Given : 12.

6g of CCl4 500ml of benzene and 438g of solution

The rate of effusion of molecular fluorine than molecular bromine

Gas has a volume 23L and -45C and 1000mmHg of pressure.

(STP= 273k and 760mmHg)
Benzene (C6H6) is a non-polar solvent. if 48.1g of methane (CH4) is
dissolved in 750g of benzene what will the boiling point of the solution
be

LiCl(aq) + AgNO3(aq) -----} LiNo3(aq) + AgCl (S)

Ionic :
Net equation :

2Fe(NO3)3 + 3K2S -----} Fe2s3 + 6KNO3

Ionic :
Net equation :
Chapter 12
soluble = capable of being dissolved
solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more
substances uniformly dispersed throughout a single
phase.
The dissolving medium in a solution is the solvent,
the substance dissolved in a solution is the solute.
In a solution, the dissolved solute particles are so
small that they cannot be seen
Types of Solutions

If the particles in a solvent are so large (over 1000 nm in

diameter) that they settle out unless the mixture is
constantly stirred, the mixture is called a suspension
Particles that are smaller than suspension but bigger
than solutions are called colloids
the Tyndall effect, this occurs when light is scattered by
colloidal particles dispersed in a transparent medium.
The Tyndall effect is a property that can be used to
distinguish between a solution and a colloid
A substance that dissolves in water to give a solution that
conducts electric current is called an electrolyte. Sodium
chloride, NaCl, is an electrolyte, as is any soluble ionic
compound. Certain highly polar molecular compounds,
such as hydrogen chloride, HCl, A substance that
dissolves in water to give a solution that does not
conduct an electric current is called a nonelectrolyte.

Several factors affect dissolving

Increasing the Surface Area of the Solute : the more
finely divided a substance is, the greater the surface
area per unit mass and the more quickly it dissolves.
Agitating a Solution : Stirring or shaking helps to
disperse the solute particles and bring fresh solvent
into contact with the solute surface
Heating a Solvent : higher temperatures, collisions
between the solvent molecules and the solute are
more frequent. This separates and disperses the
solute molecules.
Solubility
is a measure of how well one substance dissolves in another

Saturated : A solution that contains the perfect

amount of dissolved solute
Supersaturated : contains the most amount of
dissolved solute, it can also form crystals if it
remained undisturbed
Unsaturated : least amount of solute
“Like Dissolves Like” : Polar and ionic solutes tend to
dissolve in polar solvents and nonpolar solutes tend to
dissolve in nonpolar solvents.
Nonpolar Solvents : Ionic compounds are generally
not soluble in nonpolar solvents such as carbon
tetrachloride, CCl4, and toluene, C6H5CH3. The
nonpolar solvent molecules do not attract the ions of
the crystal strongly enough to overcome the forces
holding the crystal together
Liquids that are not soluble in each other are immiscible.
Toluene and water are another example of immiscible
substances.
Liquids that dissolve freely in one another in any
proportion are said to be miscible. Benzene and carbon
tetrachloride are miscible
Hydrogen bonding between the solute and solvent
enhances the solubility of ethanol in water.

Henry’s law :
The solubility of a gas in a liquid is directly proportional
to the partial pressure of that gas on the surface of the
liquid
constant volume at a constant temperature, each gas
exerts the same pressure
The rapid escape of a gas from a liquid in which it is
dissolved is known as effervescence.
Temperature and Solubility of Gases:
The solubility of gases in water decreases with
increasing temperature

The concentration of a solution is a measure of the

amount of solute in a given amount of solvent or solution
“Dilute” means that there is a relatively small amount of
solute in a solvent. “Concentrated,” on the other hand, means
that there is a relatively large amount of solute in a solvent
 Molarity and molality :
Molarity : is the number of moles of solute in one liter of
solution

Molality : the concentration of a solution expressed in

moles of solute per kilogram of solvent.

Chapter 13
This separation of ions that occurs when an ionic
compound dissolves is called dissociation.

A strong electrolyte a compound whose dilute aqueous solutions

conduct electricity well; this is due to the presence of large amount
dissolved compound in the form of ions. like NaCl and HCl
A weak electrolyte a compound whose dilute aqueous
solutions conduct electricity poorly; this is due to the
presence of a small amount of ions
 Colligative Properties :
Vapor pressure lowering : The vapor pressure of the
solution is lower than the vapor pressure of the pure
solvent. The solute thus reduces the freezing point
and elevates the boiling point.
The freezing-point depression, ∆ tf ,: is the difference
between the freezing points of the pure solvent and
the solution in that solvent, and it is directly
proportional to the molal concentration of the
solution

The boiling-point elevation, ∆tb : difference between

the boiling points of the pure solvent and the solution
of that solvent, and it is directly proportional to the
molal concentration of the solution.

osmosis The movement of solvent through a

semipermeable membrane from the side of lower
solute concentration to the side of higher solute
concentration
molal freezing-point constant ( Kf ) is the freezing-point
depression of the solvent in a 1-molal solution of a
nonvolatile, nonelectrolyte solute.
molal boiling-point constant ( Kb ) is the boiling-point
elevation of the solvent in a 1-molal solution of a
nonvolatile, nonelectrolyte solute.
Rules
D = m/v
mass/Mm = moles
Molarity = mole of solute/ L of solution
Molality = Mole of solute/ kg of solvent
∆Tf = Molality*Kb(constant)
∆Tb = Molality*Kb(constant)
boiling point = Tb + solvent Bp
freezing point = Tf - solvent Fp
M1V1 = M2V2
P1V1 = P2V2
V1T2 = V2T1
P1T2 = P2T1
P1V1T2 = P2V2T1
Pv = nRT
R= 0.082 (atm), 8.3 (Pa), 62.4 (mmHg)
P(total) = P1 + P2 + P3 ............
P from Atm to kpa = Atm*101.3
P from mmHg to Kpa = mmHg *101/760
STP : T= 273K P= 1atm(760mmHg) V= 22.4L
Mass% = mass of solute/mass of solution*100
( mass of solvent + solute)
Volume% = volume of solute/volume of solution
*100 ( volume of solvent + solute)
rate of effusion = root(Molarity of B)/root(M of A)