RESISTIVITY TOOLS

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 1. Introduction
2. Conventional Electric Logs (Electric Sondes)
3. Laterolog Tools
4. Microresistivity Tools
5. Environmental Effects and Quality Control
6. Induction Tools

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 Introduction

• The first resistivity logging device was a

modification of a method previously used to detect
underground resistivity anomalies associated with
either geologic features or concentrations of
metallic ores.
• A voltage source sent a current through the
ground between two widely spaced electrodes.
The voltage drop between two more closely
spaced was used as a measure of the ground
resistivity.
• By moving the whole electrode array across the
countryside, it was possible to “map” underground
features.

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 Introduction

The resistivity of a formation depends on:

• Resistivity of the formation water
• Amount of water present
• Pore structure geometry
The resistivity (specific resistance) of a substance is the
resistance measured between opposite faces of a unit
cube of that substance at a specified temperature:

𝐴
𝑉 = 𝐼·𝑅 𝑅 = 𝑟 𝐿 (Ω · 𝑚)

Conductivity is the reciprocal of resistivity and is usually

expressed in millimhos per meter

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 Conventional Electric Logs
Normal Device
• Constant current is passed between A and B
• The voltage potential is measured between M and N (O)
• Downhole adaptation of the pole-pole geometry used in
surface geophysical resistivity methods
• The greater the distance of the two measuring electrodes
from the current electrode A, the deeper these equal-potential
spheres reach into the formation. Short: 16”. Long: 64”
𝐴𝑁
𝐼·𝑅 𝐼·𝑅
𝐸𝑚 − 𝐸𝑛 = 2
· 𝑑𝐿 =
4·𝜋·𝐿 4 · 𝜋 · 𝐴𝑀
𝐴𝑀

𝐾𝑛 · Δ𝐸
𝑅=
𝐼

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 Conventional Electric Logs
Lateral Device
• Similar arrangement to the normal device
• The two measuring electrodes are downhole here
• The space between emitting electrode A and the measuring point
(O) is 18’8” here.
The apparent resistivity recorded by each device is affected by
the resistivities and geometrical dimensions of all media around
the device (borehole, invaded zones, and adjacent beds).

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 Conventional Electric Logs
Normal Tool Behavior

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 Conventional Electric Logs
Lateral Tool Behavior

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 Conventional Electric Logs
ES Tools Behavior in High Resistivity Formations

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 Conventional Electric Logs
Obtaining Rt from the ES Log
General rules for obtaining Rt from electrical logs are based on the relative
resistivity of the bed compared to the resistivities of the mud and surrounding
formation:
• Low resistivity formations (R16”/Rm < 10, invasion up to 2d): Shorter spacings
(normal tool) are most useful in finding Rt.
• Medium resistivity (10 < R16”/Rm < 50): 64” normal is very useful in the lower
portion of the resistivity range (< 20). When the ratio is over 20, the 18’8” lateral
becomes important, either to find Rt or to confirm the apparent 64” value.
• High resistivity (R16”/Rm > 50): The 64” normal is greatly affected by invasion so
the 18’8” lateral is the best choice for estimating Rt.

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 Laterologs
Introduction
The laterologs use arrays of electrodes to focus the current emitted by the center
electrode into the formation, and thereby significantly reduce the effect of the mud.
Laterologs are much superior to the older ES tools to obtain a reliable value of the
true resistivity of the uninvaded formation since they:
• Eliminate many of the detrimental borehole effects
• Work much better in large Rt/Rm environments (salt muds and/or highly resistive
formations) and large resistivity contrast with adjacent beds.
• Provide better resolution of thin beds
Focusing electrode systems are available with deep and medium depths of
investigation, and are often run in tandem with a micro-resistivity log to provide a
very shallow reading.

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 Laterologs
Introduction

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 Laterologs
When to Use a Laterolog
Laterologs should be used when the following conditions exist:
• There is seawater or brine mud in the hole
• The Rmf/Rw ratio is less than 3
• Hole size is less than 16 in
• Bed thickness is less than 10 ft

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 Laterolog
Laterolog 7 (LL7)
• It comprises a center electrode (A0) and three pairs of electrodes
(M1-M2, M’1-M’2, A1-A2) simmetrically located with respecto to A0
and electrically connected to each other by shor-circuiting wire.
• A constant current I0 is emitted from A0. Through bucking
electrodes (A1 and A2), an adjustable current is emitted and its
intensity is adjusted automatically so that the two pairs of
monitoring electrodes are brought to the same potential. The
potential drop is measured between one of the monitoring
electrodes and an electrode at the surface. With a constant I0
current, this potential varies directly with formation resistivity.
• Since the potential difference between the two measuring
electrodes pairs is maintained at zero, no current from A0 is
flowing in the hole between M1 and M’1 or between M2 and M’2.
Therefore, the current from A0 must penetrate horizontally into the
formations.

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 Laterolog
Laterolog 3 (LL3)
• LL3 tool also uses currents from bucking electrodes to focus the
measuring current current into a horizontal sheet penetrating into the
formation.
• Two very long (5 ft) electrodes, A1 and A2, are placed symmetrically on
either side of the central A0 electrode.
• A current I0 flows from the A0 electrode, whose potential is fixed. From
A1 and A2 flows a bucking current, which is automatically adjusted to
maintain A1 and A2 at the potential of A0. All electrodes are thus held at
the same constant potential. The magnitude of the I0 current is then
proportional to formation conductivity.
• The thickness O1O2 of the current sheet is usually about 12 in, much
thinner than for the LL7 device. As a result, the LL3 tool had a better
vertical resolution and showed less influences of the borehole and the
invaded zone.

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 Laterolog
Dual Laterolog I (DLL)
• Previous deep-reading resistivity tools were designed to provide a
response determined exclusively by the virgin formation beyond the
invaded zone.
• A solution is to measure the resistivity with several arrays having
different depth of investigation so the invasion profile can be
approximated well enough to determine Rt.
• For best interpretation accuracy, borehole effects should be small and/or
correctable.
• Vertical resolutions of the devices should also be similar.
• This need resulted in the development of the Dual Laterolog tool with
simultaneous recordings. Both use the same electrodes and have the
same current-beam thickess, but have different focusing to provide their
different depth of investigation characteristics.

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 Laterolog
Dual Laterolog II (DLL)
• In the deep mode, the surveying current I0 that
flows from A0 is focused by bucked currents
from electrodes A2-A’2 and supported by A1-A’1
• In the shallow mode, the bucking currents flow
from A1 to A2 and from A’1 to A’2, reducing the
depth of investigation.
• The electrodes are switched several times
persecond from one to the other configuration,
and the two resistivity traces are produced
simultaneously.
• The DLL measurements are often
supplemented with a shallow resistivity
measurement (MSFL) mounted in a pad

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 Laterolog
DOI and Operational Constrains

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 Microresistivity
Introduction
Microresistivity devices are characterized by short electrode spacings of only a few
inches. This limits such tools to very shallow depths of investigation. Microresistivity
tools are useful in determining the following:
• Flushed zone saturation, Sxo
• Residual oil saturation, (ROS)
• Hydrocarbon movability
• Hydrocarbon density, ρhy
• Invasion diameter, di
• Invasion corrections to deep resistivity devices

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 Microresistivity
Microlog (ML)
• The rubber microlog pad is pressed against
the borehole wall by arms and springs. The
face has three small inline electrodes spaced
1 in apart, the microinverse (M1) and the
micronormal (M2), recorded simultaneously.
• The micronormal device has a greater depth
of investigation. It is therefore less influenced
by the mudcake.
• In impermeable formations, the two curves
read similarly. In permeable formations they
will exhibit some separation, depending on
the contrast between the mudcake resistivity
and the invaded zone.

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 Microresistivity
Microlaterolog (MLL)
• Through the outer electrode A1, a varying
current is emitted and automatically adjusted
so that the potential difference between M1
and M2 is maintaned to zero.
• The greater the value of Rxo/Rmc, the
greater the tendency for the ML I0 current to
escape through the mudcake to the mud in
the borehole. Thus, for high Rxo/Rmc values,
ML readings respond very little to variations
of Rxo.

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 Microresistivity
Micro Spherically Focused Log (MSFL)
The surveying current flows from the central electrode A0.
Bucking currents, passing between A0 and A1, flow in the
mudcake and, to some extent, in the formation. The
measuring current I0 is thereby confined to a path directly in
the formation.
The MSFL has two distinct advantages over the other Rxo
devices:
• It is combinable with other logging tools (DIL, DLL). This
eliminates the need for a separate logging run to obtain
Rxo information
• Improvement in the tool’s response to shallow Rxo zones
in the presence of mudcake. When mudcake thickness
exceeds about 3/8 in., the log readings are severely
influenced at high Rxo/Rmc

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 Microresistivity
DOI and Operational Constrains

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 Microresistivity
DOI and Operational Constrains

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 Microresistivity
Quality Control
Quality control for these devices can be summarized by the following maxims:
• Beware of washed-out holes because (a) pad contact tools lose contact with the
formation and "float" in the mud column and (b) mandrel tools give severely
inaccurate readings.
• Beware of thick mudcakes because pad contact tools require large corrections
• If hole conditions are bad, forget about trying to measure Rxo, because either
the tool will stick or the pad will tear up. Either way, no usable log reading will be
obtained.
• Pad contact resistivity devices do not measure accurately in oil-base mud.

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 Environmental Effects and Quality Control
Tool Response
Main environmental effects affecting formation resistivity measurement:
• Effects of the borehole (Rm)
• Effects of neighboring (shoulder) beds (Rs)
• Effects of mud filtrate invasion
To summarize, assume that a deep-resistivity device measures Rt unless:
• Rt/Rm is greater than 10
• Rt/Rs is greater than 10
• Hole size is greater than 12 inches
• The bed is thinner than 15 feet
• Invasion is greater than 40 inches

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 Environmental Effects and Quality Control
Log Quality Control
• All three resistivity curves should stack in non-
permeable beds once they are corrected for
borehole effects. In porous and permeable zones,
some separation between the laterolog curves is to
be expected, depending on the invasion diameter
and the ratio of Rxo and Rt.
• When several DOI curves are recorded,
intermediate curves should lay between shallow
and deep resistivity curves.
• When looking at the header information in case of
WBM, the resistivity of the mud filtrate should be
lower than the mud resistivity, and this lower than
the resistivity of the mudcake. In case of OBM,
mud resistivity is too high and these fields are left
blank.

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 Environmental Effects and Quality Control
Log Quality Control
• Corrections to the raw data may be necessary when hole
size or depth of invasion exceed optimum parameters for
the tool. Each company has its own charts.
• The MSFL, a pad contact device, is sensitive to mudcake
thickness (hmc) and mudcake resistivity (Rmc). In the range
of normal interest, when laterolog readings lie in the range
of 10 < RLL/Rm < 100, all corrections are within ±10%.
Where hole diameters are large, however, the LLs
correction can become intolerably large.
• Once raw log readings have been corrected for borehole
effects, they may be corrected for invasion effects, using
what is commonly known as a butterfly chart

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 Induction Tools
Introduction
Logging systems used before the introduction of induction logging
depended on the presence of an electrically conductive fluid in the
borehole to transmit electric current to the formation. However, some
wells are drilled with nonconductive fluids, such as oil-based muds, air,
and gas. Under such conditions, it is impossible to obtain a satisfactory
electrical log using conventional electric logging tools.

Induction logging does not depend upon physical contact between the
walls of the wellbore and the logging tool. The transmitter coil is
energized with alternating current, which induces in the formation a
secondary current that is proportional to the electrical conductivity of the
formation and to the cross-sectional area affected by the energizing coil.
This current induces a signal into a receiver coil, the intensity of which is
proportional to the formation current and conductivity. The signal
detected by the receiver coil is amplified and recorded at the surface.

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 Induction Tools
When to Use an Induction Tool
Induction tools should be used when the following
conditions exist:
• There is fresh water, air or oil based mud in the hole
• The Rmf/Rw ratio is greater than 3
• The Rt is less than 150 ohm-m
• The bed thickness is greater than 30 feet
Two commonly used induction tools are the single-and
dual-induction devices. Each of these tools can be
combined with the other sensors, thereby allowing both
porosity and resistivity logs to be recorded
simultaneously.

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 Induction Tools
Skin Effect
In very conductive formations, the induced
secondary currents in the ground loops are
large, and their magnetic fields are important.
The magnetic fields of these ground loops
induce additional electrical voltages in other
ground loops. These induced voltages are out of
phase with those induced by the transmitter coil.
The interaction between the ground loops
causes a reduction of the conductivity signal
recorded on the logs, which is called ‘skin effect’.
Skin effect becomes significant when formation
conductivity exceeds 1,000 mmho/m

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 Induction Tools
Induction Tools Evolution
1. The 6FF40 induction-electrical survey (IES) tool included a 6-coil focused induction
device, a 16-in. Normal, and an SP electrode. Introduced in the late 1950’s
2. The DIL-LL8 system used a deep-reading induction device, a medium induction
device, an LL8 device, and an SP electrode. The LL8 was a focused, shallow-
investigation device with better thin-bed resolution and less borehole influence than
the 16-in. Normal.
3. The induction-SFL (ISF) tool incorporated a deep induction device, the SFL device
and an SP electrode. The tool was combinable with the borehole compensated
sonic tool and with a gamma ray (GR) device. The combination offered the ability to
evaluate the hydrocarbon potential of the well in a single logging run. The sonic log
provided porosity evaluation and the ISF log provided saturation evaluation.

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 Induction Tools
Induction Tools Evolution-ISF/Sonic

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 Induction Tools
Environmental corrections
1. Borehole size: The borehole effects due to the current loop in the mud can be
corrected by using a special chart. The size of the correction is insignificant in fresh,
resistive muds, but quite significant in salty, conductive muds. Charts give
corrections for various curves and for various standoffs.

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 Induction Tools
Environmental corrections
2. Invasion Effects: The “integrated radial geometric factor” (G) describes the radial
response of the induction tool. It reveals which fraction of the measured signal comes from
which radial distance from the tool. If the diameter of invasion is small, then G is small and
the entire signal will come from the undisturbed zone. In this case, RID is equal to Rt. If di is
large, then G is also large and a large part of the total signal will come from the filtrate-
invaded zone. In this case, RID reads somewhere between Rt and Rxo.

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 Induction Tools
Environmental corrections
3. Shoulder beds: The need for a correction in thin beds is generally well recognized. Not so
well recognized is the need for a correction when bed thickness is in the 10- to 30-ft range and
bed resistivity exceeds 5 ohm-m.

4. High-Resistivity Formations: In high-resistivity formations, the conductivity signal

measured by the induction tool is very small. After calibration there is still an uncertainty of
about ± 2 mmho/m on the standard induction measurements. This can represent an error of
20% on the signal from a formation of 100 ohm-m (10 mmho/m). This error can be reduced by
downhole calibration if a suitable impervious, thick formation of very high resistivity is present.

5. Annulus: In a hydrocarbon-bearing formation of high K and very low Sw, an annulus of high
formation Sw may form between the flushed zone and the virgin zone. If Rmf is greater than
Rw, the annulus may have a resistivity lower than either Rxo or Rt. This has the effect of
reducing the induction resistivity reading so that an erroneously low value is obtained after
applying standard corrections.

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 Induction Tools
Phasor Tool
The Phasor Induction SFL tool has a deep induction
device, a medium induction device, an SFL device and
an SP electrode. The tool employs a digital
transmission and processing system and a continuous
calibration verification.

In addition to the usual inphase (R-signal) induction

measurements, the tool makes a high quality
measurement of the induction quadrature signal (X-
signals). These measurements are combined with new
advances in signal processing to provide a dual
induction SFL log with thin-bed resolution down to 2 ft,
and with full correction for environmental distortions
such as shoulder beds effect, borehole effect, skin
effect or invasion effects.

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 Induction Tools
Array Induction Tool
With the Phasor Induction tool, the dual-induction concept had reached
its limits. In particular, improvements were needed in better estimates
of Rt in the presence of deep-invasion or complex transition zones.

These response problems, coupled with an increasing use of OBM, led

to the concept of using several induction arrays with different depths of
investigation. The Schlumberger AIT was designed with eight simple
three-coil arrays ranging in length from 6 in. to 6 ft.

In general, induction logs use should be very careful making

quantitative analysis in deviated wells, or when the formation is
dipping. If the shoulder-bed contrast is 20 or less, then the minimum
angle where dip correction is needed is approximately 30°. At
shoulder-bed contrast of over 100, the logs will need correction at dips
as low as 10°.

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 Induction Log
DOI and Operational Constrains

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 Applications
Laterolog and Induction Log
1. Fluid Saturation: Archie's equation assumes that all electrical conductivity occurs in
the water saturated portion of the porosity in a rock, with the rock matrix and any
hydrocarbons acting as insulators. The presence of clays in the formation (a "shaly sand")
creates additional formation conductivity (a lower formation resistivity than an equivalent
"clean" sand). In this case, Archie's equation will predict an Sw greater than is actually in
the formation. Several "shaly sand equations" have been developed to account for the
effects of clays. The most commonly used are Simandoux, Dual Water, and Waxman-
Smits.

1
𝑎 · 𝑅𝑤 𝑛
𝑆𝑤 =
𝜙 𝑚 · 𝑅𝑡

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 Applications
Laterolog and Induction Log
2. Detection of geopressures: Deep resistivity values in the shales in a well are plotted
on a reduced scale, and a trend with depth defined. The trend is usually one of increasing
resistivity with increasing depth. An abrupt decrease in shale resistivity with increasing
depth usually indicates an increase in formation pressure.

3. Diameter of invasion: Diameter of invasion is determined as a byproduct of the

correction of the Deep Laterolog curve using a graphical "tornado chart" (or mathematical
equivalent). Using the chart, ratios of the Deep/Shallow and Deep/Rxo resistivity
measurements are entered on the x and y axes, and values for invasion diameter (di),
Rt/Rxo, and Rt/RDeep are read from the three families of curves.

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 Applications
Microresistivity
1. Flushed Zone Water Saturation: In the flushed zone form of Archie's equation shown
here, Rt is replaced by Rxo, and Rw is replaced by Rmf, with the assumption that all the
original water has been replaced by drilling mud filtrate. Comparison of Sxo and Sw (using
the same form of Archie's equation) gives some indication of (qualitative) permeability, and
the amount of hydrocarbons which will be moved during production. Because of the
design of MicroLogs, the resistivity from the log may vary significantly from the actual
resistivity of the formation. They should not be used in these calculations.

1
𝑎 · 𝑅𝑚𝑓 𝑛
𝑆𝑥𝑜 =
𝜙 𝑚 · 𝑅𝑥𝑜

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 Applications
Microresistivity
2. Identification of Permeability: For Micrologs: The micronormal resistivity is greater
than the microinverse resistivity ("positive separation"). There should also be mudcake, as
shown by a decrease in the caliper reading. For other Rxo tools: Compare the reading
with the resistivity from deeper reading tools. The relationship between the readings will
depend on the contrast between the formation water resistivity and the mud filtrate
resistivity.

3. Fracture Identification: Rapid curve movement, or "hashiness", may be an indicator of

fractures as the tools see conductive mud-filled fractures alternating with less conductive
beds. Rough hole may cause the same response. This technique should be used only as
one piece of information along with others in trying to determine the presence of fractures.

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 Applications
Microresistivity
4. Thin Bed Definition: These tools will identify very thin beds. The bed definition can be
used qualitatively to estimate the effect on the deeper reading tools. Bed thickness
information from these tools can also be used in software which attempts to make
quantitative thin bed (or laminated reservoir) corrections to other resistivity and porosity
tools.

5. Invasion Corrections to Other Resistivity Measurements: Rxo tools are usually run
in combination with two deeper reading tools (e.g. deep and shallow laterolog, deep and
medium induction log). Using the combination of three measurements, invasion
corrections may be made using "tornado charts" or equivalent algorithms.

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