop to   times the original value where
e
e → base of natural logarithm. This time is called the thermal time constant for the condition
Vc  Lc
specified. This leads to the condition that the time constant t c = or
hAs h
For quick response as in the case of probes for temperature mesurements the time constant
should be small.

Dr P R Venkatesh, Mech Dept, RVCE, Bengaluru-59

 Instantaneous heat flow rate & Total heat transfer
By electrical analogy, charge q = capacitance× voltage. Hence,the instantaneous heat flow rate is;
Qi = (Thermal capacity  Temperature ) per unit time

 dT   T - T 
 hAs 
−  τ  − s t 
 hA 

Qi = (  cV )    Also 

 = e  ρcV 
 T =  T + ( T - T ) e   cV 

 dt 
0
 T0 - T   

d  − s t   − s t 
 hA   hA 
 hAs
Qi = (  cV )  T + (T0 - T ) e   cV 
 = (  cV )   − 
 0 ( T - T )  e  ρcV 
 = − hA ( T - T ) e − Bi . Fo
Watt
dt    cV
s 0
    
In the data book the same equation is listed as q = -hAs (T - T ) (Page No 58, Negative sign missing)
t t  hA 
− s t
The total or cumulative heat transfer is; QT =  Qi .dt = −hAs (T0 - T )  e  ρcV 
.dt
0 0
t
  hAs  
 − ρcV t   − ρcV
hAs 
t 
e
QT = −hAs (T0 - T )   = ρcV (T0 - T )  e  
− e  = ρcV (T0 - T )  e -Bi.Fo - 1 Joule
0

  hAs    
− 
 ρcV  
   0
In the data book the same equation is listed as qt = ρcV (T - To ) (Page No 58)
 Numerical problems on Lumped Systems
(Bi < 0.1)
1. The initial temperature is marked as T0 in the equations for lumped parameter systems
that are given in page 58 in the HT data hand book. (7th edition)
2. The library provides databook (7th edition) for SEE exams, hence the page numbers provided
in the slides are as per that edition. The latest editions may have different page numbers.

Dr P R Venkatesh, Mech Dept, RVCE, Bengaluru-59

 Problem 1
A thermocouple is formed by soldering end-to-end wires of 0.5 mm dia. The
thermal diffusivity of the material is 5.3 × 10–6 m2/s. The conductivity of the
material is 19.1 W/m-K. The probe initially at 30°C is placed in a fluid at 600°C to
measure the temperature of the fluid. If the convective heat transfer coefficient
between the wire and the fluid is 85 W/m2-K, determine the time constant for the
probe and also the time taken for it to read 598°C.

Data : Diameter of the wire D = 0.5 mm  R = 0.25  10 −3 m,  = 5.3  10 −6 m 2 / sec

k = 19.1 W / m - K, To = 300 C , To = 6000 C , h = 85 W / m 2 - K, T = 598 0 C

Dr P R Venkatesh, Mech Dept, RVCE, Bengaluru-59

 hL
Solution : Checking for applicability of lumped system approach; Bi =  0.1
k
 V    R 2 L   R   0.25  10−3  −3
For a wire, equivalent length is L =   =   = =
    = 0.125  10 m
 As   2 RL   2   2 
hL  85  0.125  10−3  −4
Bi = =  = 5.563  10  0.1 Hence, the lumped model can be used.
k  19.1 
k  k   19.1 
Given the thermal diffusivity  = = 5.3  10−6 m 2 / sec   c =   =  −6 
= 3.604  10 6

c     5.3  10 
 cV  cL  3.604  106  0.125  10−3 
(i)Time constant : t c = or  τc =   = 5.3 sec
hAs h  85 
 h 
 T - T  − t
  cL 
=e
0
(ii)Time taken for the probe to read 598 C : Using 
 T0 - T 
 85 
 598 - 600  − t
 3.604106 0.12510−3  −3 −( 0.1887 )t
  = e  − 3.51  10 = e  τ = 30 sec
 30 - 600  Dr P R Venkatesh, Mech Dept, RVCE, Bengaluru-59
 Problem 2
An aluminum alloy plate of 400 mm x 400 mm x 4 mm size at 2000C is suddenly
quenched into liquid oxygen at -1830C. Starting from fundamentals, determine
the time required for the plate to reach a temperature of -700C. Assume h=
20,000 kJ/m2 -h- 0C, k= 770.4 kJ/m-h- 0C, cp=0.8 kJ/kg -0C,  = 3000 kg/m3

Data : Side of the plate = 400 mm = 0.4m, Thickness = 4 mm = 0.004 m, To = 2000 C , T = −1830 C
 20000 
h = 20000 kJ / m 2 - h -o C =   = 5.556 kW / m 2 o
- C,
 3600 
 770.4 
k = 770.4 kJ / m - h - C = 
2 o
 = 0.214 kW / m 2 o
- C
 3600 
c p = 0.8kJ / kg − 0 C , T = −700 C ,  = 3000 kg / m 3
Dr P R Venkatesh, Mech Dept, RVCE, Bengaluru-59
 hL
Solution : Checking for applicability of lumped system approach; Bi =  0.1
k
 V   0.4  0.4  0.004 
For the plate, equivalent length is L =   =   = 0.002 m
 As   2  0.4  0.4 
hL  5.556  0.002 
Bi = =  = 0.052  0.1 Hence, the lumped model can be used.
k  0.214 
 h 
 T - T  −

t
=e
0  cL 
Time taken for the plate to reach -70 C : Using 
 T0 - T 
 
 −70 − ( −183) 
5.556
− t −(1.1575)t
 200 − ( −183)  = e  30000.80.002 
 0.295 = e  τ = 1.055 sec
 

Dr P R Venkatesh, Mech Dept, RVCE, Bengaluru-59

 Problem 3
A 15 mm diameter mild steel sphere (k=42 W/m0C) is exposed to cooling air flow
at 200C resulting in the convective coefficient h= 120 W/m2-0C. Determine the
following;
(i) The time required to cool the sphere from 5500C to 900C
(ii) Instantaneous heat transfer rate 2 minutes after the start of cooling.
(iii) Total energy transferred from the sphere after 2 minutes.
For mild steel, take  =7850 kg/m3, c = 475 J/Kg-0C and =0.045 m2/hr
 D   0.015 
Data : R =   =   = 0.0075 m , To = 550 0
C , T = 20 0
C , T = 90 0
C , h = 120 W / m − C
2 o

2  2 
 0.045 
k = 42 W / m 2 −o C, c = 475 J / kg − 0 C ,  = 0.045 m 2 / h =   = 1.25  10 −5 2
m / sec
 3600 
 = 7850 kg / m 3 Dr P R Venkatesh, Mech Dept, RVCE, Bengaluru-59
 hL
Solution : Checking for applicability of lumped system approach; Bi =  0.1
k
4 3 
V  3  R   R   0.0075 
For a wire, equivalent length is L =   =  2 
= =  = 0.0025 m
 As   4 R   3   3 
 
hL  120  0.0025 
Biot number Bi = =  = 0.007143  0.1 Hence, the lumped model can be used.
k  42 
t
 1.25  10−5  t 
Fourier number Fo = 2 =  2  = 2τ
L  0.0025 
 T - T  − Bi  Fo
0
(i)Time taken to cool the sphere from 550 C to 90 C : Using  0
 = e
 0 
T - T
 90 - 20  −( 0.0071432t ) −( 0.0143)t
  = e  0.132 = e  τ = 141.74 sec
 550 - 20 
Dr P R Venkatesh, Mech Dept, RVCE, Bengaluru-59
(ii) Instantaneous heat flow rate 2 mins after start of cooling :
As = 4 R 2 = 4  (0.0075) 2 = 7.07  10−4 m 2 , Bi = 0.007143, Fo = 2t = 2  ( 2  60 ) = 240 sec
Qi = −hAs (T0 - T ) e − Bi . Fo = −120  7.07  10−4 (550 − 20)e − (0.007143240) = −8.1 W
The negative sign implies that the heat is given off by the sphere.

  T - T   T − 20  − − ( 0.007143240 )

=e  =e or T = 115.44 C
-Bi.Fo 0
 Alternately, using  
  0 
T - T  550 − 20  
 From Data book (Page No 58) ; q = −hA (T - T ) = 120  7.07  10−4 (115.44 − 20) = − 8.1 W 
 s 

 Negative sign is missing in data book, must be consdiered. 
 
 

Dr P R Venkatesh, Mech Dept, RVCE, Bengaluru-59

(iii) Total energy transferred from the sphere during the first 2 mins :
4
QT = ρcV (T0 - T )  e
 -Bi.Fo
- 1 where V = Volume of the sphere   (0.0075) 3 = 1.767  10−6 m 3

3
QT = 7850  475  1.767  10−6  ( 550 - 20 ) e − (0.007143240) - 1  QT = -2863.4 J

  T - T   T − 20  − ( 0.007143240 ) 
 Alternately, using   = e -Bi.Fo
   = e or T = 115.44 0
C 
  T0 - T   550 − 20  
 Page No 58 (Data book) ; q = ρcV (T - T ) = 7850  475  1.767  10−6  (115.44 − 550) = − 2863.2 J 
 t o 

Dr P R Venkatesh, Mech Dept, RVCE, Bengaluru-59

 Assignment Problems on Transient conduction (Lumped model)
1) An egg with mean diameter of 40 mm and initially at 200C, is placed in a boiling
water pan for 4 minutes and found to be boiled to the consumer’s taste. For how
long should a similar egg for same consumer be boiled when taken from a
refrigerator at 50C. Take the following properties for egg; k= 10 W/m-0C,  = 1200
kg/m3, c= 2 kJ/kg-0C and h=100 W/m2 0C. Use lump theory.
Ans: T=820C, t = 4.435 seconds
2) A thermocouple junction is in the form of 8 mm diameter sphere. Properties of
material are; c=420 J/kg-0C, ,  = 8000 kg/m3, k= 40 W/m-0C, h=40 W/m2 0C.
This junction is initially at 400C and inserted in a stream of hot air at 3000C.
Determine; (i) Time constant of the thermocouple (ii) The thermocouple is taken out
from the hot air after 10 seconds and kept in still air at 300C.
Assuming the heat transfer coefficient in air as h=10 W/m2 0C. Determine the
temperature attained by the junction 20 seconds after removing from hot air.
Ans: (i) 112 sec, (ii) T= 60.790 C

Dr P R Venkatesh, Mech Dept, RVCE, Bengaluru-59

One-dimensional Transient Conduction in Large Plane Walls, Long Cylinders and
Spheres (Infinite solids) when Biot Number > 0.1 but <100
There are many situations in practice, where the temperature gradient in the solid is not
negligible (i.e. Bi > 0.1) and the lumped system analysis is not applicable.
• In such situations, we start with the general differential equation for time dependent, one-
dimensional conduction in the appropriate coordinate system and solve it in conjunction
with the boundary conditions.

Page No 64 & 65, Data hand book, (7th Edition)

The solution of such problems, however,is rather involved and consists of infinite series.
So, it is more convenient to present the solution either in tabular form or charts.
 T - T   x hL t 
The solutions obtained will be;   = f  , , 2  i.e. the temperature history
 Ti - T  L k L 
x
becomes a function of Biot number, Fourier number & a dimensionless parameter  
 L
which indicates location of the point within the plate where temperature is to be obtained.
  x  has to be replaced by  r  
 For cylinderss and spheres,    
  L   R 
 T - T 
Heisler charts are used which depict the dimensionless temperature   vs Fourier
 Ti - T 
number (Fo) for various values of Bi for solids of different geometrical shapes such as
plates, cylinders & spheres.
 Numerical problems (Infinite solids) using Heisler charts
Large Plane Walls, Long Cylinders and Spheres
(0.1<Bi < 100)

Note :
1. The initial temperature is marked as Ti and the mid plane temperature as To in the charts
2. Reading of semi log sheet markings in the charts is approximate and answers may vary.
3. The library provides databook (7th edition) for SEE exams, hence the page numbers provided
in the slides are as per that edition. The latest editions may have different page numbers.

Dr P R Venkatesh, Mech Dept, RVCE, Bengaluru-59

 Problem 1
A slab of thickness 15 cm initially at 30°C is exposed on one side to gases at 600°C
with a convective heat transfer coefficient of 65W/m2-K. The other side is insulated.
Using the following property values determine the temperatures at both surfaces
and the center plane after 20 minutes, density: 3550 kg/m3, sp. heat = 586 J/kg-K,
conductivity = 19.5 W/m-K. Also calculate the heat flow upto the time 20 minutes
into the solid.

Note : Here, it is given that one side of the plate is insulated. Hence length of plate should be
considered as L (not 2L) (Refer data book page 64, column 1, Para 2)
Data : Length of the plate L = 15 cm  L = 0.15 m, c = 586 J / kg − K ,  = 3550 kg / m 3
Ti = 300 C , T = 300 C , k = 19.5 W / m - K, h = 65 W / m 2 - K, t = 20 min = (20  60) = 1200 sec
Dr P R Venkatesh, Mech Dept, RVCE, Bengaluru-59
 The insulated face limits the energy transfer into the
conducting medium to only one direction. This is
equivalent to heat transfer from a wall of twice the
thickness (0.3 m in this case). The insulated face then
becomes the line of symmetry or the central plane and
any distance x is measured from it. Solution to this
transient conduction problem would now be arrived at
by considering the wall to be 2L= 0.3 m thick.

 k   19.5 
Solution : Thermal diffusivity  =   =   = 9.374  10 −6 2
m / sec
  c   3550  586 
 t   9.374  10  1200 
−6
 hL   65  0.15 
Fourier number Fo =  2  =   = 0.5, Biot number Bi =   =   = 0.5
L    k   19.5 
2
0.15 
As Bi > 0.1, lumped system analysis cannot be used. Heisler charts may be used for 0.1 < Bi < 100

Dr P R Venkatesh, Mech Dept, RVCE, Bengaluru-59

INFINITE PLATE: TEMPERATURE- TIME HISTORY AT MID PLANE : Page 66 HMT Data book

The centre line temperature is obtained from the chart shown in Fig in page 66
To − T
For Fo = 0.5 & Bi = 0.5, the excess temperature ratio at the centre is obtained as = 0.85
Ti − T
To − 600
 = 0.85  The temperature at left (insulated end) plane after 20 mins is To = 115.5 0 C
30 − 600 Dr P R Venkatesh, Mech Dept, RVCE, Bengaluru-59
INFINITE PLATE: TEMPERATURE- TIME HISTORY AT ANY POSITION, x Page 67 HMT Data book

Solution : To obtain the surface and the mid plane

temperatures, the location chart at Bi = 0.5 as in Fig
x
(page 67) and the values at   = 1 is read as 0.8.
 L
 TL,t − T 
The surface temperature is given by;   = 0.8
 To − T 
(where To is the insulated end temperature obtained previously)
 TL,t − 600 
 115.5 − 600  = 0.8  Surface temper ature TL,τ = 212.4 0
C
 

x
The location chart at Bi = 0.5 as in Fig (page 67) and the values at   =0.5 is read as 0.95
 L
 Tx ,t − T   Tx ,t − 600 
The mid plane temperature is given by;   = 0.95    = 0.95
 To − T   115.5 − 600 
The mid plane temperature Tx,τ =Dr139.73 0
P R Venkatesh,CMech Dept, RVCE, Bengaluru-59
 HEAT FLOW: INFINITE PLATE
Page 68 HMT Data book

The heat flow is determined using the

heat flow chart as shown in Fig. (page 68)
h 2t
First the parameter 2
is calculated :
k
h 2t  652  9.374  10−6  1200 
2
= 2  = 0.125
k  19.5 

Entering the chart at this point and finding the meeting of point with Bi = 0.5, the ratio
Q
  is read as 0.45, where Qo = Heat capacity of the body above T per unit area
 Qo 
Qo =  cL(Ti -T ) → (page 64, Data hand book) Qo = 3550  586  0.15  (600 − 30) = 177.87 MJ / m 2
 Q = ( 0.33  Qo ) = 0.45  177.87 = 80 MJ / m 2 = 80  10 6 J / m 2
Dr P R Venkatesh, Mech Dept, RVCE, Bengaluru-59
 Problem 2
A long cylinder of radius 15 cm initially at 30°C is exposed over the surface to gases
at 600°C with a convective heat transfer coefficient of 65 W/m2-K. Using the
following property values determine the temperatures at the center, mid radius and
outside surface after 20 minutes. Density = 3550 kg/m3, sp. heat = 586J/kg-K,
conductivity = 19.5 W/m-K. Also calculate the heat flow.

Data : Radius of the cylinder R = 15 cm = 0.15 m, c = 586 J / kg − K ,  = 3550 kg / m 3

Ti = 300 C , T = 6000 C , k = 19.5 W / m - K, h = 65 W / m 2 - K, t = 20 min = (20  60) = 1200 sec

Dr P R Venkatesh, Mech Dept, RVCE, Bengaluru-59

LONG CYLINDER: TEMPERATURE- TIME HISTORY AT CENTER LINE PLANE : Page 69 HMT Data book

 k 
Solution : Thermal diffusivity  =  
 c 
 19.5 
 =  = 9.374  10 −6 2
m / sec
 3550  586 
 t   9.374  10  1200 
−6
Fourier number Fo =  2  =   = 0.5
R  
2
0.15 
 hR   65  0.15 
Biot number Bi =  =  = 0.5
 k   19.5 
As Bi > 0.1, lumped system analysis cannot be used.
Heisler charts may be used for 0.1 < Bi < 100

(i) The center - plane temperature : For Fo = 0.5 & Bi = 0.5, the excess temperature ratio at the centre is
To ,t − T To ,t − 600
obtained as = 0.72  = 0.73
Ti − T 30 − 600
 The temperature at the centre plane after 20 mins is To,τ = 183.9 0 C
Dr P R Venkatesh, Mech Dept, RVCE, Bengaluru-59
LONG CYLINDER: TEMPERATURE- TIME HISTORY AT ANY RADIUS, r: Page 70 HMT Data book
To obtain the surface temperature, the location
chart at Bi = 0.5 as in Fig (page 70) and the
 r 
values at   = 1 is read as 0.78.
 Ro 
 TL,t − T 
The surface temperature is given by;   = 0.78
 To − T 
(where To is the centerline temperature obtained previously)
 TL,t − 600 
 183.9 − 600  = 0.78  Surface temperature TR,τ = 275.44 0
C
 

 r 
The location chart at Bi = 0.5 as in Fig (page 70) and the values at   =0.5 is read as 0.95
 Ro 
 Tx ,t − T   Tx ,t − 600 
The mid plane temperature is given by;   = 0.95    = 0.95
 To − T   183.9 − 600 
The mid plane temperature Tr,τ = Dr204.7 0
C Mech Dept, RVCE, Bengaluru-59
P R Venkatesh,
 LONG CYLINDER: HEAT FLOW: Page 71 HMT Data book
The heat flow is determined using the
heat flow chart as shown in Fig. (page 71)
h 2t
First the parameter 2
is calculated :
k
h 2t  652  9.374  10−6  1200 
2
= 2  = 0.125
k  19.5 

Entering the chart at this point and finding the meeting of point with Bi = 0.5, the ratio
Q
  is read as 0.45, where Qo = Heat capacity of the body above T per unit length
 Qo 
Qo =  c Ro2 (Ti -T ) → (page 65, Data hand book) Qo = 3550  586    0.152  (600 − 30) = 83.82 MJ / m
 Q = ( 0.45  Qo ) = 0.45  83.82 = 37.72 MJ / m 2 = 37.72  10 6 J / m
Dr P R Venkatesh, Mech Dept, RVCE, Bengaluru-59
 Problem 3
A 10 cm diameter apple, approximately spherical in shape, is taken from a 20°C
environment and placed in a refrigerator where temperature is 5 °C and average
convective heat transfer coefficient over the surface of apple is 6 W/m2-K. Calculate
the temperature at the center of the apple after a period of 1 hour. Thermo-physical
properties of apple are :  = 998 kg/m3, ; c = 4180 J/kg-K ; k = 0.6 W/m-K

 D   10 
Data : Radius of the sphere   =   = 5 cm = 0.05 m, c = 4180 J / kg − K ,  = 998 kg / m3
2  2
Ti = 200 C , T = 50 C , k = 0.6 W / m - K, h = 6 W / m 2 - K, t = 1 hr = (1× 3600) = 3600 sec

Dr P R Venkatesh, Mech Dept, RVCE, Bengaluru-59

SPHERE: TEMPERATURE- TIME HISTORY AT CENTER : Page 72 HMT Data book
 k 
Solution : Thermal diffusivity  =  
 c 
 0.6 
 = −7
 = 1.44 10 m / sec
2

 998  4180 
 t   1.44 10  3600 
−7
Fourier number Fo =  2  =   = 0.207
  
2
R 0.05 
 hR   6  0.05 
Biot number Bi =  =  = 0.5
 k   0.6 
As Bi > 0.1, lumped system analysis cannot be used.
Heisler charts may be used for 0.1 < Bi < 100

(i) The center - plane temperature : For Fo = 0.207 & Bi = 0.5, the excess temperature ratio at the centre is
To ,t − T To ,t − 5
obtained as = 0.85  = 0.85
Ti − T 20 − 5
 The temperature at the centre of the sphere after 1 hour is To,τ = 17.75 0 C
Dr P R Venkatesh, Mech Dept, RVCE, Bengaluru-59
 Problem 4
A 3.6 cm diameter egg, approximately spherical in shape, is initially at 25° C
temperature. To boil it to the consumer's taste, it needs to be placed for 225 seconds
in a saucepan of boiling water at 100°C.
(a) For how long should a similar egg for the same consumer be boiled when taken
from a refrigerator at a temperature of 5° C. Thermo-physical properties of egg
are : k = 2.5 W/m-K ; r = 1250 kg/m3 ; c = 2200 J/kg-K and the heat transfer
coefficient for the shell and shell-water interface may be taken at 280 W/m2 -K
(b) Compare the center temperature attained with that computed by treating the
egg as a lumped-heat-capacity system.

 D   3.6 
Data : Radius of the sphere   =   = 1.8 cm = 0.018 m , c = 2200 J / kg − 0
C ,  = 1250 kg / m 3

2  2 
(i) Ti = 250 C , (ii ) Ti = 50 C , T = 1000 C , k = 2.5 W / m - 0 C, h = 280 W / m 2 - 0 C, t = 225 sec

Dr P R Venkatesh, Mech Dept, RVCE, Bengaluru-59

SPHERE: TEMPERATURE- TIME HISTORY AT CENTER : Page 72 HMT Data book
 k 
Solution : Thermal diffusivity  =  
 c 
 2.5 
 =  = 9.1  10 −7
m 2
/ sec
 1250  2200 
 t   9.1  10  225 
−7
Fourier number Fo =  2  =   = 0.63
R  
2
0.018 
 hR   280  0.018 
Biot number Bi =  =  = 2.02
 k   2.5 
As Bi > 0.1, lumped system analysis cannot be used.
Heisler charts may be used for 0.1 < Bi < 100

The center - plane temperature when the egg is taken is initially at 25 0 C :

For Fo = 0.63 & Bi = 2.02, the excess temperature ratio at the centre is obtained as
To ,t − T T − 100
= 0.2  o ,t = 0.22
Ti − T 25 − 100
The temperature at the centre of the egg after 225 sec is To,τ = 83.5 0 C
Dr P R Venkatesh, Mech Dept, RVCE, Bengaluru-59
SPHERE: TEMPERATURE- TIME HISTORY AT CENTER : Page 72 HMT Data book

When the egg is taken out from a refrigerator at 5 0 C :

The excess temperature ratio at the centre is obtained as;
 To − T   83.5 − 100 
 =  = 0.174
 Ti − T   5 − 100 
 To − T 
For Bi = 2.02 &   = 0.174, the Fourier number
 Ti − T 
from chart is (page 72) Fo = 0.71

(a) When the infinite sphere model is used :

 t '   9.1  10 −7
t ' 
Fourier number Fo =  2  =   = 0.71  t ' = 253 seconds
 R  
2
0.018 
 The time taken for a similar egg for the same consumer to be boiled when taken
from a refrigerator at a temperature of 5 C is t ' = 253 seconds
Dr P R Venkatesh, Mech Dept, RVCE, Bengaluru-59
 hL
(b) When lumped capacity model is used : For lumped system approach; Bi =
k
4 3 
V  3  R   R   0.018 
For a sphere, equivalent length is L =   =  2 
= =  = 0.006 m
 As   4 R   3   3 
 
hL  280  0.006 
Biot number Bi = =  = 0.672
k  2.5 
t  9.110−7  225 
Fourier number Fo = 2 =  2  = 5.7
L  0.006 
 T - T  − Bi Fo
(i)Uniform temperature of the egg using lumped model : Using  =e
 T0 - T 
 T -100  −( 0.6725.7 )
  = e = 0.0217  T = 9 8.4 0
C
 25 -100 
Dr P R Venkatesh, Mech Dept, RVCE, Bengaluru-59
 TRANSIENT HEAT CONDUCTION IN INFINITESOLIDS ( Bi →  )
(Page No 59, Data hand book 7 th edition)
For solving semi-infinite problems, the equations in column 2 of Page 59 (Data book 7th edition)
may be used in addition to the table in page No 60 (Values of error function Z)

Dr P R Venkatesh, Mech Dept, RVCE, Bengaluru-59

 Semi-infinite solid:
Semi-infinite solid: • It is an idealized body that has a single plane surface and
extends to infinity in all directions.
• The earth can be considered to be a semi-infinite medium in
determining the variation of temperature near its surface.
• A thick wall can be modeled as a semi-infinite medium if all
we are interested in is the variation of temperature in the
region near one of the surfaces, and the other surface is too
far to have any impact on the region of interest during the
time of observation.
• For short periods of time, most bodies can be modeled as
semi-infinite solids since heat does not have sufficient time to
penetrate deep into the body.
• Transient temperature distributions in a semi-infinite solid for
three surface conditions: constant surface temperature,
constant surface heat flux, and surface convection.
Dr P R Venkatesh, Mech Dept, RVCE, Bengaluru-59
Transient temperature distributions in a semi − infinite solid for three surface conditions :
(i) Constant surface temperature : (Examples solved in the slides)
→ For solving problems, use Equations in I row page 59 and table in page 60
(ii) Constant surface heat flux : (Not solved in the slides)
→ For solving problems, use Equations in II row page 59 and table in page 60
(iii) Surface convection : (Not solved in the slides)
→ For solving problems, use Equations in III row in p 59 or charts in p 61, 62 & 63
x  T − Ti  h t
Chart in p 61 : Horizontal - axis → ; Vertical - axis →   for curves of
2 t  T − Ti  k
x  Tx − T  hx
Chart in p 62 : Horizontal - axis → ; Vertical - axis →   for curves of
2 t  Ti − T  k
x  Tx − T  h 2t
Chart in p 62 : Horizontal - axis → ; Vertical - axis →   for curves of
2 t  i
T − T  k 2
Dr P R Venkatesh, Mech Dept, RVCE, Bengaluru-59
 Problem 1
A thick concrete wall fairly large in size initially at 30°C suddenly has its surface
temperature increased to 600°C by an intense fire which lasted for 25 minutes. The
material will disintegrate upto a depth where the temperature reaches 400°C.
Determine the thickness which may disintegrate. The thermal diffusivity is 4.92 × 10–7
m2/s; k = 1.28 W/m-K. Also determine the total heat flow/m2 during the time.

Data :  = 4.92  10−7 m 2 / sec, Surface temperature Ts = 6000 C , Initial temperature Ti = 300 C
t = 25 min = (25  60) = 1500 sec, k = 1.28 W / m - K, Tx = 4000 C

Note: As it is mentioned that it is a thick wall, without any thickness dimension, semi infinite solid
model is applicable. Also the surface temperature is suddenly increased and maintained at 600°C.

Dr P R Venkatesh, Mech Dept, RVCE, Bengaluru-59

Solution : (i) The thickness which may disintegrate (x) :
From page 59 (7th edition), for the first condition in coulumn 1
(Surface temperature suddenly changed and maintained constant)
 Tx − To   x 
  = erf   (erf → error function) Refer table in Page 60
 Ti − To   2 t 
 400 − 600 
  = 0.35 Corresponding to erf ( Z ) = 0.34913  3.5, Z = 0.32
 30 − 600 
 x   x 
Also, Z =   = 0.32    = 0.32  x = 0.0174 m
 2 t  −7
 2 4.92  10  1500 
The concrete will disintegrate to a depth of 17.4 mm.
(ii) The total heat flow / m 2 during the time 25 mins : Page 59,7th edition
t  1500 
qτ = 2k (To − Ti ) =  2  1.28  (600 − 30)  = 45.46 × 10 6
J / m 2

    4.92  10−7 
Dr P R Venkatesh, Mech Dept, RVCE, Bengaluru-59
 Problem 2
A large steel ingot which has been uniformly heated to 7500C, is hardened by
quenching it in an oil bath which is maintained at 250C. What length of time is
required for the temperature to reach 6000C at a depth of 1 cm? Thermal diffusivity
for the steel ingot is 1.21x10-5 m2/sec. The ingot may be approximated as a flat plate.

Data :  = 1.21  10−5 m 2 / sec, Surface temperature Ts = 7500 C , Initial temperature Ti = 300 C
Tx = 600 0 C, x = 1 cm = 0.01 m, t = ?

Dr P R Venkatesh, Mech Dept, RVCE, Bengaluru-59

Solution : This is a problem of constant surface temperature
The time required to reach 600 0 C at a depth of 1 cm :
The temperature distribution at any time t at a plane parallel to and at a distance
 Tx − To   x 
x from the surface is   = erf   (erf → error function) Table in Page 60
 Ti − To   2 t 
From page 59 (7th edition), for the first condition in coulumn 1
(Surface temperature suddenly changed and maintained constant)
 600 − 25 
  = 0.793 Corresponding to erf ( Z ) = 0.79184  0.793, Z = 0.89
 750 − 25 
 x   0.001 
Also, Z =   = 0.89    = 0.89 t = 2.48 sec
 2 t   2 4.92  10  t 
−7

Dr P R Venkatesh, Mech Dept, RVCE, Bengaluru-59

 Problem 3
It is proposed to bury water pipes underground in wet soil which is initially at 5.40C.
The temperature of the surface of the soil suddenly drops to -60C and remains at this
value for 9.5 hours. Determine the minimum depth at which the pipes an be laid if the
surrounding soil temperature is to remain above 00C (without the water getting
frozen). Assume the soil to be a semi infinite solid. For wet soil, take the thermal
diffusivity as  =2.75 x 10-3 m2/h

Data :  = 2.75  10−3 m 2 / h, Surface temperature Ts = −60 C , Initial temperature Ti = 5.40 C

Tx = 0 0 C, t = 9.5 hrs, x = ?

Dr P R Venkatesh, Mech Dept, RVCE, Bengaluru-59

Solution : (i) The minimum depth (x) at which the temperature is 0 0 C :
From page 59 (7th edition), for the first condition in coulumn 1
(Surface temperature suddenly changed and maintained constant)
 Tx − To   x 
  = erf   (erf → error function) Refer table in Page 60
−
 i o 
T T  2 t 
 0 − ( −6) 
 5.4 − ( −6)  = 0.5263 Corresponding to erf ( Z ) = 0.52924  0.53, Z = 0.51
 
 x   x 
Also, Z =   = 0.51    = 0.51  x = 0.165 m
 2 t  −3
 2 2.75  10  9.5 
( As the thermal disffusivity α is in m 2
/ hr,the time τ must be substituted in hours )

Dr P R Venkatesh, Mech Dept, RVCE, Bengaluru-59

 Problem 4
A motor car travelling at 60 km/hr is brought to rest within a 6 second period when
the brakes are applied. The braking system consists of 4 brakes with each brake band
of 300 cm2 area; these press against the steel drums of equivalent area. The brake
lining and the drum surfaces are at the same temperature, and the heat generated
during the stoppage action is dissipated by flowing across the surface of the drums.
Treating the drum surface as semi-infinite plane, workout the maximum temperature
rise. The car weighs 1500 kg and the thermo-physical properties of drum surface are;
Thermal conductivity k = 55 W/m-K and thermal diffusivity  = 1.24 x 10-5 m2/s
Data :  = 1.24  10−5 m 2 / s, t = 6 secs, Mass of the car M = 1500 kg,
 1000 
Speed of the car V = 60 kmph =  60   = 16.67m / sec, Number of brakes n = 4
 3600 
Area of each brake = 300 cm 2 , Rise in temperature (To − Ti ) = ?
Dr P R Venkatesh, Mech Dept, RVCE, Bengaluru-59
 1 1
Solution : The kinetic energy of the car is = MV =  1500  16.67 2 = 208.33  10 3 J
2

2 2
Heat disspated by the brake drum surfaces in 6 sec = Loss of kinetic energy of the car due to braking
 q = 208.33  10 3 J (in 6 seconds)
As there are 4 brakes and each has an area 300 cm 2 , the heat dissipated per unit area per second is;
   208.33  10 
3
q
q0 =  =
   = 289.33  10 3
W / m 2

 n  A t
−4
  4  300  10  6 
k (T0 − Ti ) 55  (T0 − Ti )
From page 59, I row; q0 =  289.33  103 =  (T0 - Ti ) = 80.430 C
t   1.24  10−5  6

Dr P R Venkatesh, Mech Dept, RVCE, Bengaluru-59

 Problem 5 (Assignment)
A thick concrete wall of a jet engine test cell is initially at a constant temperature of
21 °C. When there occurs a combination of exhaust gases from the turbojet and the
spray of cooling water, the surface temperature of the wall suddenly rises to 315° C.
Calculate the temperature at a point 7.5 cm from the surface after 7.5 hours. Also
workout the instantaneous heat flow rate at the specified plane heat flow rate at the
surface at the instant and the total heat transferred in 7.5 hours. Use the solution for
semi-infinite solid and take thermal diffusivity  = 1.58 x 10-3 m2/s, thermal
conductivity k = 0.935 W/m-K for the concrete.
Equations to be used :
 Tx − To   x 
(i )   = erf   and the error function ( Z ) table in Page 60
 Ti − To   2 t 
 x2 
k (T0 − Ti ) −
 4t

k (T0 − Ti ) t
(ii ) qx = e 
(iii ) q0 = (iv ) qt = 2k (T0 − Ti )
t t 
Answers : T@ 7.5cm = 2210 C , qx =7.5cm = 1265.6 W / m 2 , qo ,@ x =0 = 1425 W / m 2 , qt = 2849.4 J / m 2
Dr P R Venkatesh, Mech Dept, RVCE, Bengaluru-59