CHAPTER 6- LECTURE 1 and 2
memory processes
ENCODING PROCESSES
• ACOUSTIC CODE: Information is encoded based on its
sound
- If you hear a new word, you might remember it
by repeating its sound in your mind
• SEMANTIC CODE: Information is encoded based on its
meaning
- You might remember the word, “dog” because you
know what it refers to
• VISUAL CODE: Information is encoded based on its visual
appearance
- You might remember a particular image or text
because of how it looks
Forms of encoding
• Memories are encoded to be stored: When we
experience something or learn new information, our brain
encodes it in a certain way so that it can be stored and
later retrieved
• Short term vs Long term storage
- Different systems for storing information
- Serve different purposes
- Different encoding strategies
• Different codes:
- Short term memory = acoustic encoding
- Long term memory = semantic encoding
ENCODING IN THE STM
While encoding is predominantly acoustic in STM, both
semantic and visual encoding can also occur.
• When we make errors in retrieving words from short-term
memory, the errors tend to reflect confusions in sound
Evidence For Acoustic Encoding In Stm
• CONRAD’S STUDY:
- Participants were shown visually presented letters
but tended to remmeber them based on their
sounds rather than their visual appearance.
Þ This suggests that even when information is presented
visually, it is encoded acoustically in STM
EVIDENCE FOR SEMANTIC ENCODING IN STM:
• SHULMAN’S STUDY:
- Participants showed similar error rates for words
with similar meanings (synonyms) or sounds
(homonyms)
Þ This indicates some level of semantic encoding in the STM
EVIDENCE FOR VISUAL ENCODING IN THE
STM
• POSNER & KEELE’S STUDY:
- Participants responded faster to visually similar
letters in a letter-matching task
Þ Indicates that they were encoding and comparing the
visual appearance of the letters, suggesting a role for
visual encoding in STM
ENCODING IN THE LTM
Primarily semantic, but visual and acoustic encoding is also
significant
- Flexible
EVIDENCE FOR SEMANTIC ENCODING IN LTM
• GROSSMAN & EAGLE:
- Participants studied a list of 41 words and were
tested on recognition after a delay.
- Distractors included words that were either
semantically related or unrelated to the studied
words
- Participants showed a higher rate of false alarms
for semantically related distractors
Þ Indicated a greater likelihood of semantic confusion
during recall
• BOUSFIELD:
- Participants learned a list of 60 words consisting
of various categories.
- When asked to recall the words, participants
tended to group them into categories, suggesting
semantic clustering
MNEUMONIC TECHNIQUES
*music can serve as a retrieval cue also
CATEGORICAL Organize items into categories.
CLUSTERING
 i.e.,: grouping food items into
categories like fruits, dairy products,
breads and vegetables
Creating vivid mental images that
link together
INTERACTIVE i.e., Imagining using scissors to cut a
IMAGES* sock with an apple stuffed in it
helps remember the items “socks”,
“apple” and “scissors”
Associate new words with previously
memorized words and form
PEGWORD SYSTEM* interactive images between them
i.e., One is a “bun”, two is a “shoe”,
three is a “tree”
Visualize walking through a familiar
place and linking landmarks with
METHODS OF LOCI* items to be remembered
i.e., Associating a sock on a house’s
chimney, a pair of scissors cutting a
tree, etc.
Form a word or expression where
each letter represents another word
or concept
ACRONYM
i.e., using "I AM PACK" to remember
Interactive Images, Acronyms,
Method of Loci, Pegwords, Acrostics,
Categories, and Keywords.
Create a sentence where the first
letter of each word represents the
initial letter of the items to be
ACROSTIC remembered.
i.e., “Every Good Boy Does Fine” to
remember the notes on lines of the
treble clef.
Link the sound and meaning of a
foreign word with a familiar word
i.e., Associating the French word
KEYWORD SYSTEM
“beurre” with “bear” and visualizing a
bear eating butter to remember the
meaning “beure”.
Free Recall = imagery of isolated items > verbal rehearsal
Serial Recall = verbal rehearsal > imagery of isolated items
Evidence for acoustic encoding in
ltm
• RUBIN:
- Participants showed eviednce of long-term
memory for songs, recalling more text when
provided with a melody
Þ Indicates that acoustic information can be encoded in
LTM
EVIDENCE FOR VISUAL ENCODING IN LTM
• FROST:
- Participants studied drawings with different
orientations and semantic categories.
- After a delay, participants were asked about
objects with the same name as the test object.
- Participants responded faster to identical
drawings
AUTISM AND SEMANTIC ENCODING
• TOICHI & KAMIO
- Individuals with autism may not encode
information semantically to the same extent as
neurotypical individuals
• HARRIS et al.
- Less activation in Broca’s area during semantic
processing in individuals with autism
Þ Semantic deficits
Broca’s Area: (frontal lobe)
- Speech production
- Involved in language production
- Motor-related hand movements
- Sensorimotor learning and integration
Wernicke’s Area (temporal lobe)
- Understanding spoken language
TRANSFERRING INFO FROM STM to LTM
CHALLENGES
1. INTERFERENCE:
- Occurs when the retreival of information from LTM is
disrupted by the presence of other information.
i.e., If you watch two crime movies with the same actor
and then try to remember the storyline of one, you might
mix it up with the other.
2. DECAY:
- Fading or weakening of memories over time if they
are not reheared or retrieved
THE PROCESS
Depends on whether the information involves declarative or
nondeclarative memory
• Declarative memory: facts or knowledge
• Nondeclarative memory: procedural memories (i.e., skills)
- Can decay quickly
- Priming and habituation
- Can be maintained more readily, particularly as a
result of repeated practice (of procedures) or
repeated conditioning (of responses)
 1. ELABORATIVE REHEARSAL: involves elaborating on
1. DELIBERATE ATTENTION items to be remembered, making them more
• Focusing on the information and comprehending it helps in meaningfully integrated or connected
the encoding process, facilitating its transfer to the LTM - Focus → think about it → discuss
2. MAKING CONNECTIONS 2. MAINTENANCE REHEARSAL: involves repeating items
• Creating associations between the new information and our without elaboration
existing knowledge and understanding. By linking the new - Does not transfer info to LTM
information with what we already know, we integrate it - Temporarily in STM
into our existing schemas or mental frameworks.
´ Without elaboration, information cannot be organized
3. CONSOLIDATION and transferred.
• The process of integrating new information into existing
memory stores. SPACING EFFECT
• Makes info more stable and resistant to interference The phenomenon where distributing study sessions over time
• Occurs over time, allows the newly acquired information to enhances the consolidation of information in LTM
become more firmly established in LTM
» Here, our memory is susceptible to distortion and • Distributed practices = better memory retention compared
disruption to massed practice (crammed sessions)
4. INTEGRATION AND ELABORATION
• Integrating the new information into existing schemas or
mental frameworks helps in organizing and structuring the
information for easier retrieval.
• Becomes more accessible in LTM
FOCUS → MAKE CONNECTIONS W/ EXISTING KNOWLEDGE → CONSOLIDATE NEW
INFO (INTEGRATING NEW INFO WITH EXISTING INFO)
AMNESICS
Individuals who have suffered from brief forms of amnesia
Studies: Examination of amnesic patients who have undergone • Maximizing the space effect involves distributing study
electroconvulsive therapy (ECT), which can induce temporary sessions ideally over months rather than days or weeks
memory impairment.
- By studying these patients, researchers can • Varying the contexts for encoding during study sessions
investigate how disruptions in the consolidation enriches and elaborates schemas for the info = better
process affect memory functioning. memory
recall.
PRINCIPLES TO STREGTHEN MEMORY
METAMEMORY » Used by
• Involve reflecting on our own memory processes to companies
preserve or enhance the integrity of memories during producing
consolidation consumer
• IMPORTANT when transferring new information to LTM products
through rehearsal and
• Part of metacognition advertising
companies
• GOAL: Anchor their products into LTM so that it
Metacognition: involves thinking about and controlling our own
pops up in your head when you are in need of a
though processes particular product
- Thinking about how we think
LINKED TO CONSOLIDATION
REHEARSAL
• Involves the repeated recitation of an item, which helps SLEEP AND MEMORY CONSOLIDATION
keep information active
• “Practice effects” Rapid Eye Movement (REM) sleep is crucial for memory
• Can be overt – aloud consolidation
• Can be covert - silent - Dreaming
- Increased brainwave activity
• Disruptions in REM sleep patterns after learning can
impair memory consolidation, leading to reduced
improvement in tasks.
Insomnia: Deprives individuals of REM sleep and can result in
difficulties with memory consolidation
- Prolonged sleep deprivation can negatively affect the
development of new cells in the hippocampus (crucial
region for memory formation
• Plays a role in synaptic consolidation, strenghtening
memories previously organized during slow-wave (deep)
sleep
- Synaptic consolidation: process through which
memories are streghtened by the integration of new
cells into the neuronal network.
• REM sleep may also help weaken memories of low value,
aiding in forgetting certain information
Visual Discrimination Task: This refers to a task where you
have to distinguish between different visual stimuli, like
identifying different shapes or patterns.
1. Disruptions in REM Sleep: If something interrupts
your REM sleep after you've learned something, you
won't improve as much on tasks involving visual
discrimination compared to when your REM sleep is
normal.
2. Other Sleep Stages: Disruptions in other stages of
sleep, like deep sleep (stage-three or stage-four),
don't have the same effect on this kind of task. It's
specifically disruptions in REM sleep that seem to
impact visual memory consolidation.
NEUROSCIENCE: HOW ARE MEMORIES STORED?
CEREBRAL CORTEX
• Outer layer of the brain responsible for processing sensory
information and higher cognitive functions
• Different sensory properties of experiences are organized
across various areas of the cerebral cortex.
- Visual information = Visual cortex
- Spatial information = Parietal cortex
• Crucial for long term storage of info acquired through
sensory experiences
HIPPOCAMPUS
• Located in the temporal lobe
• Critical role in:
Declarative memory
- Explicit memory: conscious recall of specific events
or facts from personal experiences
1. Episodic memory: memory of specific events in your
life
2. Semantic memory: general knowledge and concepts
about the world
• Particularly important for the encoding, integration and
consolidation of sensory information into the LTM
• Helps in linking different pieces of info together and
transferring them into long term storage
• Also involved in the recollection of information during
memory retrieval
OTHER BRAIN STRUCTURES AND PROCESSES
Other Cerebral Structures
1. BASAL GANGLIA: procedural memory
2. CEREBELLUM: memory for conditioned responses and
cognitive tasks
3. AMYGDALA: associated w/ emotional events and plays a
significant role in memory consolidation
Microlevel Structure of Memory
• LONG TERM POTENTIATION: process where repeated
stimulation of neural pathways strengthens synaptic
connections (enhacing the likelihood of firing)
- Neurons can change their interactions in response to
expriences → changes in synapses → formation of
new memories
*they are plastic
• BRAIN OSCILLATIONS: (repetitive neural activity)
NEUROTRANSMITTERS
Various NTs influence memory formation
• Acetylcholine enhance neural transmission associated with
memory
- Disruptions can impair memory formations
» High levels of Acetylcholine found in hippocampus
(normal) / Low levels (Alzheimer’s)
• Serotonin plays a role in memory function
- Disruption, often caused by alcohol consumption, can
impair memory formation
» Korsakoff’s Syndrome: form of amnesia resulting from
alcohol abuse, is associated with serotonin dysfunction
and damage to brain regions like the thalamus,
hypothalamus, frontal lobes, and temporal lobes
• Norepinephrine enhances neural transmission associated
w/ memory
 HORMONES
Some increase the availability of glucose (source of energy for
neuronal activity) in the brain
• These hormones are often associated with emotionally
arousing events (i.e., traumas, achievements)
- Adrenaline
- Cortisol
• These are released during stress and can modulate
memory formation and consolidation
RETRIEVAL
RETRIEVAL FROM STM
SAUL STERNBERG’S EXPERIMENT
Experiment Setup:
- Participants were presented with short lists of digits
to remember in STM.
- After a brief
pause, a test digit was shown, and participants had to
indicate whether it was in the memorized set
• PARALLEL VS SERIAL PROCESSING
- Parallel processing: involves handling multiple
operations simultaneously
Þ Consistent response times regardless of set
size
- Serial processing: involves operations being done one
after another
Þ Bigger set = longer response time
• EXHAUSTIVE VS SELF-TERMINATING PROCESSING
- Exhaustive serial processing: participants check the
test digit against all digits in the positive set
Þ Consistent response times
- Self terminating processing: they stop once a match
is found
Þ Response time varies based on the position
of the test digit
Experiment Findings:
• As the list got longer, it took longer to check each number
- Serial exhaustive model
- Parallel processing can also be a reason (distinction is
not clear cut)
Implications:
• Memory processing strategies may vary depending on the
stimuli being processed.
Retrieval From LTM
Study: Participants by Tulving and Pearlstone were tested on
their memory for categorized word lists.
• EFFECT OF CATEGORIZATION ON RETRIEVAL:
- Cued recall (participants were given category cues)
led to significantly better recall compared to free
recall
- Suggests that apparent memory failures are often
due to retrieval difficulties rather than storage issues.
• IMPACT OF PRESENTATION FORMAT ON RECALL
- Participants learned word listss either in random
order or presented hierarchically (tree structure)
- Hierarchal presentation > Random order
- Suggests how the organization of information can
affect retrieval
AVAILABILITY VS ACCESSIBILITY OF INFORMATION
• Cognitive psychologists often face challenges in
distinguishing between the availability (presence) and
accessibility (ease of retrieval) of information stored in
LTM
• Researchers often have to settle for measuring its
accesibility
PROCESSES OF FORGETTING AND MEMORY
DISTORTION
INTERFERENCE THEORY
• Forgetting occurs when recall of certain info interferes
with the recall of other info
Retroactive Interference: happens when newly acquired
knowledge hinders the recall of older material
- i.e., new info about the Cold War interferes with
existing info about World War II
Proactive Interference: happens when previously learned
material impedes the learning of new material
- i.e., learning the F keyboard after learning the Q
keyboard
• Interference can also occur with different types of
information
- i.e., verbal and quantitative information
SCHEMAS AND RECALL
Schemas (mental frameworks representing knowledge)
influence how people recall information

• Existing schemas affect memory tasks, leading to
interference or distortion of recalled information
SERIAL-POSITION CURVE
Demonstrates the:
- primacy effect (superior recall of words at the
beginning of a list)
- recency effect (superior recall of words at the end
of the list
• Proactive interference = words at the end of the list
• Retroactive interference = words at the beginning of the
list
• Both types of interference = words in the middle of the
list
DECAY THEORY
Forgetting occurs due to the gradual disappearance of memory
traces over time.
• INTERFERENCE > DECAY (esp. in STM)
THE CONSTRUCTIVE NATURE OF MEMORY
• Memory is constructive = prior experiences influence how
we recall events and what we remember
AUTOBIOGRAPHICAL MEMORY
Autobiographical memory: recalling one’s personal history
- People remember their own interpretation or
reconstruction of events rather than an exact replica
of what happened.
• Subject to distortions
- Despite distortion, ppl seem to remember the central
characteristics of events accurately, even if they
misremember minor details
• Self-esteem influences the formation and recall of
autobiographical memories.
- Positive self esteem = More positive events
- Negative self esteem = More negative events
FACTORS
1. Emotional intensity
2. Personal significance
3. Individual differences
Forms a vital part of personal identity and contributes to our
understanding of the past
FLASHBULB MEMORY
Vivid recollections of highly emotional or significant events
• Emotional intensity = Accuracy of recall
• Can form under 3 circumstances
1. When the event is important
2. Surprising
3. Emotionally impactful
• Different memory processes DO NOT come into play
MEMORY PROCESSES AND BRAIN REGIONS
• Flashbulb memories are encoded and retreived similarly
to other memories,
- Elaboration
- Rehearsal
• MEDIAL TEMPORAL LOBE (like the Hippocampus)
- Plays a crucial role in autobiographical memory recall
- LESIONS = impair the recall of recent
autobiographical memories while sparing more remote
memories
MEMORY DISTORTION
7 SINS OF MEMORY
1. TRANSIENCE: Memory fades over time, leading to the loss
of details or the context of events
2. ABSENT-MINDEDNESS: Forgetting occurs due to lapses
in attention or awareness
- i.e., forgetting what one was looking for in a room
3. BLOCKING: Inability to retrieve specific information
despite knowing it’s stored in memory.
- i.e., forgetting someone’s name even though its known
4. MISATTRIBUTION: Incorrectly attributing memories to
the wrong source
- i.e., mistaking where one heard certain information
5. SUGGESTIBILITY: Vulnerability to suggesting leading to
the incorporation of false details into memories
6. BIAS: Memory recall can be biased by current attitudes,
emotions, or experiences.
- i.e., individuals experiencing chronic pain may
exaggerate or distort memories of past pain, while
those without such experiences may understate or
forget those memories
7. PERSISTENCE: Some memories persist despite being
inconsequential or irrelevant in a general context. This can
lead to fixation on minor failures or negative events,
overshadowing more significant successes.
EYEWITNESS TESTIMONY
• PREVALENCE AND ERRORS
- A significant number of suspects are arrested based
on eyewitness identification
 - Errors in EI contribute to wrongful convictions
- Estimates of mistaken EI vary widely but indicate
potential for alarming errors.
• CASE EXAMPLE: TIMOTHY’S ACQUITTAL
- In 1986, Timothy was convicted of brutally murdering
a mother and her two young daughters (Dolan, 1995).
- He was then sentenced to die, and for 2 years and 4
months, Timothy lived on death row.
- Although the physical evidence did not point to
Timothy, eyewitness testimony placed him near
the scene of the crime at the time of the murder.
- Subsequently, it was discovered that a man who
looked like Timothy was a frequent visitor to the
neighborhood of the murder victims.
- Timothy received a second trial and was acquitted.
• INFLUENCE OF EYEWITNESS TESTIMONY
- Influence jury decisions
´ Placing greater weight on the confidence of the
witness, even if the details are inconsistent or
lacking
- People may fabricate memories based on suggestions
or imagined scenarios, leading to inaccuracies in their
testimony.
• FACTORS INFLUENCING EYEWITNESS TESTIMONY
- Lineup procedures
- Confessions
- Lineup feedback
- Stress levels
- Race
- Severity of the crime
• CHILDREN AS EYEWITNESSES
- Susceptible to suggestion and distortion
- Younger children are more susceptible to suggestive
questioning and pressure from authority figures
- May also have difficulty distinguishing between
actual observations and stories they’ve heard →
inaccuracies in their testimony
REPRESSED MEMORIES
Memories that are alleged to have been pushed down into the
unconscious mind due to the distress they cause.
• ROEDIGER-MCDERMOTT PARADIGM
CHAPTER 7: LECTURE 2-4
- Demonstrates memory distortion in the lab setting
- Participants are given lists of words associated with
critical non-presented word.
- When asked to recall the non-presented word, participants
often incorrectly believed they have seen it
- Source monitoring errors and spreading activation
• SKEPTICISM ON REPRESSED MEMORIES
1- Implanting False Memories
Therapists may unintentionally implant false memories in
their clients → unreliable testimony
2- Difficulty In Verifying Memories:
Memories of past trauma, especially childhood, may lack
evidence to verify their accuracy, making it hard to
confirm whether they’re genuine or fabricated
3- Lack Of Compelling Evidence:
Scientific evidence supporting the existence of
repressed memories is limited. Studies on memory
distortion suggest that memories can be easily
influenced, raising doubts about their reliability.
4- Alternative Explanations:
- Source Monitoring Errors: Process of attributing the
origin of a memory or piece of information to a particular
source
i.e., whether it was experienced firsthand, heard from
someone else, or imagined
- Spreading Activation: A cognitive process that occurs
when the activation of one concept or memory triggers
the activation of related concepts or memories in memory
networks
i.e., if someone hears the word “dog,” related concepts
such as “pet,” “barking,” might also become activated in
their mind.
CONTEXT EFFECTS ON MEMORY
FACTORS THAT CAN INFLUENCE MEMORY RETRIEVAL: :
- Emotions
- Moods
- States of consciousness
- External contexts
• Encoding specifity the principle that what is recalled
depends on what was encoded.
- Memories encoded in a particular mood or physical
environment may be more readily retrieved in a similar
context
• Self-generated retrieval cues (self-reference effect) >
cues provided by ot
 Mental images and propositions
Mental reppresentations of knowledge
DECLARATIVE KNOWLEDGE: Consists of stated facts or
information that can explicitly verbalized.
i.e., knowing the date of your birth, the name of your best
friend, or the appearance of a rabbit
- Memory of knowing that
• Words follow rules and express ideas one after
another, while pictures show everything at once.
4. Showing Relationships:
• Pictures can visually show how things relate, while
words describe relationships more directly.

PROCEDURAL KNOWLEDGE: a.k.a. “Procedure Memory” PICTURES IN YOUR MIND: IMAGERY

involves knowledge of processes or procedures.
- Memory of knowing how to do things IMAGERY: When you picture things in your mind that you’re
i.e., the steps involved in tying your shoelaces, adding a column not currently seeing or sensing with your senses
of numbers or driving a car
TYPES OF IMAGERY
COMMUNICATING KNOWLEDGE Can represent both real-world experiences and imagined
The choice between using pictures or words = nature of the scenarios:
information being conveyed - Sights
- Sounds
• PICTURES - Smells
- Knowledge can be stored as mental images or pictures. - Tastes
- Particularly useful for concrete objects or visual concepts - Things that don’t exist
- i.e., questions about the shape of a chicken egg or
butterfly FUNCTIONS OF MENTAL IMAGERY
• Problem-solving
• WORDS • Memory enhancement
- Representation of knowledge through language and words • Creative-thinking
- Used for abstract concepts or ideas that are not easily • Allows individuals to mentally manipulate objects
visualized • Navigate environments
- i.e., justice or love • Envision solutions to complex ideas

• ABSTRACT PROPOSITIONS/MENTALESE APPLICATIONS OF MENTAL IMAGERY

- Representation of knowledge in an abstract form that
doesn’t necessarily correspond directly to language or
imagery.
- Mentalese: a hypothetical language of thought/internal
language of the mind
- No grammatical rules
- i.e., our thoughts about justice may involve abstract
symbols or representations that capture the essence of
the concept
COMMUNICATING KNOWLEDGE: pictures
vs words
1. Comparison of Pictures and Words:
• Pictures are good for showing concrete things, while
words are better for expressing abstract ideas.
• Pictures are great for details
• Words are better for complex ideas and relationships
2. Arbitrary Nature of Words:
• Words don't naturally relate to what they represent;
their meaning depends on the language.
3. How Information is Represented:
• Guided imagery: used to manage pain, stregthen immune
responses and alleviate psychological disorders
• Can be used in healthcare, education and engineering
• Can be used to visualize structures, processes and solve
problems
MEMORY ENHANCEMENT
• Integrating mental imagery with auditory information can
improve memory retention
• Has helped individuals with Down Syndrome
DUAL CODE THEORY
Our minds utilize both pictorial and verbal codes to represent
information (Paivio)
ANALOG CODES FOR IMAGES
• Mental images are represented through analog codes,
resembling the objects they represent
• Analog codes = Physical stimuli
- Closely resemble the physical object

i.e., When we imagine a tree, our mental image might include
details like leaves, branches and a trunk.
SYMBOLIC CODES FOR WORDS
• Mental representations for words primarily use symbolic
codes (arbitrary symbols chose to represent the intended
concept)
• These symbols DO NOT essentially resemble what they
represent
i.e., the word “tree” is a symbolic representation of the concept
of a tree, but it doesn’t physically resemble a tree
DIFFERENCE IN PROCESSING
• Research suggests that our brains process and store verbal
and pictorial information differently
- Free recall of sequences : Pictures > Words
- Serial recall of sequences : Words > pictures
INTERFERENCE HYPOTHESIS
• Dual-code theory proposes that visual and verbal tasks
SHOULD NOT interfere with each other if they require
different systems
- Participants responded using different modes
1. Verbal (spoken responses)
2. Visual (pointing)
3. Manual (tapping on hand)
• Experiment Findings: interference occurs when tasks and
responses require the same mode of expression
i.e., if participants are asked to perform a visual tasks and
respond visually (pointing), they may experience interference if
they’re asked to respond using a competing visual display
- Participants showed slower response times when
performing tasks that require the same mode of
expression (visual OR verbal) as the task itself
- Response Mode = Processing Mode interference occurs
There are distinct systems for mental representation of
knowledge, involving both analogical (imaginal) codes for
images and symbolic codes for words.
- When these two systems compete for attention,
interference occurs.
i.e., “The table is above the cat” = “The cat is beneath the table”
- same relationship but in different linguistic form
USING PROPOSITIONS
• Can describe various types of relationships, including
- Actions
- Attributes
- Positions
- Class/Category memberships of objects
• Complex relationships/scenarios = Combo of multiple
propositions
i.e., “The furry mouse bit the cat, which is now hiding under the
table” can be represented in propositional form without
retaining the specific acoustic or visual properties of the words.
- Underlying meaning > specific words/images
MENTAL REPRESENTATION
• According to propositional theory, images and verbal
statements are mentally represented by their deep
meanings rather than specific words or images.
• When we remember something, our minds recall the
underlying propositions and then reconstruct the verbal or
visual details
LIMITATIONS OF MENTAL IMAGERY
• ANALOGICAL REPRESENTATION LIMITS
- Participants in a study struggled to determine whether
specific shapes were part of a given figure.
- Couldn’t use mental images to trace lines and determine
shape inclusion.
Findings: propositional code > analogical code

PROPOSITIONAL THEORY
• THEORY: Instead of storing information in the form of
mental images, the mind uses a “generic” code known as
propositional representation
- Stores the meaning of concepts rather than their visual or
imaginal forms
Proposition: The underlying meaning of a particular relationship
among concepts.
- Represents the meaning of a relationship in an abstract
form.

LIMITATIONS OF PROPOSITIONAL THEORY
• DISTORTION BY SEMANTIC LABELS
Semantic labels (verbal information) can distort recall of
visual images towards the meaning associated with the
labels
Research by Lee, Kravitz, & Baker (2012):
• Participants were familiarized with images of objects and
instructed to either view the objects or mentally visualize
them.
• The researchers found that while both imagery and
perception activated similar brain regions, the levels of
activation and contributions of these regions differed
based on whether participants viewed the actual objects or
imagined them.
• This suggests that while sensory perception and mental
imagery engage common neural networks, the intensity
and patterns of activation may vary depending on the
presence or absence of sensory input.
FUNCTIONAL EQUIVALENCY HYPOTHESIS: Mental imagery
and sensory perception share similarities in how they are
processed by the brain
- Mental images can accomplish similar goals as actual
perception
When we imagine something, our brains engage in
processes functionally similar to those used during actual
perception.
- Mental imagery = active cognitive process
- Concrete objects: images > propositions
- Similar brain activation patterns (frontal & parietal)
Implications of Reduced Information Processing during
Imagery:
• Absence of visual input during mental imagery reduces
information processing demands in the brain compared
to sensory perception
- Less differentiation between brain regions and signals
SCHIZOPHRENIA
Individuals that struggle to differentiate between internal
images and external stimuli
- Auditory Hallucinations: perceiving sounds in the absence
of any external stimuli
• During hallucinations, the auditory cortex and areas
involved in language processing are abnormally activated
• Mental Representations (functional =) Sensory Perception
MENTAL ROTATIONS
Imagine you have a picture of an object in your mind, like a
toy car. Mental rotation is when you mentally turn that car
around in your head, just like you would if you were physically
doing it.
Study:
- Scientists showed people pictures of
3D shapes and asked them if the
shapes were rotated versions of each
other.
- The time it took people to decided
increased as the shapes were rotated
more (in the picture OR in-depth)
linear function
GENDER DIFFERENCES IN MENTAL
ROTATION
• Men and women might use their brains differently when
doing mental rotation tasks
- Parietal action = women < men
- Inferior Frontal action = women > men
• SPATIAL TASKS:
- Women = both sides of the brain
- Men = right side
IMAGE SCALING
Study: People were asked to imagine pairs of animals of
different sizes and it took them longer to describe the smaller
animals
- Mental images = actual perceptions
IMAGE SCANNING
Study: People can mentally scan a map in their minds, and the
time it takes them to find a location depends on how far it is
on the map.
- Almost perfect linear relation
- Participants encoded the map in the form of an image
REPRESENTATIONAL NEGLECT
Study: People with this neglect had trouble remembering
details from one side of the imaginary scene they were asked
to picture
- Spatial neglect and representational neglect can occur
independently
SYNTHESIZING IMAGES AND PROPOSITIONS
• Two Views of Knowledge Representation
There are two main theories about how we represent
knowledge:
1. Dual Code theory: Knowledge is stored in both images and
symbols
2. Propositional theory: Knowledge is represented only in
underlying propositions, not images or symbols
• Functionality of Mental Imagery:
Mental image = Sensory perception
- Mental rotations
- Image scaling
- Image scanning
• Limits of Analogy between Perception & Imagery
Some studies involving ambiguous figures and unfamiliar
mental manipulations suggest that there are limits to how
much mental imagery resembles perception
- When the images are confusing or unfamiliar, our mental
pictures might not work the same way as real ones
JOHNSON-LAIRD’S MENTAL MODELS
Mental representations can take three forms:
1. PROPOSITIONAL REPRESENTATIONS:
Abstract representations of meaning, verbally
expressible
2. MENTAL IMAGERY:
Mental pictures or scenes we can visualize
3. MENTAL MODELS:
Mental versions of real-life situations, based on
what we believe about them
Study:
- Some participants got clear instructions about where
things were (determinate descriptions), while others got
vague instructions (indeterminate descriptions)
i.e., a clear description → “Washington, D.C., is between
Alexandria, Virginia and Baltimore, Maryland”
i.e., a vague description → “It’s between the Pacific Ocean and
the Atlantic Ocean”
Findings:
• Determinate descriptions → people tended to add more
details to their mental picture than what was actually
described
- BUT they didn’t remember the exact words very well
- They were using mental models
• Indeterminate descriptions → didn’t add as much extra
detail to their mental picture
- Remembered the exact words of the description better
- Relied more on remembering the words than forming a
detailed mental model
SPATIAL COGNITION AND COGNITIVE MAPS
This is about how we understand space around us and how we
create mental maps of our environment
RATS, BEES, PIGEONS AND HUMANS
Scientists studied how different animals navigate their
surroundings
- Edward Tolman = Rats
- Von Frisch = Bees
- Thorndyke = Humans
Findings: Like rats and bees, humans use their hippocampus
to form mental maps.
TYPES OF KNOWLEDGE IN COGNITIVE MAPS
a. Landmark Knowledge: Knowing special buildings or
landmarks that help us find our way
b. Route-road Knowledge: Understanding how to get from
one place to another by following a specific road or path
c. Survey Knowledge: Having a big-picture view of how
different places are connected on the map
CHAPTER 8: LECTURE 4-6
Organization of knowledge in the
mind
DECLARATIVE VS PROCEDURAL KNOWLEDGE
Declarative Knowledge: Factual information that can be stated
or declared
i.e., historical events, math formulas, personal details
Procedural Knowledge: Knowing how to do something, often
required through practice and experience
i.e., riding a bike, driving a car or tying shoelaces
ORGANIZATION OF DECLARATIVE
KNOWLEDGE
Concepts: mental representations of categories or ideas
- Helps us understand and categorize the world around us
i.e., the concept of “bird” includes animals like sparrows, eagles
and penguins
Categories: groups of related concepts organized in a hierarchy
i.e., within the category of “birds”, we have subcategories like
“songbirds,” “birds of prey,” and “waterfowl”
1- Natural Categories: groupings that occur naturally in
the world
i.e., bird or trees
2- Artifact Categories: groupings that are invented to
serve a particular purpose or function
i.e., kitchen appliances, automobiles
HOW DO PEOPLE DECIDE WHAT OBJECTS TO PUT IN A
CATEGORY?
1. We put objects into one category if it has several
defining features
2. We compare an object with an average representation
(prototype) to decide whether it fits into that category
3. People can categorize based on their own theories about
those objects
Superordinate = General (i.e., “fruit”)
HOW PEOPLE CREATE COGNITIVE MAPS
When we imagine these maps, we use both visual (analogical)
and abstract thinking (propositional)
- We might visualize the layout in our minds, BUT also think
logically about how these places are related to each other
Basic level = What it is (i.e., “apple”)
Subordinate = Described (i.e., “red, delicious apple)
FEATURE BASED CONCEPTS VS PROTOTYPE
THEORY
• FEATURE BASED CONCEPTS: According to this view,
concepts are defined by a set of necessary and sufficient
features
i.e., to be classified as a bird, an animal must have feathers,
wings and lay eggs
- Each feature is necessary (and sufficient) in this concept.
→ Defining features
i.e. for something to be X, it must have that feature
- Linguists use this more (everything just seems much more
orderly and systematic)
- It does not work as well.
• PROTOTYPE THEORY: Concepts are categorized based on
their similarity to an average representation or prototype
of the category
i.e., when we think of a bird, we might first picture a typical
bird like a robin, rather than considering all the defining
features of a bird.
- Characteristic features are very important in this theory.
i.e., Robins seem much more like a bird than an ostrich,
because it can fly
- Defining features are shared throughout all in a category.
i.e., however, flying is not a defining feature because,
although it’s typical that birds fly, ostriches cannot fly
CLASSICAL AND FUZZY CONCEPTS
• Classical Concepts
- Categories with clear and precisely defined boundaries
- Objects either belong or do not, based on defining
features
i.e., a shape with three sides and three angles is definitively a
“triangle”
• Fuzzy Concepts
- Less clear boundaries and may vary in membership
depending on context or interpretation
- Often involve subjective or context-dependent criteria
i.e., the category of “art” may include a wide range of diverse
works, and what qualifies as “art” may not be the same for
everyone
REAL-WORLD EXAMPLES: USING EXEMPLARS
Exemplars: Typical representations of a category
- Doesn’t have to be an average of ALL objects
Prototype: Averaged representation of ALL objects in a
category
i.e., “birds of prey/hunt” OR “flightless birds”
A SYNTHESIS: COMBINING FEATURE-BASED
AND PROTOTYPE THEORIES
A full theory of categorization where each category has a
prototype (characteristic feature) and a core (defining
feature)
Core: the defining features something must have to be
considered an example of a category
• CONCEPT OF A ROBBER
- Core definition: A robber is someone who take things
from others without permission
- Prototype: The typical image or characteristics associated
with a robber based on societal stereotypes
• DISCREPANCY B/W CORE AND PROTOTYPE
- White collar criminals: individuals engaging in
sophisticated financial crimes like embezzlement may not
fit the typical image of a robber
- Marginalized individuals: people from disadvantaged
communities may be wrongly perceived as robbers due to
their alignment with societal stereotypes, even if they
haven’t committed theft
STUDY: Children (5-10 yrs) were presented with descriptions of
individuals exhibiting unusual behaviors, and they were asked to
associate these descriptions with the label of “robber”
1st person: “a smelly, mean old man with a gun in his pocket
who came to your house and took your TV set because your
parents didn’t want it anymore and told him he could have it.”
2nd person: “a very friendly and cheerful woman who gave you
a hug, but then disconnected your toilet bowl and took it away
without permission and with no intention to return it.”
Findings:
• Younger Children: associated the label of “robber” with
individuals displaying characteristic features (i.e., being
mean or carrying a weapon)
• Older Children: began to consider defining features (i.e.,
act of stealing) in their categorization judgments
• Transition: the shift from focusing solely on characteristic
features to incorporating defining features was still fuzzy,
even as children matured
THEORY BASED VIEWS OF CATEGORIZATION
People categorize concepts based on implicit theories on
general ideas they hold about those concepts
Prototypes, features, exemplars
Explanations to understand and categorize concepts
i.e., when determining what makes someone a “good sport”,
individuals might rely on their experiences to form a theory
about the characteristics of “good sportsmanship”
STUDY:
• Objective: To explore how individuals' theories influence
judgments about newly learned concepts.
• Experimental Design: Participants were presented with
stories about a hypothetical creature under two conditions.
• Condition 1: Involving a birdlike creature called a sorp
that experienced a transformation due to an
accident.
• Condition 2: Involving a creature known as a doon,
which underwent a natural biological change similar
to the sorp's transformation.
• Description of the Sorp: The sorp initially resembled a
bird but underwent changes after exposure to hazardous
chemicals, resulting in the growth of additional legs and
the loss of feathers.
• Description of the Doon: The doon, initially identical to
the sorp, shed its feathers and developed characteristics
similar to the transformed sorp through a natural
biological process.
• Participant Ratings: After reading about the sorp and the
doon, participants provided ratings on:
 • Whether each creature fit into the category of "bird."
Þ Category membership
• The similarity of each creature to birds
Þ .Similarity
- i.e., verifying “A shark is an animal” took longer than “A
shark is a fish” because “animal” is a more remote
superordinate category than “fish”

Findings and Implications:

• Categorization judgments were influenced by participants’
implicit theories about the nature of objects

• Participants’ categorization decisions were not solely based

on features or exemplars, but also on their understanding
of the underlying essence or nature of the creatures
• The result suggest that meaning extends beyond a simple
set of features or exemplars
• Children begin forming theories about objects from a
young age and these theories evolve as they get older
PROS:
- Allows for cognitive economy by avoiding unnecessariness
- Information stored at higher level in the hierarchy is
appled to ALL items at lower levels
i.e., if you know that dogs and cats are mammals, you store
general mammal characteristics at the mammal level, avoiding
repetition for specific animals
CRITIQUES:
- Unable to explain certain anomalies in data
i.e., participants took longer to verify statements like “a lion is a
mammal” compared to “a lion is an animal” which contradicts
the model’s predictions

COMPARING SEMANTIC FEATURES

Focuses on directly comparing features of different concepts
SEMANTIC NETWORK MODEL rather than strictly adhering to a hierarchy
Our knowledge is organized in our minds as interconnected
concepts, forming a web-like structure. • Instead of categorizing concepts, this method involves
comparing all instances of a particular category based on
COLLINS AND QUILLIAN’S NETWORK MODEL the same set of features.
• Structure: i.e., all mammals can be compared based on features like size,
- The model consists of a hierarchical semantic network, ferocity, and humanness
where concepts are represented as nodes connected by
link
1. Nodes = concepts
2. Links = relationships between concepts
- category membership
- attributes
i.e., “pig” might be connected to “mammal” through an “is a”
relationship
• Study: Participants were asked to verify statements like “A
shark is a fish” or “A shark is an animal.”
- True statements were verified more quickly, but
verification time increased as the hierarchical distance
between concepts grew
• Priming and word-stem completion
HOW DOES THE WORD “MAMMAL” FIT IN THOUGH??
SCHEMATIC REPRESENTATIONS
SCHEMAS
Schemas: mental framework for organizing knowledge, creating
a meaninful structure of related concepts
i.e., a kitchen schema outlines the typical items found in a
kitchen and where to find them
SCRIPTS
Scripts: specific type of schema that describes the specific
sequence of events expected to occur in a particular situation
i.e., restaurant visitation
- Include information about:
1. Props: a menu, food, a bill and money
2. Roles: a waiter, a customer a chef
3. Opening Conditions: the hungry customer has money
4. Scenes: entering, ordering, eating, paying
5. Outcomes: the customer has less money, owner has more
money, the customer is no longer hungry
Scripts enable us to use a mental framework for acting in
certain situations when we must fill in apparent gaps within a
given context.
• Study: Participants were presented with stories and asked
to recall or recognize elements from them.
- Recall tasks: participants often recalled elements that
were not explicitly stated in the stories but were part of
the scripts they represented
- Recognition tasks: participants were more likely to
attribute sentences to stories if they were script-relevant,
• Findings: Scripts guide recall and recognition (what
people know)
THE TYPICALITY EFFECT
The phenomenon were atypical information is more readily
recalled during script learning than typical information.
Atypical information = more processing effort
- In cases of closed-head injuries (i.e., strong blow to the
head), the typicality effect disappears, and individuals
have EQUAL recall of typical and atypical information
knowledge is organized
- EACH form of organization = different purposes
- Different methods = different situations
PROCEDURAL MEMORY
Knowledge of how to perform tasks or actions, often without
the need for conscious awareness or explicit verbalization
• NATURE OF PROCEDURAL MEMORY:
- Procedural knowledge encompasses
understanding how to perform tasks, skills or
action
- Knowing how to do something rather than
knowing facts or information about it
• IMPLICIT NATURE:
- Once procedural memory is acquired, it becomes
implicit (individuals may not be consciously aware
of the knowledge but can demonstrate it through
their actions)
• RAPID RETRIEVAL:
- Can typically be retrieved and utilized more
quickly than decorative knowledge
• SERIAL PROCESSING:
- Information in procedural knowledge is often
processed in a serial manner
- Actions are carried out sequentially (one after
another)
• PRODUCTION SYSTEM: Can be represented and
organized using a production system, which consists of:
- rules specifying conditions (if-clauses)
- correspondng actions (then-clauses)
- These rules guide behavior and decision making
EXAMPLE: A pedestrian crossing the street at a traffic light-
controlled intersection
- Red light = stop
- Green light = go
- Left foot on pavement = step with the right foot
- Right foot on pavement = step with the left foot
The production system guides the execution of actions based
on specific conditions.
i.e., when crossing the street, the pedestrian follows the rules
dictated by the traffic light’s color and the position of their
feet
NON-DECLARATIVE KNOWLEDGE
Various forms of implicit knowledge that individuals possess
• FORMS OF NONDECLARATIVE KNOWLEDGE
1) Perceptual, Motor, and Cognitive Skills (Procedural
Knowledge): Knowing how to perform tasks or skills
(i.e., riding a bike or solving a puzzle)
 2) Simple Associative Knowledge: Associations formed
through classical or operant conditioning, where
stimuli become linked with responses
3) Simple Nonassociative Knowledge: Involves changes
in behavior due to repeated exposure to a stimulus
(i.e., habituation = decreased response to stimuli /
sensitization = increased response to stimuli)

4) Priming: Involves the activation of information along

mental pathways, facilitating the subsequent retrieval
of related informations
• IMPLICIT NATURE:
- Individuals may not be consciously aware of them
- Can be challenging to articulate or explain them
explicitly
• PRIMING:
a) Semantic Priming: when a meaningful context or
information primes the retrieval of related information
i..e., hearing words like “fruits” or “green things”
may prime the retrieval of the word “lime”
b) Repetition Priming: involves prior exposure to a stimulus,
priming the subsequent retrieval of the same information
i.e., hearing the word “lime” may prime the
subsequent recall of the word “lime”
• SPREADING ACTIVATION THEORIES:
The degree of activation between a prime and a target
node depends on two factors:
1. The number of links connecting the prime and the
target
- Increasing # of intervening links = decreases the
likelihood of the priming effect
COMPONENTS OF THE ACT-R MODEL
1. Declarative memory = declarative knowledge
- Organized in propositional networks
- Nodes can be active or inactive depending on
internal (memories/thought processes) or external
stimuli (sensations)
2. Procedural memory = procedural knowledge
3. Working memory = activated knowledge available for
cognitive processing
declarative knowledge within ACT-R
• SPREADING ACTIVATION:
- Occurs within the network, where activation
spreads from one node to another
- Closer node = higher degree of activation
- Less related = lesser activation

2. The relative strengths of each connection:

- Strengthening the connections between the
prime and its target = increases the likelihood of
priming

INTEGRATIVE MODELS FOR REPRESENTING

DECLARATIVE AND NONDECLARATIVE
KNOWLEDGE

THE ACT-R MODEL (JOHN ANDERSON)

The Adaptive Control of Thought-Rational model, offers an
integrative framework for representing both declarative and
nondeclarative knowledge
• Synthesized features of serial information-processing
models and semantic-network models
The diagram shows a propositional network representing the
facts that wolves feed on carcasses, eat meat, and chase
sheep. The network can be extended arbitrarily to represent
more information.

• Procedural knowledge = production systems

• Declarative knowledge = propositional networks
- Propositions: smallest unit of knowledge in the
model (true/false)
ANALOGY
1. Water Flowing Through Pipes:
• Just as water flows through pipes, activation
spreads through interconnected nodes in cognitive
networks.
• The initiation of activation at one node leads to its
transmission to connected nodes.
2. Valves in Water Pipes:
• In the water pipe analogy, valves act as
gatekeepers, either allowing the flow to continue or
diverting it to other connections.
• Similarly, in cognitive networks, nodes can either
facilitate the spread of activation or inhibit it,
depending on their state.
3. Routes Seldom Traveled vs. Frequently Used:
• Water pipes that are rarely used may gradually
contract over time due to lack of flow.
• Similarly, connections in cognitive networks that are
seldom used may weaken, as they are not reinforced
through frequent activation.
• Conversely, routes frequently traveled by water
remain open and may even strengthen with increased
flow.
• In cognitive networks, connections that are
frequently activated become stronger, facilitating
faster and more efficient information processing.
• LEARNING AND MAINTENANCE OF DECLARATIVE
KNOWLEDGE:
- Declarative knowledge within semantic networks is
learned and maintained through the strengthening
of connections.
- Frequent use of specific connections leads to their
reinforcement, making them more robust and
facilitating quicker retrieval of associated information.
- Conversely, connections that are rarely used may
weaken over time, impacting information retrieval
efficiency.
procedural knowledge within ACT-R
John Anderson’s ACT-R model explains the acquisition of
procedural knowledge through 3 stages:
1. COGNITIVE STAGE
- Individuals initially process procedural knowledge
consciously and explicitly
- They rely on slow, deliberate and effortful thinking
to understand and execute procedures
- Learning about the steps and rules involved in
performing a task
2. ASSOCIATIVE STAGE
- With repeated practice and application of procedural
knowledge → associative stage
- Execution of procedures becomes more automatic
and less reliant on conscious effort.
- Individuals begin to develop associations b/w
different elements of the procedure
3. AUTONOMOUS STAGE
- Procedural knowledge becomes fully internalized
and automatic
- Effortlessly and with minimal conscious awareness
- Highest level of proficiency, where individuals
demonstrate expertise in performing the task
Proceduralization: overall process by which we transform slow,
explicit information about procedures (“knowing that”) into
faster, implicit knowledge (“knowing how”)
PDP MODEL: the connectionist model
Parallel Distributed Processing model = multiple cognitive
operations occur simultaneously
• Knowledge is represented within a network structure
composed of neuron-like units (nodes)
- Pattern of connections = knowledge (encoded info)
- Nodes are not that informative
• Each unit is interconnected with many other units, forming
a complex web of connections
• Parallel processing = It’s like looking at the whole puzzle
and understanding it instantly, without having to think
about each piece separately
• New information = leads to changes in knowledge
representation in the network (DYNAMIC)
• Activation from incoming information strenghthens or
weakens connections between units, altering the network’s
connections
- Excitatory or inhibitory
• Knowledge is a (potential) process not a product
NETWORK MODELS: Nodes represent concepts. Learning =
adding new nodes to the hierarchy
CONNECTIONIST MODEL: Learning = stregthening/weakening
connections between nodes (NOT ADDING NEW ONES)
 CHAPTER 9: LECTURE 6-8
Language
PROPERTIES OF LANGUAGE 2. Morpheme: smallest unit of meaning
i..e, “recharge” → ‘re’ = repretition, ‘charge’ is the main
1. COMMUNICATE: component of the word
- Allows us to communicate with others who speak the
same language 3. Lexicon: collection of ALL morphemes in a language or
i.e., we can write or speak our thoughts and feelings individual’s vocabulary
→ others can understand them i.e., “student” → “studious” → “studying” = “study”
2. ARBITRARY SYMBOLISM: 4. Syntax: refers to how words are combined to form
- Words are symbols that represent things, actions or sentences, involves understanding the structure of
ideas. sentences
- The connection between a word and what it i.e., noun phrases (the man) and verb phrases (run)
represents is subjective
i.e., the word “tree” doesn’t look like an actual tree, LANGUAGE COMPREHENSION
it’s just a symbol we’ve agreed upon to represent that
knowledge a) SPEECH PRODUCTION
- Although we’re good at understanding spoken words,
3. REGULAR STRUCTURE sometimes variations in pronunciation or
- Language follows specific patterns. coarticulation (overlapping of sounds) can make it
- Certain arrangements of sounds or letters create tricky
meaningful words, while others don’t b) COARTICULATION
- Specific patterns of words form meaningful - When sounds blend together as we speak
sentences and paragraphs, while random ones don’t - It happens both in spoken and sign language
- Necessary for the effective transmission of speech
4. STRUCTURED AT MULTIPLE LEVELS information
- Can be analyzed at different levels (i.e., sounds,
words, sentences, paragraphs, books) c) ALTERNATIVE THEORIES OF SPEECH PERCEPTION
- Each level adds meaning and complexity - Some theories say we break down speech into
smaller parts and then match them up to what we
5. PRODUCTIVITY already know (speech segmentation)
- We have the ability to produce language creatively.
- Can combine words in new ways to express new ideas - Others suggest we have templates for common
or thoughts = endless possibilities words that we compare new words to
6. DYNAMIC NATURE Understanding speech is unique compared to other things
- Constantly evolving we perceive because it involves language, and the way
- New words and phrases are added → language use information is packaged for us to understand is special
changes
- Changed by individual language users and are SPEECH PERCEPTION AS ORDINARY
accepted/rejected by the wider community When we hear someone speak, our brain processes speech
i.e., the word “selfie” was added to the dictionary in sounds similarly to how it processes other sounds (i.e., animal
2014 noises)
- Speech = just another sound
BASIC COMPONENTS OF SENTENCES
There are two main theoires about how we understand speech
1. Phoneme: smallest unit of sound and can change the
meaning of a word TEMPLATE THEORIES
i.e., changing the ‘s’ in ‘sit’ to a ‘f’ sound makes it ‘fit’ Our brain compares the sounds we hear to templates stored in
our memory until it finds a match

FEATURE MATCHING THEORIES
Our brain tries to match the features of the sounds to those
stored in our memory, instead of comparing entire patterns
You hear a sound, represent here as the letter “R”
(Sensory Input)
1. FEATURE DEMONS: Analyze the sound’s features.
- Details like the presence of one vertical line, two
horizontal lines
- Dissecting into basic characteristics
2. COGNITIVE DEMONS: Take the features by the
feature demons and try to match them to known
patterns
- They suggest that the sound might correspond to the
letters D, P or R (based on the features observed)
3. DECISION DEMONS: Makes the final call. It
considers suggestions from cognitive demons and
determines which letter you likely heard.
- If the features match those of the letter R the
most, the decision demon concludes that you heard
the letter R
However, speech perception can be different because what
we perceive may not always match the actual sounds
reaching our ears.
- Differences in thoughts or contexts
PHONEMIC RESTORATION EFFECT
Phonemic restoration = Closure (Gestalt)
Other principles
- Symmetry
- Proximity
- Similarity
Imagine hearing this sentence: "It was found that the *eel was
on the _____." The * represents a cough, so you miss the first
sound in "eel".
- Your brain fills in the gap based on what makes
sense in the context.
- So, you might hear "the wheel was on the axle" or
"the heel was on the shoe."
When we hear words in isolation (without any context), we
don’t always understand them perfectly.
- Our ability to recognize words depends on factors
like how fast the speaker talks
i.e., we might correctly identify isolated words only
about 41% (fast) -68% (slow) of time time
THEORIES THAT CONSIDER SPEECH PRODUCTION AS
ORDINARY USE FEATURE DETECTION AND GESTALT
PSYCHOLOGY
SPEECH PERCEPTION AS SPECIAL
Speech = special because it’s part of language (a unique
human ability)
Categorical Perception: Even though speech sounds vary
continuously, we perceive them in categories.
i.e., the sounds “ba,” “da,” and “ga” are perceived differently
even though they’re made up of similar sound waves
- Speech is perceived via specialized processes
Coordinating Visual and Auditory Perception: When we listen
to someone speak, we don’t just rely on what we hear.
- We also rely on visual cues, like lip movements
THE MCGURK EFFECT
When watching someone speak, if their lips movement don’t
match the sound you hear, your brain mixes the two and you
hear a blend of both.
• RIGHT SIDE OF THE MOUTH: If it is covered, the
McGurk effect was less likely to happen.
- People pay more attention to the right side
• SUPERIOR TEMPORAL LOCUS: When it was interrupted,
the McGurk effect decreased
- Area plays a role in mixing visual and auditory speech
signals
• MOTOR CORTEX: Researchers disrupted the area of the
brain that helps perceive lip movements
- Participants had difficultiy distinguishing between
sounds like “ba” and “da” (sounds that involve moving
the lips) but not sounds like “ka” and “ga” (sounds
that don’t involve moving the lips)
- The area that helps us move our lips is also involved
in understanding certain speech sounds
• LIP READING: Especially in noisy environments, lip
reading becomes more important when we cannot hear
the speech.
- Older adults rely more on visual cues from lip
reading than younger people
• COMPLEXITY: Speech perception involves both linguistic
(language related) and perceptual (sensory related)
aspects, making it complex.
------------- FINAL ------------------
UNDERSTANDING MEANING: SEMANTICS
• Semantics: Understanding the meaning of words and
sentences in a language
• Semanticists: People who study how words and sentences
convey meaning
• Denotation: Refers to the literal, dictionary definition of a
word
i.e., “home” : a place where one lives permanently, especially
as a member of a family or household
• Connotation: Refers to the emotional or implied meanings
of a words
- Including its associations and implications beyond
the strict dictionary definition
i.e., “home” : can evoke positive feelings for some, negative
feelings for others.
→ personal experiences & cultural contexts
• Mental Lexicon: All words and their meanings are stored
in our mental lexicon (mental dictionary)
- Helps us retrieve word meaning when needed
• Semantic Categorization (Warrington and colleagues): We
categorize objects based on their:
- Function: for human-made objects
- Appearance: for living things
i.e., we distinguish b/w a horse and a donkey based on
their appearance
• Multiple Meanings: Many words have more than one
meaning.
- “foot” : body part
- “foot” : bottom of the hill
• Dominant vs Subordinate Meanings:
- Dominant = Used more frequently
- Subordinate = Used less frequently
• Contextual Influence: the meaning we ascribe to a word
depends largely on the context in which it appears
UNDERSTANDING SENTENCES: SYNTAX
Syntax: the systematic way in which words can be combined
and sequenced to form meaningful phrases and sentences
- The arrangement of words in a sentence also matter
• Prescriptive Grammar: the “correct” ways of structuring
language use
• Descriptive Grammar: the actual structures, functions and
relationships of words in language
SYNTACTICAL PRIMING
People tend to use and understnd syntactical structures more
easily when they have recently encountered similar structures
STUDY: Participants who read a sentence with a certain
syntactical structure (“Amanda carried Fernando the package.”)
rated another sentence with a similar structure (“Igor lugged
Dr. Frankenstein the corpse.”) as more grammatical compared
to a control group.
- Demonstrates how exposure to certain syntactical
structures can influence how we perceive & use
language
SPEECH ERRORS
• Word Switching: when we accidently switch the
placement of two words in a sentence
- Often still form grammatical but nonsensical
sentences
- We tend to switch similar types of words with each
other. (i.e., nouns for nouns, verbs for verbs, etc.)
i.e., “I put the oven in the cake” is nonsensical but still
grammatically correct.
PHRASE-STRUCTURE GRAMMAR
helps us understand how sentences are constructed by
breaking them down into functional components:
• Parsing: When composing sentences, we analyze and
divide them into functional parts
• Syntactical Categories: We assign appropriate syntactical
categories (parts of speech) to each component of the
sentence
i.e., nouns, verbs, articles, etc.,
• Example Sentence Analysis:
“The girl looked at the boy with the telescope.”
- Noun phrase
- Verb phrase
FURTHER BREAKDOWN:
- Interpretation A: VP contains a verb and two
prepositional phrases
- Interpretation B: VP contains a verb and one
prepositional phrase
Grammar: recognizing common patterns in language
 - show how words in a sentence work together
- cover everything from how we talk during
conversations to how we pronounce and understand
single words
TRANSFORMATIONAL GRAMMAR: NEW
APPROACH TO SYNTAX (Chomsky)
Transformational Grammar: we need to look not only at how
words fit together in sentences but also at how sentences
connect to each other
- Uses rules to explain how one idea can be expressed
in different sentences
- Helps us understand how sentences with similar
meanings can look different
• Deep structure: basic meaning
• Surface structure: how the sentence actually looks
“Susie greedily ate the crocodile.”
and
“The crocodile was eaten greedily by Susie.”
- Both have the same meaning although they look
different on the surface
- Traditional phrase-structure grammar doesn’t show
this connection between them
RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN SYNTACTICAL
AND LEXICAL STRUCTURES
• Chomsky’s Proposal:
- Chomsky suggested that our mental lexicon (mental
dictionary) also contain information about how words
fit into sentences
- This includes the word’s syntactical category (i.e.,
noun, verb, et.c.), where it can be used in a sentence
(i.e., subject, object, etc.), and any special rules it
follows (i..e, irregular verbs)
• Purpose:
- Simplifies language processing by allowing simpler
rules in our mental syntax
• Disagreements:
- Not all psychologists agree with syntax > semantics
- Some believe syntax alone cannot fully explain
language comprehension & expression
• Models for Linking Syntax & Semantics:
- Various models propose ways to bridge the elements
in our mental lexicon with the elements in syntactical
structures.
i.e., slots are created for each part of a sentence
based on syntactical categories → matching up with
different roles in communication
Thematic Roles:
- the agent, the “doer” of any action
- the patient, the direct recipient of the action
- the beneficiary, the indirect recipient of the action
- the instrument, the means by which the action is
implemented
- the location, the place where the action occurs
- the source, where the action originated
- the goal, where the action is going
i.e., the slot of subject noun might be filled by the
thematic role of agent. Nouns that can fill agent roles
can be inserted into slots for subjects of phrases.
Patient roles correspond to slots for direct objects.
Beneficiary roles fit with indirect objects, and so on.
PERCEPTUAL ISSUES IN READING
Reading involves various cognitive processes such as
perception, language, memory, thinking and intelligence
- Recognizing letters
- Forming words
- Maintaining their meaning in memory
- Understanding the writer’s message
processes in reading:
• Perceptual Issues: recognition of letters involves spelling,
translating them into sounds (phonological code) and
sequencing sounds to form words
• Lexical Processes: identify words, activate relevant
information about them in memory and comprehend their
meaning
• Comprehension Processes: understanding the text as a
whole
Learning to read involves mastering lexical and comprehension
processes.
WHEN READING IS A PROBLEM – DYSLEXIA
Dyslexia: difficulty in deciphering, reading and comprehending
text
types of dyslexia:
1. Developmental Dyslexia: begins in childhood
- Biological and environmental causes
- Abnormalities in certain chromosomes (3, 6, and 15)
2. Acquired Dyslexia: results from a traumatic brain injury
brain activation:
• Hypoactivation in their left temporoparietal cortex
• Atypical activation in:
- Left prefrontal region: linked with working memory
- Left occipitotemporal regions: linked with visual
analysis of words
- Left middle and superior temporal gyri: linked with
receptive language
UNDERSTANDING CONVERSATIONS AND
ESSAYS: DISCOURSE
Discourse: language units larger than individual sentences
i.e., conversations, lectures, stories and essays
i.e., When reading a story, you know who the characters are and
what they're doing because you follow their conversations and
actions.
• Deciphering Text: Readers often rely on context &
expectations to decode text effectively
i.e., If you read "The sun was as hot as a frying pan," you know
the sun is very hot because frying pans are hot.
• Comprehending Known Words: Understanding words you
already know the meaning of
i.e., When you read the word “dog”, you picture a furry animal
with four legs and a wagging tail.
- Semantic Encoding: how we turn the letters we see
into meaningful words based on what we already
know about their meanings
- Lexical Access: we spot words based on their letters,
activating our memory about those words
- STUDY: People with larger vocabularies understand
text faster and better
- To understand text easily → know around 95% of
words used
- To enjoy reading → known around 98% of words
used
- Bigger vocabulary = process info faster
• Comprehending Unknown Words: Figuring out what words
mean by looking at the words around them
i.e., If you read “She used a lot of esoteric words in her
speech,” you might guess “esoteric” means something complex
or hard to understand
• Understanding Text Based on Context & POV: Seeing
how different people might understand the same story in
different way
- What we remember from a given passage of text
often depends on our POV
i..e, If one person reads a scary story and thinks it’s exciting,
but another person reads it and feels scared, it shows how
different people can feel about the same thing.
• Comprehending Ideas with Propositional
Representations: Understanding the main points of what
you’re reading
- Proposition: simplest part of a sentence that can be
true or false
- Important propositions in a story stick in your
memory longer than less important ones.
i.e., If you’re reading a story about a detective solving a
mystery, details about the crime are more important than what
the characters ate for breakfast.
REPRESENTING TEXT IN MENTAL MODELS
• WHAT HAPPENS NEXT?
- Once words are semantically encoded, the reader
must build a mental picture of what’s going on
• BUILDING A MENTAL MODEL:
- Like creating a mini-movie in our heads based on
what we have read
- Our way of making sense of the story
- Simulates what is going on in the world
• HOW IT WORKS?
- Reader creates some sort of mental representation
of the main elements of the text
- Sometimes we use things we already know to help us
understand
i.e., “The loud bang scared Alice.”
→ We might imagine Alice getting scared when she hears a
loud noise
→ If we remember how people react to loud noises, it would
helps us understand the situation in the story.
 CHAPTER 10: LECTURE 8-9
Language in context
language and thought: how they connect
• Language Shapes Thoughts: The words we use influence
how we think about things
• Differences in Languages: Every language has its own
words and rules.
- Differences are often shaped by culture &
environment where the language developed
LINGUISTIC RELATIVITY: SAPIR-WHORF
HYPOTHESIS
Different languages → different cognitive systems
- Affects how people understand and perceive the
world
Sapir: Language habits influence how we interpret experiences
Whorf: Language organizes our perception of the world
• Milder form of linguistic relativism:
- While language may not entirely determine thought,
it influences it.
1. Labelling Ambiguous Figures:
- When participants are given a label for an ambiguous
figure, it influences how they perceive and remember
it.
i..e, labelling a figure as “eyeglasses” or “dumbbells”
changes how participants draw the figure
2. Effects on Memory:
- Language affects how we encode, store and retrieve
information in memory
- Eyewitness testimony can be influenced by how
questions are phrased
i..e, using the word “smashed” in questions about a car
accident leads to higher estimates of speed
3. Verbal Overshadowing Effect:
- Describing an event in detail can actually impair
memory recall
- Participants who described an event were less
accurate in recalling details compared to those who
did not describe it
4. Language and Memory for Incidents:
- Language influences how much people remember
about incidents
STUDY: When objects were unintentionally broken,
- English speakers were more likely to use agentive
language (i.e., “he crushed the can.”)
- Spanish speakers used non-agentive language (i.e.,
“the can was crushed.”)
- Language did not influence participants’ memory for
intentional “accidents”, but when something is broken
by accident, English speakers were able to remember
agents better
LINGUISTIC RELATIVITY VS LINGUISTIC
UNIVERSALS
Linguistic Universals: refer to patterns found across ALL
languages, suggesting common structure/rules
Deep Structure (Noam Chomsky): syntax of all languages
color naming across languages:
• Basic Color Terms: (Berlin and Kay)
STUDY: Found that languages tend to select basic color terms
from a set of 11 names
black, white, red, yellow, green, blue, brown, purple, pink, orange
and gray
• Hierarchy of Color Naming: When languages use only
some of these color terms, they follow a hierarchy of five
levels
1) Black - White
2) Red
3) Yellow – Green – Blue
4) Brown
5) Purple – Pink – Orange – Gray
- Two colors: black and white
- Three colors: black, white and red
- Fourth color: selected from yellow, green and blue
 - Fifth & sixth colors: also chosen from yellow, green
and blue
- Selection continues until all 11 colors have been
labelled
• Variations in Color Naming: While the basic set of color
terms is consistent, the order of selection within
categories may vary between cultures
universality in color perception:
• Common Color Perception:
STUDY (Regier, Kay and Cook, 2005): Across different
languages, people tend to select similar colors as the “best
examples” for basic color terms like red, yellow, green and blue
• Effects of Language on Color Perception
- Color categories vary depending on the speaker’s
language
- Berinmo Speakers: (New Guinea) combine what we
call green & blue under one name, “nol”
- Russian Speakers: Distinguish between light blue
(“goluboy”) and dark blue (“siniy”) as separate colors
1. Universal Color Naming
Across different cultures, people often categorize and name
colors similarly, likely due to shared human physiology and
common environmental factors. Basic color terms for white,
black, red, green, yellow, and blue are found in almost all
languages.
2. Variable Color Categories
The specific boundaries and number of color categories can
vary significantly between cultures. Some languages have more
distinctions (e.g., light blue vs. dark blue), while others have
fewer basic color terms.
3. Influence on Perception and Cognition
The names and categories we use for colors can affect how we
perceive and think about them. Language influences our ability
to differentiate and remember colors, showing that how we
describe colors can shape our perception.
VERBS AND GRAMMATICAL GENDER
• Rules and categories in a language can shape how
speakers perceive and think about the world
• Bilingual Insights: studying bilinguals helps understand
how multiple languages influence cognitive processes
• Prepositions and Perception: Different languages
categorize spatial relationships differently, affecting how
speakers perceive these relationships
• Grammatical Gender and Description: the gender of
nouns in a language can influence how speakers describe
and perceive objects
• Language Acquisition and Cognition: differences in how
children learn languages suggest that early linguistic
experiences can shape cognitive development
CONCEPTS
BILINGUAL STUDY ON STEREOTYPES:
• Experiment by Hoffman, Lau, & Johnson (1986):
- Chinese Term "Shì GÈ": Describes someone worldly,
experienced, socially skillful, devoted to family, and
somewhat reserved. English lacks a single term for
this concept.
- Procedure: Bilingual participants read passages
describing characters either in Chinese or English.
These passages included characteristics of a "shì gÈ"
person without using the term.
- Results: Participants who read in Chinese were more
likely to rate characters in line with the "shì gÈ"
stereotype and describe them similarly. This suggests
that language influences how readily certain concepts
are accessed and used in thought.
historical context of linguistic relativity:
• Pre-Sapir and Whorf: Language's role in shaping thought
was not a key focus in psychology.
• Sapir and Whorf's Thesis: They proposed that language
significantly shapes thought.
- Dialectic in action
• Subsequent Research: Some psychologists aimed to show
that language does not control thought.
modern perspective:
• Synthesis View: Most psychologists today agree that
language influences thought, but not as strongly as Sapir
and Whorf suggested.
• Interaction Over Time: Language and thought
continuously influence each other throughout a person’s
life (Vygotsky, 1986).
eye movement and reading
• Eye Movements and Cognitive Processes:
- how long readers look at words = cognitive processing
i.e., readers look longer at low-frequency words (e..g.,
vituperative) than high-frequency words (e..g., house)
• Critical in understanding how we process written language
moment-to-moment
• Highlights the impact of word frequency and preview
information on reading, supporting the idea that cognitive
processing drives eye movements
BILINGUISM AND DIALECTS
AGE as a significant factor
• Often believed that native-like mastery of a second
language is hard to achieve after adolescense
• Other researchers disagree:
- Some studies argue that aspects like vocabulary and
fluency can be acquired well even after adolescense
- Mastery of native-like pronunciation often requires
early acquisition, but some adults achieve high
proficiency
critical periods
• Some researchers argue that there are no strict critical
periods for second-language acquistion
• Adults may struggle because their native language remains
dominant, while children may switch dominance due to
environmental necessity (i.e., school)
learning strategies
• Effective second-language learning experiences vary based
on individual cognitive abilities and the specific context in
which the second language will be used
• Tailoring learning experiences to the individual’s needs and
future language use is crucial
Bilingusim: One System or Two?
1. SINGLE SYSTEM HYPOTHESIS:
- Both languages are represented in one integrated
system or brain region
- STUDY: early bilinguals who learn two languages
simultaneously, may have a single, unified language
system in the brain
2. DUAL SYSTEM HYPOTHESIS:
- Each language is represented in separate systems or
regions of the brain
- STUDY: Languages might be stored in distinct areas,
allowing for differential access and processing
i.e., German and English language information might
be stored in different parts of the brain
SLIPS OF THE TONGUE
Slips: unintentional mistakes in speech
• These errors can happen at various levels of language
- Phonemes (smallest units of sounds)
- Morphemes (smallest units of meaning)
- Larger language units
psychoanalytic perspective
• Freudian Slips: verbal slips reflect unconscious processes
with psychological significance
- Repressed emotions or thoughts
i.e., Saying “I’m glad to beat you” instead of “I’m glad to
meet you” might reveal hidden competitive feelings
mental plan disruptions
• Cognitive psychologists argue that slips occur because of
disruptions in the mental plan for speech
• When the speech production mechanism fails to align with
cognitive intentions
• Errors may be caused by:
- intrusions of other thoughts
- environmental stimuli (i.e., background noise or
nearby conversations)
METAPHORICAL LANGUAGE
Metaphors: a figure of speech that implicitly compares two
unrelated things, typically by stating that one thing is another
i.e., “your room is a pigsty.”
Similes: compare items using “like” or “as”
i.e., “the child was as quiet as a mouse”
social function
• Enriching communication: metaphors add depth and
nuance to language, enhancing social interactions
i.e., saying “you are a prince” suggests that the person
possesses qualities associated with royalty (e.g., nobility or
generosity)
PRAGMATICS AND SOCIOLINGUISTS
Pragmatics: how people use language, including sociolinguistic
factors and social context
Adaptation: individuals often unconsciously adjust their
language patterns to fit different social contexts
establishing common ground
• Shared background knowledge: common ground is easily
established among individuals who share similar
backgrounds, knowledge, motives or goals
• Challenges: finding common ground becomes harder when
little is shared
• Nonverbal Communication: gestures and vocal inflections
aid in establishing common ground
proxemics: personal space
Proxemics: study of interpersonal distance and proximity
- United States: 2.45 to 2.72 feet (about 75 cm)
- Mexico: 1.65 to 2.14 feet (about 50 cm)
- Costa Rica: 1.22 to 1.32 feet (about 35 cm)
Cultural Differences: Scandinavians expect more distance,
while Middle Easterners, southern Europeans, and South
Americans expect less.
variations in personal space
• Within-Culture Differences: expectations of personal
space vary even within the same culture
• Contextual Differences: personal space differs based on
the context of interaction
- Colleagues vs. employee-supervisor interactions
- Women vs. men interactions
• Virtual Environments:
- Even in virtual environments, violations of personal
space cause discomfort
- Individuals whose personal space is violated in virtual
environments tend to move away when given the
option
Þ 0-45 cm---private space
Þ 45-125 cm---personal space
Þ 125-370--- social space
Þ 370-more---general space
CHARACTERISTICS OF SUCCESSFUL
CONVERSATIONS
Cooperative Principle: Conversations are based on the principle
of cooperation, where speakers aim to communicate in ways
that facilitate understanding for their listeners
Grice’s Maxims:
1. Maxim of Quantity: provide enough info to convey your
message, but not more than necessary
2. Maxim of Quality: be truthful and provide accurate info
3. Maxim of Relation: be relevant to the topic of
conversation
4. Maxim of Manner: be clear, concise and avoid ambiguity
or obscurity
*Maxim of Turn-Taking: only one person speaks at a time
- Situational context and relative social positions of
speakers influence turn-taking patterns
- Signalling turn taking: speakers use various cues and
signals to indicate when it’s appropriate to take turns
purposeful use of maxims
• Achieving communication goals: speakers may
intentionally violate or manipulate the conversational
maxims to achieve specific communication goals
- Ambiguity: intentionally providing incomplete or
ambiguous information to make a point
- Topic shift: purposefully changing the topic to divert
from a heated discussion to a safer one
• Explicit Message: by using/manipulating the maxims,
speakers send explicit messages about their intentions or
the direction of the conversation
Gender and language
Content Differences
• Young Girls' Communication: More likely to ask for help
compared to young boys.
• Texting Differences: Boys perceive girls' texts as long and
containing unnecessary elements, while girls may find boys'
texts brisk and short.
• Adolescent and Young Adult Communication:
- Males: Prefer discussing political views, sources of
personal pride, and positive traits of others.
- Females: Discuss feelings towards parents, close
friends, classes, and fears.
• Self-Disclosure: Women generally disclose more about
themselves compared to men.
TANNEN'S PERSPECTIVE
• Men's Perspective: View the world as a hierarchical social
order where communication serves to negotiate for
dominance, preserve independence, and avoid failure.
• Women's Perspective: Seek to establish connections, give
support, and reach consensus through communication.
CONVERSATIONAL STRATEGIES
• Women's Strategies: Aim to minimize differences,
establish equity, and avoid superiority. Affirm the
importance of relationships and negotiate consensus.
• Men's Strategies: Prioritize independence and
assertiveness. Prefer informing over consulting, indicating
higher status conferred by authority.
CROSS-GENDER COMMUNICATION CHALLENGES
• Miscommunication: Differences in conversational goals
between men and women may lead to misunderstandings.
i.e., Male partners may inform rather than consult their
female partners, leading to misinterpretation of intentions.
do animals have language?
Language superiority in Humans: while nonhuman animals
exhibit communication abilities, human language far surpasses
that of other species studied
Chomsky’s Question: The evolution of language in nonhuman
animals would be an extraordinary phenomenon, like finding
humans capable of flying
Neuropsychology of language
BRAIN STRUCTURES INVOLVED IN
LANGUAGE
• Neuroplasticity: following damage to major left
hemisphere language areas, neurological language
functioning can redistribute to other brain areas
- Brain’s ability to adapt
• Word Recognition: fMRI studies show that the middle
part of the superior temporal sulcus (STS) responds
strongly to speech sounds, predominantly in the left
hemisphere
• Semantic Processing: 5 brain regions mostly in the left
hemisphere involved in storage and retrieval of meanings
- ventral temporal lobes
- angular gyrus
- inferior frontal gyrus
- dorsal prefrontal cortex
- posterior cingulate gyrus
gender differences in language
processing:
• PHONOLOGICAL PROCESSING:
- Men and women show differences in brain activation
during phonological tasks
- MEN: more in the left inferior frontal region
Study Design
• fMRI Tasks: Participants were asked to perform tasks
involving letter recognition, word meaning, word rhyming,
and line length comparison (control task).
• Participants: Both men and women participated in the
study.
Findings
• Letter Recognition and Word Meaning Tasks:
- Activation: Both men and women showed activation
in the left temporal lobe of the brain.
• Rhyming Task:
- Men: Activated only the inferior frontal region of
the left hemisphere.
- Women: Activated the inferior frontal region of
both the left and right hemispheres.
• Interpretation:
- Men localized phonological processing more in the
left hemisphere's inferior frontal region compared
to women.
GENDER DIFFERENCES IN BRAIN LOCALIZATION:
Men:
- Left-Hemisphere Dominance: Men tend to show more
left-hemisphere dominance for linguistic function.
Women:
- Bilateral Patterns: Women exhibit more bilateral,
symmetrical patterns of linguistic function in the brain.
• APHASIA LOCALIZATION:
- Aphasic men tend to show lesions in posterior brain
regions
- Aphasic women typically have lesions in the anterior
region
• SUBCORTICAL DIFFERENCES:
- Possible subcortical differences in linguistic function
complicate the interpretation of gender-based
language localization
The brain and sign language: 3. GLOBAL APHASIA:
- Severe impairment in both comprehension and
• Brain Processing: both signing and speech are processed speech production
similarly in terms of linguistic function in the brain - Lesions affecting both Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas,
commonly resulting from strokes
• Lesion Effects: Lesions affecting speech also impact
signing, indicating a shared neurological basis 4. ANOMIC APHASIA:
- Difficulty in naming objects or retrieving words
• Implications: sign language is not merely a spatial or - SYMPTOMS:
Þ inability to name objects upon seeing them
nonlinguistic form of communication but engages language
Þ specific difficulties in recalling names, such as
processing mechanisms in the brain
those of living things
Aphasia
AUTISM SPECTRUM DISORDER
Aphasia: language impairment resulting from brain damage
Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD): developmental disorder
marked by abnormalities in social behavior, language and
cognition.
- Has biological origins, with identified genetic
associations

BRAIN ABNORMALITIES:

• Frontal and parietal lobes

• Cerebellum
• Brainstem
• Corpus callosum
• Basal ganglia
• Amygdala
• Hippocampus

LANGUAGE CHARACTERISTICS:

1. WERNICKE’S APHASIA: • Speech Development: approximately half of autistic

- Damage to Wernicke’s area in the brain
- Impaired understanding of spoken words and
sentences
- Production of sentences with correct structure but
nonsensical content
i.e., “yeah, that was the pumpkin furthest from my
thoughts”
children do not develop functional speech
• Echolalia: repetitively echo words or phrases heard
- Can occur hours after initial exposure
• Semantic Encoding: autistic people may experience
difficulties in the semantic encoding of language,
affecting their comprehension and use of language

- Speech-language therapy focusing on nonverbal

communication support
2. BROCA’S APHASIA:
- Damage to Broca’s area
- Agrammatical speech production while verbal
comprehension remains largely intact

i.e., “Stroke … Sunday … arm, talking – bad.”

- Broca’s area activation extends to imagined or actual
sign production
- Area important for speech production
 CHAPTER 13: LECTURE 10-11
Human intelligence
WHAT IS INTELLIGENCE? 3. WPPSI-lll (Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of
Intelligence, 3rd Edition): specifically created for
Intelligence: the capacity to learn from experience, using assessing intelligence in preschool and primary school-aged
metacognitive processes to enhance learning, and the ability to children
adapt to the surrounding environment
The Wechsler scales typically had multiple scores, reflecting
Metacognition: people’s understanding and control of their own different aspects of intelligence:
thinking processes
Historically, the Wechsler adult tests yielded three scores:
• Cultural Considerations: what is considered intelligent in • a verbal score
one culture may differ from another • a performance score
• an overall score
1. EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE (EQ):
- Refers to the ability to perceive, understand and FOR WISC-IV:
regulate emotions (both in oneself and others)
- Plays a significant role in successful adaptation to a) Verbal Comprehension: assessing language-based abilities,
new environments and interpersonal relationships including vocabulary and verbal reasoning
2. SOCIAL INTELLIGENCE: b) Perceptual Reasoning: evaluating non-verbal problem-
- Involves understanding and interacting effectively solving skills, such as spatial reasoning and visual
with others processing
- Navigating social situations with skill and insight
c) Working Memory: measuring the ability to hold and
3. CULTURAL INTELLIGENCE (CQ): manipulate information in the mind over short periods
- The ability to adapt to diverse cultural contexts and
challenges d) Processing Speed: gauging how quickly individuals can
- Demonstrating flexibility and effectiveness in process and respond to information
multicultural environments
differences between stanford-binet and wechsler
Some psychologists define intelligence as whatever it is that
the tests measure intelligence scales
- Explicit definitions of intelligence often center
around assessment STANFORD-BINET WECHSLER
• Vocabulary • Comprehension
MEASURES AND STRUCTURES comprehension • Vocabulary
• Absurdities verbal • Providing
relations generally known
• Standford-Binet Test was the standard intelligence test info
- Widely used for assessing cognitive abilities Verbal Scale
“What does the word
• The Wechsler Intelligence Scale developed by David diligent mean?” “What does it mean
Wechsler has become more prevalent when people say ‘A
stitch in time saves
nine?’’
wechsler intelligence scale • Solving simple • Similar, but may
arithmetic word focus more on
Versions tailored for different age groups: problems practical
scenarios
1. WAIS-IV (Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale, 4th “If Paul has $14.43,
Arithmetic
Edition): Designed for assessing intelligence in adults and he buys two “How many hours will
sandwiches that cost it take to travel 1,200
2. WISC-IV (Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, 4th $5.23 each, how much miles if you are
Edition): used to evaluate intelligence in children change will he traveling 60 miles per
receive?” hour?”
 • Tests short-term • Similar, but may SPEARMAN: THE “g” FACTOR
memory by vary in sequence
repeating number length and Developed factor analysis as a statistical method to explore
sequences presentation the relationships between different variables
Digit Span forward or - Allowed him to uncover underlying factors that
backward. “Repeat these influence test performance
numbers, just as I am
“Repeat these #s telling you: 6, 9, 3, 2, two factor theory
backward: 9, 1, 8, 3, 6” 8”
• Tasks like object • Also includes through factor analytic studies, Spearman proposed that
assembly, block tasks like object intelligence consists of two types of factors:
design, picture assembly and
completion, and block design but
picture may have 1. GENERAL FACTOR (g): Spearman identified a single
arrangement variations or general factor (“g”), which he believed underlies
Performance additional tasks performance across ALL mental tasks
Scale - Reflects overall cognitive ability or mental energy
“Put together these - Individuals with higher levels of “g” showed superior
pieces to make “Arrange these performance across various cognitive tasks
something. Assemble pictures in an order
the blocks at the left that tells a story, and 2. SPECIFIC FACTORS: Alongside the general factor,
to match the design then tell what is Spearman recognized specific factors that are involved in
at the right.” happening in the performance on individual types of mental tasks (i.e.,
story.” arithmetic or spatial reasoning)
• Tasks involving
matching • General factor “g” is very important in understanding
symbols to intelligence.
numerals and • Specific factors are secondary, given their limited
transcribing relevance to overall intellectual functioning
sequences.

Digit Symbol “Look carefully at the THURSTONE: PRIMARY MENTAL ABILITIES

key, showing which
symbols correspond Spearman’s single general factor theory
to which numerals. In
the blanks, write the Thurstone: Intelligence comprises multiple distinct factors
correct numeral for (primary mental abilities) independent of each other.
the symbol above - each of these primary mental abilities could be
each blank.” directly assessed through specific tests tailored to
measure them.
STANFORD-BINET:
- Focus more on verbal reasoning and vocabulary SEVEN PRIMARY MENTAL ABILITIES:
comprehension
1. Verbal Comprehension: The ability to understand and use
WECHSLER: language effectively, assessed through vocabulary tests.
- Emphasize practical problem-solving and visual-spatial
abilities more prominently in its performance scale 2. Verbal Fluency: The ability to generate words quickly and
fluently, typically measured by tasks requiring rapid word
• Differ slightly in their content areas and the specific generation.
tasks used to measure intelligence.
3. Inductive Reasoning: The ability to identify patterns, make
inferences, and draw logical conclusions, assessed through
tasks like analogies and number-series completion.

4. Spatial Visualization: The ability to mentally manipulate

and visualize objects in space, often evaluated through
tasks involving mental rotation of images.
5. Number: The capacity for numerical reasoning and
mathematical problem-solving, measured by arithmetic and
 computation tasks.
6. Memory: The ability to encode, store, and retrieve
information, assessed through tests of picture and word
recall.
7. Perceptual Speed: The speed and accuracy with which one
can perceive and process visual information, evaluated
through tasks involving rapid visual discrimination or
pattern recognition.
CATTELL, VERNON AND CARROLL:
HIERARCHICAL MODELS
cattell’s two factor model
General intelligence consists of two major subfactors:
1) FLUID ABILITY: capacity for speed and accuracy in
abstract reasoning, particularly when dealing with
novel problems
2) CRYSTALLIZED ABILITY: accumulated knowledge
and vocabulary, reflecting one’s learned skills and
experiences
vernon's model
expanded on Cattell’s framework
- Within fluid and crystallized abilities, there are
further subfactors;
- General divison between practical-mechanical and
verbal-educational abilities
carroll's hierarchical model
most comprehensive and widely accepted among psychometric
models
STRATUM l: This level includes specific abilities
(i.e., spelling ability, speed of reasoning)
** STRATUM ll: where broader abilities like fluid intelligence
and crystallized intelligence are situated
• IMPORTANT!!
• Various abilities such as
- learning and memory processes;
- Visual and auditory perception;
- Verbal fluency
- Speed of response
STRATUM lll: at the top level is a single general intelligence
factor, like Spearman’s “g” factor.
INFORMATION PROCESSING AND INTELLIGENCE
Researchers have considered both the speed and the
accuracy of information processing to be important factors in
intelligence.
Process-timing theories
Inspection time: the time it takes to inspect items and make
decisions about them
- Shorter inspection times = higher scores on IQ tests
across different populations
choice reaction time
Intelligence may be understood in terms of the speed of
neuronal conduction
Higher IQ → exhibit faster reaction times in tasks requiring
rapid responses
lexical access speed and speed of simultaneous
processing:
Lexical-access speed: the speed at which individuals retrieve
information about words
- Faster lexical access = High verbal ability
• Intelligence is also related to the ability to divide attention
between tasks effectively.
- More intelligence individuals = better at multitasking
and allocating attention efficiently
STUDY: Participants are presented with pairs of letters and
asked to determine if they match in name or physical
characteristics.
- The difference in reaction time between these tasks
provides a measure of speed of lexical access, which
controls for perceptual processing time.
Correlation with Intelligence Measures:
Hihger intelligence = faster information processing abilities
- Inspection time
- Choice Reaction time
- Lexical Access timing
Encoding, Retrieval and Responding:
More rapid encoding, retrieval and responding = higher IQ
scores
- Exact reasons for this assoc. are not fully understood
and require further research!
Age-Related Differences:
While processing speed may influence initial performance on
tasks like recall, it may not contribute significantly to long
term learning.
- Older adults, despite slower processing speeds, can
still retain information effectively through cognitive
processes like rehearsal
Implications for Learning and Intelligence:
Speed of information processing may aid performance on IQ
tests but may not directly contribute to learning and
intelligence.
WORKING MEMORY
Working memory: the capacity to store and manipulate
information temporarily, allowing individuals to hold information
in mind while performing tasks
STUDY: Participants were asked to recall the last word of
passages they had read (Recency effect)
- Recall performance = verbal ability
- Importance of working memory in language related
tasks
STUDY: Participants solved arithmetic problems followed by
recalling words or digits.
- # of words recalled was found to be strongly
correlated with measured intelligence
• Although WM is important, it may not fully encompass all
aspects of intelligence
- Processing speed, attentional control and cognitive
flexibility are other important factors that contribute
to overall intelligence
INTEGRATIVE APPROACH
Combined models of various kinds of cognitive functioning as
bases for intelligence
- Avoids attributing intelligence solely to one specific
source
- Complexity of intelligence
4 SOURCES OF INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN
INTELLIGENCE:
1) Breadth of Declarative Knowledge:
- Extent of an individual’s factual knowledge across
various domains
- Knowledge of facts, concepts, principles and theories
acquired through learning and experience
2) Breadth of Procedural Skills:
- Ability to perform tasks efficiently and effectively
- Skills related to: problem-solving, decision-making,
motor coordination and other practical abilities
acquired through practice and experience
3) Capacity of Working Memory:
- Ability to temporarily hold and manipulate information
in the mind while performing cognitive tasks
- Higher working memory capacity → process & store
more information simultaneously (aiding in complex
cognitive tasks)
4) Speed of Processing:
- How quickly individuals can process and respond to
information
- Speed at which sensory info is encoded, processed
and responded to
- Speed of cognitive processing and decision-making
BIOLOGICAL BASES OF INTELLIGENCE
• Karl Lashley & others studied the brain to find biological
indicators of intelligence and other aspects of mental
processes
• They are NOT causal relations.
A) BRAIN SIZE:
- Larger brains = better performance on IQ tests?
- Not clear
- How efficiently brain works > size
B) BRAIN ACTIVITY:
- The way the brain’s electrical signals behave = how
well you do on IQ tests
- How flexible brain circuits are > how fast they work
C) GLUCOSE USE:
- Smart people = less sugar in their brains when
solving problems
 - Using their brains more efficiently
D) FRONTAL & PARIETAL REGIONS:
- Important for intelligence
- Damage? → how well you can think and solve
problems
- FRONTAL: fluid intelligence
- PARIETAL: general and fluid intelligence tasks
E) GOAL SETTING AND PLANNING:
- Being smart = being able to set goals, make plans
and carry them out
- Damage to frontal regions can impair these functions
F) CONTEXTUAL VIEW OF INTELLIGENCE:
- Intelligence = how you interact with the environment
- How people use their abilities in different situations
CULTURAL CONTEXT AND INTELLIGENCE
Culture: attitudes, values, beliefs and behaviors shared by a
group and passed down through generations
• Intelligence is inextricably linked to culture
- Culture shapes how intelligence is defined and
expressed
• Culture plays a significant role in separating human
intelligence from animal intelligence
• Cultural Differences in Cognitive Processes:
- Western Cultures: process objects independently of
context
- Eastern Cultures: consider objects in relation with
their surroundings
• Culture affects how people form concepts, potentially
impacting the outcomes of studies on intelligence and
concept formation
HOWARD GARDNER: MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES
(1983)
• Intelligence is not a single, unitary construct but rather a
combination of multiple independent intelligences.
TYPES OF INTELLIGENCES:
1) Linguistic Intelligence: Sensitivity to spoken and written
language, ability to learn languages, and capacity to use
language to accomplish goals.
2) Logical-Mathematical Intelligence: Capacity to analyze
problems logically, carry out mathematical operations, and
investigate issues scientifically.
3) Musical Intelligence: Skill in performing, composing, and
appreciating musical patterns.
4) Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence: Ability to use one's
physical body skillfully and to handle objects adroitly.
5) Spatial Intelligence: Capacity to perceive the visual-spatial
world accurately and to perform transformations upon
those perceptions.
6) Interpersonal Intelligence: Ability to understand and
interact effectively with others.
7) Intrapersonal Intelligence: Capacity to understand
oneself, to appreciate one's feelings, fears, and motivations.
8) Naturalist Intelligence: Ability to recognize, categorize,
and draw upon certain features of the environment.
• MODULAR VIEW OF THE MIND:
- Each type of intelligence originates from different
areas or modules of the brain
- Each intelligence functions independently
- Individuals can excel in certain intelligences while
having average or below-average abilities in others
STERNBERG: THE TRIARCHIC THEORY
Breaks down intelligence into three interconnected components
that relate to different aspects of human interaction and
cognitive processing:
1. ANALYTICAL INTELLIGENCE
- Problem solving abilities and logical reasoning
- Tasks such as analyzing, evaluating and comparing
information
i.e. solving mathematical problems and understanding
complex arguments
2. CREATIVE INTELLIGENCE
- Ability to deal with novel situations and to generate
innovative solutions
- Thinking outside the box, inventing and designing new
approaches
i.e., creating new art forms or devising innovative
strategies in unfamiliar contexts
3. PRACTICAL INTELLIGENCE
- Ability to adapt to everyday life by applying
knowledge and skills effectively
- Managing tasks, negotiating environments,
understanding social dynamics
i.e., managing household chores efficiently or
navigating social interactions successfully
interrelation of the three components
These aspects of intelligence are not isolated, but are
interconnected and work together to enable individuals to
interact effectively with their internal world, experiences and
their external environment
1. INTERNAL WORLD (ANALYTICAL): the cognitive
processes within the individual such as problem solving
and decision making
- Metacomponents: higher order executive processes
(i.e., metacognition) used to plan, monitor and
evaluate problem-solving tasks
- Performance components: lower order processes
used to implement the commands of the
metacomponents
(i.e., actual writing of the term paper)
- Knowledge-Acquisition components: used for
learning how to solve problems in the first place
(i.e., researching to gather info on the topic)
2. EXPERIENCE (CREATIVE): the ability to learn from new
experiences and to use creativity to address new situations
- As tasks become familiar, many aspects may become
automatic (requiring little conscious effort to
determine the next step)
- Novel task demands more from intelligence than a
familiar task because it lacks established procedures
and requires new problem-solving strategies
3. EXTERNAL WORLD (PRACTICAL): applying real-world
settings and adapting to different environments
- Adapting to the existing environment: when starting
college, understanding college rules and using them
to succeed
- Shaping the environment: choosing courses, pursuing
activities, starting new organizations or running for
class president
- Selecting new environments: transferring to a
different college if the currect one doesn’t meet
individual needs or goals
IMPROVING INTELLIGENCE
• Intelligence is not fixed and can be enhanced through
various interventions
A) ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS: surroundings and
experiences can significantly impact intellectual
development
B) MOTIVATION: drive and determination
C) TRAINING: specific educational and cognitive training
programs
• While genetics influence intelligence, environmental
factors also play a significant role.
IMPROVING CHILDREN’S INTELLIGENCE
• Several programs have demonstrated that children’s
cognitive skills and achievements can be enhanced
through early intervention and enriched environments:
- Abecedarian Program
- Head Start Program
key factors in the early home environment that
correlate with high IQ scores:
- Emotional and verbal responsiveness of the primary
caregiver
- Caregiver’s involvement with the child
- Avoidance of restriction and punishment
- Org. of the physical environment and activity
schedule
- Provision of appropriate play materials and
opportunities for varied daily stimulation
DEVELOPMENT OF INTELLIGENCE IN ADULTS
Intelligence continues to develop with age, but not all aspects
of cognitive ability increase indefinitely:
A) Crystallized Intelligence: accumulated knowledge and
vocabulary
- Higher in older adults compared to younger ones
B) Fluid Intelligence: involves speed and accuracy of
abstract reasoning, especially in novel situations
- Generally higher in younger adults
• While crystallized intelligence increases with age, fluid
intelligence may start to decline at some point.
- In college, both are increasing.
 CHAPTER 11: LECTURE 12-14
Problem solving & ?eativity
how people solve problems 6. Monitoring:
- Continuously check if the approach is effective and if
Understanding the Problem progress is being made

• The way people solve problems is influenced by how they 7. Evaluation:

- Assess whether the problem has been solved correctly
perceive and understand the problem itself and effectively
THE PROBLEM SOLVING CYCLE * Expert problem solvers → global (big-picture) planning
* Novice problem solvers → local (detail-oriented) planning
1. Problem Identification:
- determine whether there is a problem that needs
solving
2. Problem Definition & Representation:
- Clearly define what the problem is
- Distinguish between relevant and irrelevant
information
- Focus on the right information to avoid incorrect
conclusions
3. Formulate a Strategy:
- Develop a plan or strategy to solve the problem
a. Analysis: break down the complex problem into
manageable subgoals
b. Synthesis: combine various elements into a
cohesive solution TYPES OF PROBLEMS
c. Divergent Thinking: generate a variety of possible
solutions Problems can be categorized based on the clarity of their
d. Convergent Thinking: narrow down multiple solutions:
possibilities to find the best solution
Well-Structured Problems: have clear paths to solutions, such
GOAL: Study for an exam as math problems or geography tests
SUBGOALS:
- Read textbook and class notes. Ill-Structured (Ill-Defined) Problems: lack clear paths to
- Identify the most relevant topics. solutions
- Create study questions and answers on note cards.
- Learn all concepts on note cards. WELL-STRUCTURED PROBLEMS
- Test yourself with note cards.
- Repeat learning and testing until mastery is achieved. Have clear paths to solutions, often involving the application of
specific formulas or methods
4. Organization of Information: - Math problems
- Determine how different pieces of information fit - Geography tests
together to form a coherent understand of the
problem Move Problems: a subset of well-structured problems that
require a series of moves to reach a goal
5. Resource Allocation:
- Decide how much time, effort and resources should The “Hobbits and Orcs” problem:
be devoted to solving the problem Three hobbits and three orcs must cross a river using a boat
that holds two people. Orcs cannot outnumber hobbits on
either side of the river.
common errors in solving well-structured
problems
1. Inadvertently moving backward: going back to a state
further from the goal
i.e., moving all characters back to the starting of the
river
2. Making illegal moves: performing actions not allowed by
the problem’s rules
i.e., putting more than two individuals in the boat
3. Not realizing the next legal move: getting stuck at a
particular stage
i.e., failing to realize a character must return to the
starting point to succeed
Problem Space: the set of all possible actions that can be
applied to solve a problem, considering any constraints
strategies to solve problems
Algorithms: sets of procedures that guarantee a solution if
followed correctly
- Systematic and repeatable
i.e., a step by step method for solving a math problem
Heuristics: informal, intuitive and speculative strategies that
sometimes lead to a solution
- Efficient but does not guarantee a correct solution
i.e., people think shark attacks are more likely than plane
accidents due to the availability heuristic (shark attacks are
more common)
heuristic strategies
1. Means–Ends Analysis: Continuously comparing the current
state with the goal state and taking steps to minimize the
differences.
- Effective problem solvers use this when they cannot
immediately see an answer.
- Breaking down a large project into smaller,
manageable tasks and tackling them one by one.
2. Working Forward: Start at the initial state and work
towards the goal state.
- Solving a math problem step by step.
3. Working Backward: Start from the goal state and work
backward to determine the steps needed.
- Finding lost keys by retracing your steps.
4. Generate and Test: A trial-and-error strategy involving
creating possibilities, testing them, and discarding the
incorrect ones.
- Troubleshooting a car that won’t start by checking the
battery, fuel, etc.
ISOMORPHIC PROBLEMS
Problems that lack clear paths to solutions
- Have the same formal structure but different content
Games like:
- Scrabble
- Boggle
challenges in detecting isomorphism
• Structural Similarity Detection: challenging to recognize
the structural similarities when the surface characteristics
differ sharply
• Problem Solving Strategy Transfer: applying strategies
from one problem to another becomes difficult when the
problems’ contents differ significantly
insight
Insight: distinctive and sometimes sudden understanding of a
problem or strategy that aids in solving the problem
- Involves looking at the problem/strategy in a
completely new way
- Combining relevant old + new information for a new
view of the problem/solution
• May seem sudden but usually results from prior thought
and hard work, without it, it wouldn’t occur
early gestaltist view
“Whole is greater than the sum of its parts”
Wertheimer and Köhler believed that understanding the whole
structure of a problem is crucial for solving it
• Insight problems: require perceiving the problem as a
whole
• Productive thinking: involves insights that go beyond
existing associations and knowledge
• Reproductive Thinking: relies on existing associations and
what is already known without new insights
• Köhler’s Ape Experiment: showed that they could solve
problems insightfully, not through step-by-step trial and
error, but by suddenly realizing the solution
neo-gestaltist view on insight
Metcalfe and Weiebe distinguished between insightful
(productive) and non-insightful (reproductive) problem solving
Routine problems: solvers can usually predict their success
accurately
Insight problems: solvers often cannot predict their success
accurately
- Those who eventually solve the problem may initially
feel pessimistic, while those who fail may feel overly
optimistic
- Those who do solve them often don’t expect to, and
those who don’t solve them often think they will.
Imagine you have to get three hobbits and three orcs across a
river using a boat that can only hold two at a time. You can't
have more orcs than hobbits on either side because the orcs
would eat the hobbits.
1. Initial Struggle: You try different combinations but
keep getting stuck.
2. Insight Moment: You suddenly realize a strategy that
ensures safe passage for all.
non-gestaltist view on insight
Suggests that insights are not always sudden “aha” moments
but can also develop gradually over time:
Prisoner Escape Problem: A prisoner trying to escape a tower
found a rope that was almost long enough to reach the ground.
He solved the problem by cutting the rope in half and tying
the pieces together to make a longer rope.
• Gradual Insight: insights can develop incrementally over
time as the solver processes and re-evaluates the problem
• Sleep and Insight: sleep can facilitate the emergence of
insightful solutions, particularly in mathematical problem-
solving and tasks requiring an understanding of rules
• Insight Accuracy: can be accurate or wrong.
- Mental traps can mislead individuals, causing them to
pursue incorrect solutions
neuroscience and insight
1. Right Hippocampus: fMRI studies showed that it is active
during problem-solving (particularly when insight is
involved)
2. Right Anterior Temporal Lobe: spike in activity here just
before someone experiences insight
3. Frontal Lobe Activation: activation that occurs before
viewing a problem can predict whether an individual will
later generate an insightful solution
OBSTACLES TO PROBLEM SOLVING
1) MENTAL SET: when you keep using the same solution for
different problems because it worked it the past
If you always use the same formula to solve math
problems, you might not see an easier way to solve a new
problem.
´ Relying on familiar but ineffective strategies
´ Assumptions may be made without conscious
realization → restricting the ability to see alternative
solutions
´ Can make you stuck using an old strategy even when
a new one is better
STUDY: When people solved problems with a hard strategy
first, they kept using it even when an easier one was available.
Those who didn't start with the hard problems found the easy
solution quickly.
2) FUNCTIONAL FIXEDNESS: when you can’t see objects as
having uses other than their usual ones
If you only think of a box as a container, you might not
see that you can use it as a stand to solve a problem.
Karl Duncker’s Candle Problem:
- Task: Fix a candle to the wall without dripping wax on the
floor.
- Materials: Candles, a box of matches, and tacks.
- Finding: People who saw the box as just a container had a
harder time solving the problem because they didn't think
to use the box as a candle holder.
3) STEREOTYPES: generalized beliefs about a group of
people
Thinking all athletes are not good in academics.
´ Can make you assume things about people that aren’t
true and affect your judgments and decisions
Imagine you're trying to fix a leaky pipe. You have tape and
a clamp.
• If you only think of the tape as something to wrap gifts
(functional fixedness), you might not realize you can use
it to temporarily seal the leak.
• Or, if you've always used a wrench to tighten bolts
(mental set), you might not think of using pliers, which
could be quicker for this specific situation.
• And if you believe only plumbers can fix leaks
(stereotype), you might not even try to solve the problem
yourself, even if it's simple.
NEGATIVE AND POSITIVE TRANSFER
Transfer: the application of knowledge or skills learned in one
context to a new context.
a) Positive Transfer: Solving an earlier problem makes it
easier to solve a new problem
- Learning basic math helps in solving algebra
problems
- Adding and multiplying skills are carried over and
applied to more complex mathematical problems
b) Negative Transfer: Solving an earlier problem makes it
harder to solve a new problem
- A person used to driving on the right side of the
road might find it hard to drive in a country
when you’re supposed to drive on the left side of
the road (interference)
TRANSFER OF ANALOGIES
Analogical Problem Solving: using the solution of a previous
problem to help solve a new, similar problem
- Uses similarities between problems to find solutions
A. Military Problem: A general wants to capture a
fortress. Small groups can safely travel down mined
roads, but a large force will detonate the mines. The
strategy is to divide the large force into smaller
groups, each taking different roads to converge on
the fortress simultaneously.
B. Medical Problem: A doctor wants to destroy a tumor
with X-rays. High-intensity X-rays destroy both the
tumor and healthy tissue, while low-intensity X-rays
are ineffective. The strategy is to use multiple low-
intensity rays from different angles to converge on
the tumor, effectively destroying it without harming
the surrounding tissue.
• To find analogies between two problems, you’d have to
first perceive the relationship between them.
INCUBATION
Incubation: taking a break from working on a problem
• Mental break: by stepping away, you give your brain a
chance to rest and reset.
- Can help you avoid getting stuck in a fixed way
of thinking (mental set)
• Subconscious work: while you’re not consciously thinking
about the problem, your subconscious mind can continue
working on it
- Often leads to new ideas or solutions
• New perspectives: coming back to a problem after a
break can help you see it from a different angle or
context
NEUROSCIENCE AND PLANNING DURING differences in knowledge organization
PROBLEM SOLVING
EXPERTS NOVICES
1. Frontal Lobe: crucial for planning and problem-solving • Small,
• Large, disconnected
2. Brain Activity: studies show that when you’re working on a Schemas interconnected units of
problem and making mistakes, your brain works harder units of knowledge
- Especially in prefrontal cortex knowledge
• Deep • Surface-level
3. Injury Impact: can make it harder to plan and solve understanding
problems Organization similarities
and structural
similarities
INTELLIGENCE AND PROBLEM SOLVING • Struggle with
• Better at classifying
Higher IQ people often take more time to understand a classifying and solving
problem fully (global planning) Problem-Solving problems and problems
- Once they grasp it, they are quicker at figuring out finding efficiently
the details (local planning) solutions

EXPERTISE IN PROBLEM SOLVING

Expertise: having a lot of knowledge and skill in a specific area.
• EXPERTS ARE BETTER AT SOLVING PROBLEMS IN
THEIR FIELD BECAUSE THEY:
1) Know more: they have a deeper understanding and more
information to draw from
2) Use better strategies: more skilled at using the best
strategies and techniques for solving problems
3) Efficient application: they can quickly find and use the
right information to solve problems
• ORGANIZE THEIR KNOWLEDGE:
Experts have a better memory framework for organizing
and recalling information.
a. Memory Framework: Experts have a superior system for
storing and recalling information.
b. Interconnected Knowledge: Experts' knowledge is highly
connected, making it easier to solve problems.
c. Effective Methods: Experts use better strategies and
methods than novices.
d. Deep Understanding: Experts understand problems deeply
and can classify and solve them more effectively.
CREATIVITY
Creativity: process of producing something that is both original
and worthwhile
- Involves generating ideas or products that are new
and valuable

Study: Beer Experts vs. Novices characteristics of creative people

Task: Participants tasted and sorted beers.
Result: Both groups sorted equally well, but experts
remembered the beers better.
• ELABORATION OF KNOWLEDGE IN EXPERTS:
- Experts use their knowledge to remember and
organize information better
Chess: Expert chess players remember and recognize board
positions better than novices. They’ve seen many patterns and
can use this knowledge to make better moves.
• High creativity scores: creative individuals often score
high on creativity assessments
• Hard work and perseverence: they work long and hard,
studying the work of predecessors and contemporaries
• Open minded: they are open to new ideas, different
cultures, races and religion
• Open to new experiences
• Confident

• Accepting of themselves

• Impulsive
• Ambitious and driven

• Dominant

• Sometimes hostile

• Less conventional (less likely to follow traditional ways)

a synthesis of case studies of creative people

Þ Albert Einstein (logical-mathematical)
Þ Pablo Picasso (spatial)
Þ T.S. Eliot (linguistic)
Þ Mohandas Gandhi (interpersonal)

• Many creative individuals exhibit strengths in more than

one type of intelligence
• Often have specific weaknesses as well

WHAT IS NECESSARY FOR CREATIVITY

1) SYNTHETIC ABILITY: seeing problems in new ways and

not sticking to tradtional thinking
2) ANALYTIC ABILITY: knowing which ideas are worth
focusing on
3) PRACTICAL-CONTEXTUAL ABILITY: being able to explain
and convince others of the importance of your ideas

NEUROSCIENCE OF CREATIVITY

Brain Areas Involved:

• Prefrontal Regions: active when you are thinking

creatively
• Brodmann’s Area 39:
- ANGULAR GYRUS: plays a role in language, number
processing and spatial cognition
- Part of the parietal cortex (responsible for integrating
sensory info and spatial sense)
- Near temporal, occipital, parietal lobes
- Active during creative tasks, like making up stories