BEP1101: HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS OF EDUCATION

INTRODUCTION

1. What is history?
2. What is education?
3. What is history of education?
4. What is the use of history of education to the teacher?

History

• It is a record of all human experiences

• It shows how various people are and how they came to be
• It shows how social, economic, political and technological events have shaped
and given rise to mankind.
• It is an evaluative study of what humanity has undergone in retrospect
• Study of humanity, its problems and challenges its aspirations as well as its
successes and failures.

Education

• The total process of developing human ability and behavior

• Organized and continuous instruction meant to impact knowledge, skills,
values; attitudes and understanding to enable a person participate fully and in
a successful manner in society.
• A social process through which one attains social competence and growth
within a selected chosen and controlled institutionalized setting.

Apart from acquiring of skills, knowledge attitudes, there must be a transmission of

the same.

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HISTORY OF EDUCATION

It is a study of the past development of educational systems, theories and institutions

within the general historical context of social, economic, political, cultural, scientific
and technological change.

Since education serves society, the teacher should understand the things that make up
that society. Education foundations will be based on the important things of this
society.

The history of education theory and practice is a study of the present education
theories, institutions, policies and practices in the perspective of their historical
evolution or progress.

WHY WE STUDY HISTORY OF EDUCATION/JUSTIFICATIONS

1. It enables educators examine in a historical context issues and problems that

perplex us today and have perplexed other educators in the past. This
examination leads to better understanding and hence possible solutions. The
teacher can also use possible solutions in the past to make work easier.
2. History of education helps teachers develop a personal point of view of
education e.g. helps the teacher answer some questions e.g. what should be the
aims of education? What are the guiding principles of curriculum
development? What is the nature of the learner? What is the nature of the
mind? What is the nature of the education process? What are the objectives of
the various levels of instruction?
3. History of education helps study past successes and failures in succession (in a
systematic, logical historical manner). This provides opportunity for
comparison and contrast in evaluating the worth of conflicting educational
theories and practice. This implies;
a. By knowing the past failures, we can reduce the possibilities of repeating
them
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 b. By knowing tested education values, we can improve our own system.
4. History of education leads to better understanding of the relationship between
theory and practice. This will help the teacher in applying theoretical
education ideas to practical situations in the professions.
5. In history of education the teacher is acquainted with great teachers and
educators of the past e.g. Buddha, Plato, Quintilian, Aristotle, St. Augustine,
Comenius, Rousseau, Montessori etc. and this inspires them.
6. History of education strengthens the teacher’s personal and professional
competence by encouraging them to;
a. Examine, evaluate, accept or modify the cultural inheritance
b. Become an educational critic and agent responsible for cultural
transmission and change rather than blindly accepting the status quo or
unchallenged claims.

NB

In this respect, teachers are helped to look critically at contemporary theories and
practices when they know the past. This in turn helps them plan for the future. It helps
them connect the past, the present and the future which in return enhances decision
making and policy formulation.

7. Examination of educational theories and practices in their historical context

may encourage teachers to take a critical look at contemporary theories and
practices. It is said that the past illuminates the present. It is also said that
without history, one might learn what a thing is but not where it came from,
not why it is here, not what it is for and not what it is going to become.
History of education makes contemporary issues alive

8. History of education helps one to make comparisons i.e. different ideas with
one group or one idea with different groups. This helps teachers in
understanding development of a popular theory or practice.

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 9. Understanding the context of historical events creates the spirit of realism.
This reduces possible frustration caused by ignorance of the limits set to
human power by particular context,( will show you what is possible and what
is not_ that you are not aiming at what is impossible).

10. Studying of history of education as a discipline develops the power of

thinking. It does this by exciting curiosity, developing enquiry, developing
reasoning and encouraging the art of self expression and communication. It
also helps develop critical and skeptical thinking because our knowledge of
the past is based on written documents. These must be looked at critically and
skeptically bearing in mind that they were written by ordinary human beings
who had to choose what to and what not to write.

11. History of education is drawn upon by practically all other fields of study. All
other disciplines e.g. sciences and humanities depend on history to provide the
raw record of what happen in their areas. Students of history of education
cannot fully understand the discipline unless they get some acquaintance with
other social science. Fields such as sociology and psychology can be used in
analyzing educational ideas. This means therefore that history of education
exposes people to other disciplines.

EARLY MAN AND EDUCATION

Man has existed in the same form for about 1½ million years. Early civilization
started when man realized he could control the environment and manipulate nature to
satisfy his needs (e.g. discovery of fire, use of water, simple tools, domesticating
animals) overcoming nature.

Man also learnt the use of symbols especially language for communication. Later
demands on human memory led to invention of writing which in turn led to great
preservation of knowledge.

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CIVILIZATION

Civilization began about 5000 years ago and it grew along river valleys e.g. Indus,
Tigris and Euphrates, Hwang Ho at this time people organized themselves into
families, clans and tribes. Later urban life developed. This was later followed by class
stratification, writing and architecture.

EDUCATION AND CIVILIZATION

Education and civilization put together has 3 distinct features that put man higher
than other animals;

a. Power of distinct language

b. Coherent thought

c. Invention of implements

Through man’s improved power and inventiveness, culture was developed. Culture is
the sum total of way of living. Man developed culture according to where they lived.
As culture grew so did civilization to satisfy man’s social and cultural conditions. For
culture and civilization to prosper there was need for education.

AIMS OF EDUCATION OF THE EARLY MAN

Early man’s aims of education were geared towards immediate communal security
and survival. Education was utilitarian. It was for here and now – hand to mouth. The
past and the future were not seen as important. The main objectives then of this
education were;

1. Prevent starvation, keep warm and continue living

2. The early man was constantly in fear of the cruel and unpredictable
environment and young people were taught to respect it. The early man started

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 to believe in the supernatural to explain things not understood (e.g. the sun has
risen and stays the whole day, disappears at night, plant crops and they grow).
This led to animism – belief that there is life in everything (e.g. if you annoy
the sun, it will not rise tomorrow). This at times led to magic to appease the
hostile environment.

ASPECTS OF EDUCATION OF EARLY MAN

Education was utilitarian – useful – it included theoretical and practical aspects of

today. Theoretically there was the idea of religion and supernatural phenomenon.
Practically education was work oriented. There was apprenticeship as a way of
learning.

Education for the young was simple and direct and accompanied by religious
dimension to help the young deal with.. Methods of teaching were related to existing
environmental circumstances e.g. a lot of imitation.

Play was used – no idle play but participation in daily activities e.g. economic
activities like agriculture, fishing.

Ideas and inventions were gradually refined and improved by incoming generations
through experimentation, apprenticeship imitation and active participation eventually
there arose a priestly class that was associated with education.

The main aim was to prepare the youth for communal intergratedness way in the
society – what roles were expected in the society e.g. hunting fighting e.g. for boys,
making clothes, cooking, looking after babies for girls.

Any education was to ensure that the basic needs were met. Education was
transmitted by the older members of the society.

Emergence of the priestly class led to store of knowledge which eventually could be
translated to curriculum and therefore there were the teachers. In this early man’s
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education generally speaking, education was given at random. There was no
class/formal teaching.

EDUCATION IN ANCIENT EGYPT

Egypt is the oldest civilization in history. It boasts of being the earliest with recorded
history. The following contributed to Egypt’s civilization.

1. Strategic position – desert on 3 sides, sea on the other side. This made it
fortified and therefore peaceful for human settlement. The peace encouraged
development and an independent culture.

2. Egypt had river Nile, the river boosted many agricultural activities.

3. In 3100 BC the upper and lower kingdoms were unified by Pharaoh Menes.
This made it easier for development. It developed into a very strong
civilization and developed an autocratic theocracy (based on religion). It was
an acceptable System for the people.

4. Egypt was extremely religious that they had over 2000 gods – pharaoh himself
was a god (god king) – deity on earth.

Pharaoh made sure gods were respected worshiped, sacrificed to he looked after their
interests. There was a close link between religion and all practices – economic social
political, artistic, scientific, technological etc. e.g. of god – most important were 3;

Ra – sun god

Osiris – god of the Nile – judge of the dead

Isis – wife of Osiris

Belief in life after death – Egyptians believed in physical life after death. This belief
made them develop the technology of mummification – preservation of bodies after

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death – sophisticated and scientific way. They said the dead were just sleeping and in
their sleep they had gone to the field of reeds – place in western Egypt – where most
pyramids were built.

After death you could live in luxury or be thrown into the Nile for crocodiles. To
avoid this, people bought from priests the book of the dead to read and prepare them
and so as to be assured of importability. The wealthy were buried with their property
and slaves – they later made statues to represent the slaves.

The Egyptian society was stratified – had different classes;

Upper class – royal family, nobles and priests

Middle class –professionals and scribes e.g. clerks and lawyers

Lower class_ fellahin or serfs and slaves

AIMS OF EDUCATION IN EGYPT

1. To perpetuate social stability and maintain the status quo. People were
educated according to expectations of their classes and made to feel
comfortable to remain there. There was no encouragement in terms of social
mobility.

2. To produce professionals and work oriented personnel. They wanted both

professional and technical people.

3. With the river Nile being the life line of Egypt education was designed to
foster development of a complex agricultural science creating irrigation and
flood control networks which made Egypt the granary of the ancient world.

4. To advance the Egyptian religious view of the world by seeking to enhance

the people’s religious and moral development and the piety (religiosity) of
their gods. Education was not only a preparation for life, but also for life after
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 death therefore education contained religious and philosophical studies that
helped to achieve the society’s polytheistic ideals (many gods).

STRUCTURE OF EDUCATION IN EGYPT

Education started from home. Majority of children leant at home. Some went to
school. The school was structured in 3 levels;

1. Elementary

2. Secondary

3. Higher

1. Elementary

Started between 3000-2000 BC. As demands of education became necessary.

These were to meet the society’s increasing demands e.g. increased economic
and political demands – called for clerks, copyists, people to computer
computers and inspectors. Such demands increased demand for education.
Growing agricultural activities led to need for agricultural economists e.g.
people who could measure the annual flooding of the Nile. Those who could
measure the sizes and strengths of dykes. Those who could measure the
ditches, bridges docks in order to have a reliable irrigation teaching.

Initially it was meant for practical or vocational teaching with very little
literacy, writing and reading. Literacy was only given to the clergy and their
children in the temple schools. Later it expanded to the nobles, military, civil
servants, commercial class and this was as need arose.

Those few boys started at 4 years and finished at 14 years when according to
the Egyptians were ready for world of work. Literacy was related to their
professions. Other courses taught included elementary science, arithmetic,

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geometry, astronomy, moral and religious training, music and dancing for
recreation (state songs) to inculcate patriotism and state awareness.

There was home schooling. Boys who did not attend school were trained by
their fathers in other schools (not 3 R’s). This was mainly through oral skills
and apprenticeship to make them fit their social class. Girls were given
practical homemaking skills by their mothers.

METHODS OF LEARNING

Dictation and memorization

Imitation

Repetition

Copying of texts

Observation – physical education

These methods did not encourage high level of thinking, inquiry or

investigate. Teachers did not explain their lessons to their students.

In Egypt, discipline was very harsh. Laziness was scorned upon and people
could be beaten.

Highly regarded and commended were good manners, physical fitness

(emphasized through swimming and archery.) They valued cleanliness and
moral uprightness. Cleanliness hygiene was given a religious significance or
value.

Secondary

After 14 years boys continued with secondary education in the same school.
Secondary education was continuation and consolidation of the elementary
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giving particular emphasis on writing one improved on what they had learnt.
Boys were also given teaching to enhance their etiquette and code of behavior.

Higher education

This took place in temple colleges and universities. Higher education was
limited to very few. A highly guarded secretary given and restricted to heirs’
medicine and priesthood were inherited positions.

Egyptian education was strictly based on social stratification meaning there

was no equality. There was gender inequality.

Contribution of Egypt education to human civilization after man’s

1. In art, modern painting sculpture have contributed

2. In architecture to use mass with stone in copying the massive desert cliffs

3. In literature the Egyptian used similes proverbs to teach moral conduct

and these methods are in extensive as in oral literature

4. In mathematics the Egyptian system of multiplication has been used in

Europe and Asia. The roman borrowed Julian and Gregorian calendars in
Egypt. From them they refined them and came up with what is a 12 month
calendar.

5. In medicine, the Egyptian had knowledge of surgery, physiology, function

of the heart and blooded circulation said to be originated from the
Hippocratic Oath. Egypt had a very advanced science as demonstrated by
mummification of the dead.

6. Early writings and numbers seem to have spread from Ishango (DRC) to
Egypt. From where it spread to the rest of the world. The Egyptians
invented the hieroglyphics – a special kind of writing. They made a big
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 contribution to writing materials. Initially writing was on stone, then
metal, then papyrus (short for paper) ideas for development of writing
materials.

Although the Egyptian civilization was so advanced from time of United

Kingdom there was stagnation for 30 centuries – no new inventions, poor
maintenance. This made it easy for the Romans to overpower the Egyptians.

Because of its accomplishments and ideals, they laid the foundations of later
civilizations. This can be demonstrated in that a lot of well known thinkers
were taught and inspired by Egyptian education e.g. Pythagoras and
Archimedes (mathematicians), Herodotus father of history, Plato and Aristotle
(philosophers) and therefore Egypt set the basis of western civilization
education and culture.

Their main problem that led to Egypt’s downfall was that they were opposed
to change. They rejected people who brought change.

From rule of Hammurabi Egypt declined defeated by Assyrians in and

Persians took over in 526 BC Greeks in 325 BC, and Romans in 30BC.

EDUCATION FEATURES IN EARLY HISTORIC CIVILIZATIONS

Using the Egyptian experience certain conclusions can be made on education

in early civilizations.

1. Initially education was used as a way of cultural transmission. This was

imparted informally without schools. Later the demands of society
exceeded this need so it became inadequate – there led to emergence of
educational institutions to meet the demanding needs. This followed in all
the civilizations.

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 2. As knowledge explosion took place the family and society were unable to
transmit knowledge for specialization needs. This gave way to formal
training since early civilizations emphasized division of labour a class of
teachers arose.

3. The discovery of writing played a big role towards establishment of

schools reading and writing skills were valued for administrative and
record keeping purposes. This meant that the limited oral tradition was
eventually being replaced by recorded tradition through writing.

4. Apart from little literacy was limited to a privileged few – the royal,
nobles and priest. girls were seen to be inferior so didn’t need education

5. The approach of teaching and learning was still very undeveloped e.g.
memorizing and repetition were common

6. The learner was not encouraged to apply what they learnt to daily life for
problem solving.

7. Teachers did not explain their lessons

8. Teachers did not see failure of learning as their fault. They always blamed
learners. It was said that lack of understanding was due to learners’
laziness.

9. School discipline was harsh. Education aimed at producing submissive,

conforming and yet productive citizens for a cohesive society.

EDUCATION IN ANCIENT GREECE

Greece was the most influential in terms of art literature, philosophy, science and
politics in the western world. Unlike the other civilizations, it did not depend much on
agriculture because Greece is a rough and mountainous and unsuitable for agriculture.

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It was not one country but made up of small and isolated states which had no
connection with each other. But the states had a common language and religion.

These states were united into two main ones;

1. Sparta

2. Athens

These offered contrasting Hellenistic cultures (Hellenistic – Hellas – traditional name

for Greece).

Education in Greece

The following are general points on education;

• Before 509BC the ruling classes were dominant. The main aim of education
then was to perpetuate the rule of the dominant class. Education was limited to
the youths of proper birth meaning youth of the ruling class.

• Later however Athens became more liberal and allowed other people to attend
their schools later aliens (citizens who were not in ruling class) to go to
schools.

• Initially education involved tribal traditions, customs and moral instructions

given from father to son. Unlike other civilizations, religion was not
emphasized in terms of directing education

• Greek education sought to produce perfect citizens it aimed at individual

excellence and worth, or public usefulness. Therefore their education involved
gymnastics – body strength and beauty; music for enrichment of the soul;
science for instructing the mind. Every aspect of human being.

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 • Greek education could be divided into 2 eras; old era which was discipline
and theological oriented, represented by Spartan education. New era
represented by Athenian education which stressed on mathematics, geometry,
astronomy and philosophy?

NB

The new education era (461-429 BC) was peace not war oriented. It was scientific not
theological. It also brought individual freedom, free reflection and democracy of the
state. Although the state was supervising education, the responsibility was with the
fathers. If a father failed to educate the son, the state allowed the son not to look after
father in old age.

SPARTAN EDUCATION

Sparta was known as the strongest Greek city in terms of military ability. They were
strong people who demanded good discipline and were action oriented. Due to this
expectation Spartans encouraged health and physical fitness for both sexes. The
society was divided into 3 classes;

a. Elite citizens (spartiates) these were the soldiers and government officials

b. Non citizens – people like merchants, craftsmen and peasants

c. State owned serfs. People who worked on the state land manual work of
cultivating and tendering the farms.

The following points summarize the Spartan approach to education;

1. The main aim was to produce soldiers and warriors – a strong military. This
education encouraged obedience and loyalty to Sparta but also aimed at
developing certain virtues e.g. modesty, endurance, cunningness, strength,
sociability, self control which normally go with good soldiers.

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2. Literacy was not given prominence reading and writing

3. The government controlled education to ensure it served their social and

military interests

4. In order to produce god fearing, moral and military socialists religion was part
of everything

5. Education was to maintain the status quo

6. Rigidity strictness and severity characterized Spartan education (Spartan army

swore to win or die). 300 Spartans challenged 30,000 Persians, fought and the
Spartans were all killed.

7. At birth children were inspected by the state. They were then exposed to ice
and snow so that weaklings could die – child exposure. The strong ones were
taken back to their homes to be brought up as strong warriors

8. At homes mothers and slaves were responsible for family education. At 8

years, boys were taken to public barracks where they were exposed to
hardships and strict discipline to make them strong.

9. Both boys and girls were taught gymnastics although the girls’ training was at
home. The boys got gymnastics to become strong warriors. The girls were
exposed to gymnastics to produce strong warriors.

10. At 18 boys became cadet citizens (exhibit) and they began professional
studies in warfare. As part of their training they were whipped and flogged to
make them develop endurance

11. At 20 they were eligible for citizen clubs but it was not until 30 that they
became full citizens of Sparta. At 30 they were forced to marry and to
continue living in communal barracks.

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Summary

Aims

1. Training of soldiers and warriors

2. Forming of ------------ and loyal citizens

3. Making people enduring modest caring social strong etc.

Structure

1. Military type of education

2. Started at home

3. 8 years boys went into barracks

4. 18 years engaged in professional warfare

5. 20 years eligible for citizen clubs

6. 30 years became full citizens

Content

Military drills

Religion to produce god fearing, moral, military

Gymnastics

Running physical strength

Swimming

Literacy – mostly touching on law

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Methods

Strict and rigid methods of instruction

Punishment was emphasized – including torture

Sparta did not produce highly intellectual academic and philosophers. Well known for
its militarism – heroic soldiers

ATHENIAN EDUCATION

Whereas Sparta boasted of having the greatest military mighty in the world, Athens
boast of having been the Centre of Hellenic intellectualism in other words, Athens is
seen as a leading intellectual and artistic culture and comparable to any other in
history at that time.

Initially Athens started as an agricultural state later went into urbanization where
there was trade and commerce. It started as a monarchy with a king Solon (639-559)
under this king, Athens was converted into a democracy. This meant that eligible
citizens could elect their leaders. In terms of education;

1. Like Sparta, the Athenians considered the state supreme but unlike Sparta, the
individual was valued and fulfillment of the individual was seen as good for
the state. There was a lot of freedom for the individual.

2. In Athens, the education was literary based. They emphasized reading and
writing. Asthenias are known to be imaginative, artistic creative

3. Athenian education was general, broad, liberal and elitist.

4. Training of the body was connected to training of the mind.

5. Educated Athenians looked down upon manual work

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6. Athenian education sought to foster science and humanities. Although they
were weak in science applications, they used a lot of mathematics in their
daily work.

7. Athenians babies were examined and the father decided whether it will be
exposed or not.

8. Boys and girls lived together at home up to the age of 7. Mothers and slaves
looked after them.

9. Girls were educated at home in arts and music had little education outside
home. Girls and women were aliens – never became citizens put together with
serfs, craftsmen etc.

10. At 7 years boys attended two types of schools

a. Gymnastics school – for physical training

b. Music school for literacy, music, poetry, drama, history oratory and
science

11. All education before 15 years was given in private schools.

12. At 15 years boys entered state schools for advanced training in 3 ways;

a. Judicial

b. Legislative

c. Military services. Up to this stage fathers were responsible for their

children’s behavior.

13. At 18 years boys reached maturity and could become citizens

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 14. Discipline at home and school was strict and corporal punishment was
common.

15. Athenian education was very progressive and produced individualistic and
democratically conscious people. This led to the formation of a liberal culture
and an intelligent society which was a major revolution from the rigid systems
of ancient times.

The new Athenian education (5th C B.C)

In 480 BC Athenians defeated the Persians and they took on a new way of looking at
life so that Athens became a more cosmopolitan city. They were then able to interact
with others – travelers, traders’ foreigners and this brought diversification of the
community. There was a cultural revolution which disorganized the old system of
education and the way of life which led to the following;

a. Old traditions and basic ideals of the early Athenians were abandoned

b. Trading and commerce led to individual prospects as opposed to the old

communal prosperity. Wealth and power became measures for greatness as
opposed to birth or service to state. Simple lifestyle was changed into a
luxurious type.

• Citizenship was now open to all inhabitants

• The goal of education was preparation for personal advancement,

individual excellence as opposed to the old objective of social service
and public usefulness

• The new curriculum therefore was oriented towards the individual and
included such thing as geometry, drawing, grammar and rhetoric

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 • There was no great demand for education because it could make you
advance in society. This gave rise to people called sophists – travelling
teachers who said they could teach anything and could argue on any
side of any agreement. According to them, truth was relative.
According to the sophists, man was the highest measure of everything
and individual rights were emphasized – were paramount because of
this emphasis on individual, there was a gap between individuals and
society. This moral gap that the famous philosophers were trying to fill
e.g. Socrates, Pluto, Aristotle. There were advocating for balance
between individual and society.

ORGANIZATION IN THE NEW ERA

The education in this new era in Athens was organized in 3 levels;

1. Primary education – given in private schools (7-13 years) children learnt

drama, reading arithmetic and chanting

2. Secondary education (13-16 years) took place in public schools. They learnt
geometry drawing, music drama and rhetoric

3. Higher education – given in rhetorical and philosophical school (16- ). This

school was purely literary and a lot of literary training for rhetoric, law
emphasis was based on clear thinking elaboration and debate.

Athens was intellectual Centre. This university of Athens began about 200 BC, to 529
AD when it was closed by emperor justranian because the university encouraged
pagan thinking.

SOME GREEK PHILOSOPHERS

A lot of philosophers came from Athens

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Socrates – 469-399 BC

Plato – 429-347 BC

Aristotle 384-322 BC

SOCRATES

He was a sculptor and he started helping people deal with their ethical and social
problems. He was opposed to sophists because they were saying anything is relative
e.g. morality. He tried to find a spiritual explanation for the universe and human
conduct. He believed that virtue can be taught through teaching right thought and
actions. He sought the right part towards truth by questioning popular beliefs through
inquiry e.g. for him he did not believe that Zeus caused thunderstorm – it was the
weather. As a teacher he did the following;

• He made many contribution which include; learning objectively through

conversation, learning subjectively through reflecting and classifying one’s
experience

• He contributed towards seeing the moral and value of learning/knowledge

• Understanding education in terms of power of thinking rather than

transmission of knowledge

NB

As a result of his encouraging people to have moral freedom and always take decision
after proper inquiry and understanding Socrates was condemned to death by the state
with explanation that he was misleading the youth – forced to drink poison.

PLATO

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He was Socrates’ student. Like his teacher he was opposed to individualism and he
wanted to draw up a different and better moral ethical bond. He did this by starting a
school called the academy. In this school his ideas were practiced e.g. it had
student/teachers union, which owned in common a chapel, lecture rooms, living
rooms and library. He was trying to move away from individualism to working
together. In this school both men and women were allowed. The teaching was
philosophy, mathematics etc. using the Socrates enquiry method. Students and
teacher engaged in discussion. Plato also wrote a book, the republic in which he
suggested an ideal state. It suggested the following;

• In order to destroy self – seeking, family life was to be destroyed

• Rulers were not to own private property

• There should be an aristocratic socialism to ensure individual virtue but also

enhance justice in the state.

• To destroy ignorance, rulers were to be those who had received instructions in

their respective duties

• The ideal stage should have a 3 tier/level society i.e.

Iron men – bronze

To include workers, producers and artisans – people who did manual work –
formed majority of population given the characteristic of temperance.

Silver men

Soldier to defend and protect the state and merchants who through trade would bring
wealth to the state. People with characteristics of courage.

Golden men – the philosophers

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A small group of rulers, self disciplined men having undertaken years of study and
training. They were to be entrusted with management of the government for the
common good. Had characteristic of wisdom.

According to Plato each group was to receive training related to their role in society.
Therefore education depended on who you are and what you did for the society.

For the iron men they were to have no education. To be helped to have self control
and how to submit to the others so as to support the others.

The silver men were to receive military training to be helpers of the government. The
golden men were to receive many years studying dialectics so as to be able to act as
guardians of the state or the rulers.

In his ideas of education Plato combined Spartan and Athenian ideas. In Spartan ideas
the emphasis on endurance was taken. From Athenian side he took the idea of
encouraging intellectual and political freedom.

Plato’s education was an interaction between the individual and society. The society
trained the individual in order to realize the goals of the state. Education therefore
catered for both individual and society.

CONTENT

Music and literature were offered to develop the child’s imagination and aesthetic
value (ability to appreciate beauty and goodness). He advocated for gymnastics. At
adolescence science, arithmetic geometry and astronomy were offered. These were to
provoke reflection and iron out any contradictions about things.

Dialectic training (search for truth philosophy) was offered to the guardians of the
state.

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Up to 18 years Athenian boys were to be given Spartan military training and those
able could continue with higher training and the rest to be given industrial training
and those who were very good were given training later to join guardians.

Education was for the ruling class and for both sexes.

Scientific and training was for mature age. He advocated for proper organization of
learning materials.

ARISTOTLE

Aristotle was not a native but lived and did all his work with Athens. Was a follower
of Plato and taught in his academy. He tutored Alexander the great. He founded a
school called lyceum where he and his students wrote all his works – covering all
areas of knowledge. He also streamlined great works by other scholars especially on
politics, rhetoric’s natural sciences ethics and poetry. His greatest work was;

1. Politics

2. Ethics

In politics he critiqued roman government

In ethics he looked at how an individual should discipline himself.

In these two works he wanted to look for an ideal state and what sort of education
should be offered for the ideal state. What education would make perfect members of
that society.

With his students he carried a lot of experiments and recorded the results (scientific
research in biology and history). He greatly influenced the medieval scholars of 11th
and 12 the especially those who followed the scholasticism method of learning.

Summary

25
 1. Like Plato he viewed education in relation to the state process leading to self
actualization not social engineering like Plato

2. To Aristotle the purpose of education was to produce a virtuous man in

harmony. This harmony is of body (nature) harmony of the mind (habit or
soul) and harmony of the spirit (reasoning) and therefore for him there needed
to be progressive training of the body, character and intellect (total person).
According to him education was to be on 2 levels;

• 7-14 years (primary education) given in patestra or music school –

emphasized physical training

• 15-18 years (secondary education) general and broad education. It also

included music, literature, astronomy and mathematics – main
emphasis intellectual training.

ROMAN EDUCATION

Rome as a state was founded in 753 BC was a small state but later became big and
famous. Eventually dominated (Italian peninsular and Mediterranean lands). This was
due to its location and its people. As it grew 500-250 BC there were two groups in the
Roman Empire;

1. Patricians – rulers who owned land. Controlled the state, had an elected senate
of about 300 members. The senate was led by 2 consuls who were also
elected. This was leadership in civil religious, political, military and all
matters.

2. Plebeians – second class citizens – have few privileges. Did a lot of work for
patricians and rewarded with small pieces of land. Were discriminated and
were dissatisfied. Started threatening to break away from roman state. To stop
this, the patricians gave them some rights so Rome became a democracy.

26
Rome was not known for intellectual activities but was known for good organization
and administration and a lot of western states learnt from them. Rome was the last of
the ancient and the first in the modern.

Like all agricultural based states, Rome was supported by its traditions. These were
emphasized and the main aim of education was to perpetuate and respect those
traditions to ensure stability.

AIMS OF EDUCATION IN ROME

1. Subjugate the individual in the interest of the society. Making a national of

brave warriors and dutiful citizens. Education was to train its citizens for
practical life. This life would produce good citizens, soldiers, workers etc.

2. Impart virtues of obedience, courage, bravery, honesty industry etc.

3. Train men who were active and efficient in daily life i.e. conquering in war,
wise in politics and having reverence for the gods. In terms of content the
approach was for practical.

CONTENT FOR ROMAN EDUCATION

Training in the ways of life. It included;

1. Physical training/military, civic and vocational training. To help people move

into various areas of activities.

2. Moral training – for people to know their rights and duties as defined by law

3. Knowledge of law was emphasized to understand what was required of them

4. Religious training for morality. Also in religious ceremonies and duties –

appease and please gods

5. Emphasis on games for both boys and girls

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 6. The home was the main agent of education in the early years. Basics of
literacy and numeracy were given at home. Boys would later accompany their
fathers through apprentice in farms and in military training. Girls remained at
home and learnt home management from their mothers. Literacy was not
emphasized in Rome. An educated person had the following;

a. Was able to manage his land and slaves

b. A patriot – ready to defend Rome

c. Knew the roman tradition and law

For the Romans, one did not have to be learned.

GREECE INFLUENCE ON ROMAN EDUCATION

When Rome conquered Greece, there was a lot of influence – many Greek slaves
were captured and put in the roman homes. The Romans got influenced by Greek
culture – language, thought and literature. The slaves became teachers and tutors to
the roman children. Later there was adoption of Greek ideas and state took interest in
the Greek education. They modeled their education on the Greek model. There was
stagnation in education. There were 3 stages of education.

1. Elementary school (ludus) for boys between 7-12 years. Main emphasis was
3R. These children were accompanied by slaves – pedagogues who were their
tutors and carried their bags. The boys also studied homers odyssey – a
famous Greek classic which had been translated into Latin. The elementary
schools were private and there was no state supervision.

2. Secondary school (12-16 years) boys learned Greek grammar, composition,

poetry and history. They also learnt roman vernacular, Latin grammar
rhetoric, dialectic, arithmetic, geometry and astronomy. These schools were
also modeled like the Greek grammar schools.
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 3. Higher education – rhetorical schools 16-18 years. Main concern was
development of an orator – one who could be used to convince people to vote,
help politicians get control; convince troops especially during times of war. In
these schools there was effort to combine the Greek theoretical education and
the roman practical education. An orator was a model of an educated person.
There was a lot of emphasis on rhetorical skills (Socrates was a good orator)
educationists stressed on rhetorical skills e.g. Quintilian

QUINTIALIAN

35-95 AD

He was a teacher of rhetoric and was concerned with the training of orators. Wrote a
book on how to train an orator. Institution oratorio – his model on how to train an
orator. He looks at 3 areas;

• Before training

• During training

• After training and in practice

According to Quintilian the best orator had liberal education and a liberal culture –
not only a good speaker but a person of worth – knowledgeable and meaningful. He
recognized that there are certain stages of human development.

STAGES OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

1. Birth to 7 years – impulse and only concerned with immediate satisfaction of

his needs. I early childhood years are very important therefore parents should
select proper nurses or pedagogues to give the child he right influence. The
earliest people the child is exposed to must be good models in all ways to
ensure desirable learning takes place. His argument was re-learning is more

29
 difficult than learning so initial learning must be correct. Things leant in early
life stick. Children will imitate the earliest contacts they come across and so
they will learn from them. He disagreed with the popular belief that no
intellectual learning can take place before 7 years. If they learnt other things,
they could also learn literary education. Encouraged parents not to keep
children for long without learning. Quintilian was opposed to private tuition
where a teacher taught only one child. He saw this as a waste of time and
talent. He argued from his observation, good teachers preferred many students
and poor teachers preferred private tuition. Advocated for classes that were
manageable so children learn from the teacher and from each other. He
advised fathers to have high aspirations for their children even at this age.
These high aspirations, you would prepare for those aspirations for their
children even at this age. These high aspirations, you would prepare for those
aspirations to be met. Boys do not lack ability to master, but lack care. Faulty
pedagogy kills the natural talent, curiosity to be also encouraged in the child.

2. 7- 14 years – child learns from sense experience will develop ideas with
interaction from environment. This will develop memory. This is the time
children learn to read and write. Advocated the following for this stage. The
reading and writing teacher –litterator should be of good character and
competent enough to make learning attractive. The syllabus was to be related
to child’s intellectual capacity. It was necessary to look at the child’s
characteristics, needs and in order to come up with the right content and the
right methods of teaching.

• Quintilian emphasized the use of experience. New experiences are

assimilated against the previous ones. Use of background to learn near
things. He therefore recommended the following;

a. Teachers should start teaching from point which concedes level of

the child
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 b. He endorsed principle of learning readiness – prepare students to
be ready

c. Advocated taking learning step by step – building on previous

learning – known to unknown

d. Advocated for breaks (short breaks after lessons and long holidays)
in order to give learners time to play which encourages motivation
to learn and make learning stress free through recreation. It is also
a time to relax the mind and redirect energy for the learners.
However, they should not be too long – children will forget what
they have learnt.

e. Advocated firm discipline but was against corporal punishment. If

the teacher was firm and competent there would be no need for
corporal punishment. For him incurring pain and fear lead to
shame which would depress the mind and the learner would not
like learning. Beating was only for slaves.

3. 14 – 17 years

Student develops reasoning power by studying liberal arts. All subjects that
are not scientific. The students were to study Latin and Greek grammar but
separately. In preparation for rhetorical studies, students studied music,
geometry and astronomy. They then went into real rhetoric’s.

NB

In preparation for oratorship, a student was not specialized in any liberal art but was
to have experience in all of them. They included poetry, drama, prose, history, law,
philosophy and rhetoric’s.

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Rhetorical study aimed at producing a man of broad culture or humanities. A man
who was good and ready to patriotism. Those who did not have capacity for rhetoric’s
were discontinued. Students had to practice by addressing audiences – other students
and teacher. The teacher would then criticize and correct them.

EARLY CHRISTIAN AND MEDIEVAL EDUCATION

In history the medieval or middle ages refers tot eh period between fall of Roman
Empire and the renaissance (3rd to 13th century AD). This period was marked by
Christian influence all over the Roman Empire. This means that the Christianity
institutionalized in the roman catholic other churches had not come up. Church was to
sustain the civilization at that time. The first Christians were Jews. Christianity
introduced in 1st century to the Jews. Christianity borrowed a lot from the Jewish
religion Judaism e.g.

• Idea of sacred history beginning from creation also called salvation history
• Idea of being a chosen race – through Abraham Christians feel they are the
elite of God – chosen elect of God
• A new understanding of righteousness – based on fate for both Judaism and
Christianity
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 • Law/Decalogue
• A commandments
• Idea of kingdom of heaven

To both Christianity and Judaism, life on earth is preparation for life after.

• Idea of the messiah – Jews are still waiting, Christians saw the coming of
Christ as fulfillment of coming of messiah.
• Monotheism – belief in one god

Christianity came into conflict with grace or the roman couture – Hellenistic. This
was now a mixture of roman and Greek conflicting ideas were;

• Idea of being a chosen race was not acceptable.

• Only one religion is good
• Plato’s and Aristotle’s idea of man conflicted with the Christian one because it
was to have complete intellectual being/Mau whereas the Christians were
emphasizing on the moral man.
• Intellectual and aesthetic elements which were very important to Romans
were not important to Christians – they were preparing for the ones to come
• Early Christians were opposed to some pagan practices practiced by the
Romans e.g. gladiator shows (fights until one of them is killed) man + man or
man + animal and divorce – easy for the Romans, infanticide by Romans
(child exposure).

Religious practices of Romans were immoral according to Christians. Romans had

many deities/gods

Comparison between Christians and graeco Romans

Christianity Romans
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 Simplicity and purity of early Christian had elaborate ceremonies of pagan
worship worship

Emphasized self sacrifice denial emphasis on indulgence

Humanitarian sentiments cruelty and brutality

Charity and generosity were emphasized selfishness

The above emphasized the conflicts between the Christians and Romans

Inspire of these conflicts, Christianity influenced the graeco roman and

intellectualism. The influence of graeco roman culture was the cause of many here
says that were there at this times (Hellenistic)

Heresy – an action or belief that opposes the official principals of religion and is
considered wrong by the faithful e.g. Gnosticism

Catharsis

Marcionism

Two main challenges that faced the church were;

1. Difficulties in establishing a firm base for its doctrines and a strong institution
capable of propagating its faith. Up to 325 council of Nicaea – there was no
single church of practice but there were many sees – religious sects/groups in
various towns e.g. see of Alexandria, Antioch – Christians were not united.
There were no uniform practices/agreed faith no agreed canonical writings, no
catechetical schools and no theory of Christian education. Each see had

34
 different interpretations. The Nicene Creed which was written in 325 united
the Christians.
2. How to deal with the dominant graeco roman culture – Hellenism. How to
challenge this culture and still be relevant to the Romans – and still propagate
their faith.

The church responded to these challenges in various ways;

a. Early Christians tried to compromise by fusing because Christians were poor

and illiterate; they were not able to make a good compromise. Christianity
was still being challenged
b. Better education Christians joined the faith and these were people who wanted
their children to have education so they allowed them to go to the pagan
schools which in turn exposed them to Greek mythology, deities, religion,
beliefs. This diluted the Christian faith.
3. Knowledgeable people e.g. Tertullian said that faith alone is not enough. He
said what has Athens to do with Jerusalem? What concord is there between
the academy and Christians and heretics? For him and other Christian fathers
they did not want Christians to mix with graeco Romans.
4. In the 3rd century, the church produced the apostolic constitution. This was
document which was addressed to both the laity and the clergy to warn them
against pagan influence on education. Part of it said … have nothing to do
with heathen writings, refrain from strange discourses, laws or false prophets.
The church argument was that the scripture writings contained the whole truth
and so exposing yourself to other literature was exposing Christians to errors.
5. However by the 4th century only a small minority of Christians continued with
this negative attitude towards the Hellenistic culture. Early Christian fathers
especially clement of Alexandria origin and Augustine tried to bring an
acceptable synthesis. In this synthesis they sought to preserve the Christian
culture at the same time retain the positive elements of Hellenism. This was

35
 more acceptable to Christians and some Christians even bishops could teach
in the schools.
Synthesis included; trying to overcome the conflict
a. The Christian theory of education recommended that the content of
instruction should be drawn from the scriptures and other Christian
writings. Classics were to be used sparingly in schools.
b. The form of instruction would follow the grammatical and theoretical
patterns of pagan schools.
c. Christian text writers were to prepare materials suitable for Christians
following guidelines given by Augustine. Isnpite of these early problems,
the church became triumphant and continued growing.

Dominance of the church

The church eventually became very dominant with the fall of the Roman Empire.
This was in 500 AD but it had started disintegrating in 180 AD. This instability in the
empire helped the Christian church to grow. This was strengthened by the conversion
of Emperor Constantine in 315 AD. By the 4th century, Christianity was the state
religion. It became a strong force which started to shake the civilizations of the world.
The idea of the life after death was appealing and pulled many people. The people
due to problems they had took on a hermitic life, life of prayer, sacrifice, waiting –
contemplative nuns. They separated themselves. The climax of the dominance of the
church came with the elevation of the bishop of Rome as the head of the church
leading to papacy. By the 5th century the church had taken over the running of the
empire not only in religion but also in secular administration which brought peace in
the region.

Development of education

36
Initially inspire of the synthesis, there was no real emphasis on real formal education
and any schooling was for ecclesiastical purposes. Gradually more and more gentiles
joined Christianity and they wanted real teaching on Christianity. There was growing
need for proper instruction and s they started regular schools.

STRUCTURE

Three types of schools developed. They followed the medieval stratification.

i. Church related school.

Focused mostly on literacy, classic education in order to develop Latin literature
doctrinal knowledge and liturgy. How worship and prayer are organized.

ii. Feudal aristocratic schools.

These were schools for the aristocrats. The most powerful people
aristocrats and wealth. The high class. These schools were to give them
knightly, guild – same interest/profession. They were trained in chivalry –
education on gentlemanness, politeness, honorable.
iii. Craft/vocational education
This was to prepare the craftsmen by giving them vocational skills. Only a small
minority received formal education. Schooling was received for aristocrats and
those aspiring to join Christian. The majority serfs, masses who supported the
social structure did not get education. Women also never went to school.

CHURCH RELATED EDUCATION

During the medieval times, the church monopolized education both directly and
indirectly. This they did by owning the education institutions. People from church
taught in the schools and supervised the schools. There were 4 main types of
institutions;

37
 1. Parish schools_ the council of Rome in 833AD directed that each parish must
have a parish school to offer elementary education. Education in this schools
dealt mainly with religious rituals and music needed for celebrating mass. But
they also offered reading and writing.
2. Chantry schools_ these were supported by wealth people who gave donations
as mass intentions for their souls. This money was mainly to train the choir to
be able to chant responses during their funeral mass. This involved learning
Latin.
3. Monastic schools_ started in the 4th century. Were to offer education to the
monks and the priests. They also offered education to the boys in villages
around the monasteries included church doctrine reading and writing Latin,
arithmetic music used in religious liturgy. St. Benedict in the 6th century
revitalized the monastic life to include classical culture or classical education.
He prescribed that every day the monks had to spend 2 hours reading classical
literature. By 10th the monasteries were offering education in higher levels in
liberal arts and medicine and law. Liberal arts can be divided into two;
Tritium – for gramman rhetoric and logic
Quadrivium for arithmetic, geometry, music, religious, astronomy

By the 11th century due to general poetical stability and economic prosperity, there
was rise of cities. Since monasteries were in the rural areas, education in them
declined giving rise to cathedral schools. Although they continued to hold libraries
and contain schools, most cathedral schools shifted to big cities e.g. Paris, Lyon.

4. Cathedral schools_ these started by offering elementary and secondary

education, emphasizing general or liberal studies. Some of them offered
reading and writing Latin as preparation for liberal studies. They got success
when there was the church lean council (1179 AD). It ruled that there should
be a school in every cathedral to educate clergy and poor.

38
 These cathedrals started emphasizing secondary education and higher
education based on what they had inherited from graeco roman education. As
centers of liberal education they came to be referred to as studio generally
from the term stadium general or centre for general studies. Most of these
cathedral schools led to being the early medieval universities. In the unit a
travelling teacher would find a group of students and form a stadium. These
schools came to be known synonymously a university. By the 12th century a
revitalized higher education appeared.

EDUCATION IN THE MIDDLE AGES

ISLAMIC EDUCATION

Islam – term Islam refers to surrender to god. Religion was founded by muhamed in
Mecca 570-632 AD and medina in Arabian peninsular in 622 AD. Theory and
practice of Muslims based on;

1. Quran – the holy book which was revealed to Mohamed by god through angel
Gabriel and it contains the doctrines of the religion.
2. Hadithi contains the traditions of the prophet. It also contains clarifications of
the Koran.

According to Islam, everyone is supposed to participate fully in their religion. It is

therefore important for Muslims to be literate especially in Arabic which is the basic
language for Islam literature.

AIMS OF ISLAMIC EDUCATION

1. Education should facilitate worship of god – mandatory for all Muslims

irrespective of gender, age, social class and other differences. Islam believes
that man has been endowed knowledge and will. Knowledge to them is the
path to salvation and it should be sought from anywhere. You should seek

39
 both secular and religious knowledge. Secular for day to day living, religious
for a smooth life on earth and a good one after. These two documents Quran
and Haiti show respect for knowledge. Quran invites man to sue his intellect
and knowledge to think and to know. The hadithi says” seek knowledge from
cradle to death”; seek knowledge even as far as china.
2. Islamic education is essentially for moral and character training. It aims at
moral refinement and spiritual training rather than filling minds with facts.
3. Islamic education is used for development of natural and cultural resources.
This is meant to improve the secular and material aspects of life to make
quality of human life better. They encourage study of sciences, literature and
arts. Islam emphasizes total education/wholesome-mental physical and
intellectual.
4. Promote vocational and industrial skills to help the individual earn a living by
participating in various professions, trades or arts. This was to enable one live
a better life preserving the moral and spiritual aspect. Secular life is supposed
to supplement the religious life.

Two main aspects are emphasized in Islamic education aimed at 2 main things;

i. Preservation of quaint verses. There is a lot of memorization of the Quran.

ii. Produce balanced personalities whose spiritual, intellectual, emotional and
physical growth was taken care of.
STRUCTURE
1. KUTTAB. For giving elementary education. These were started in mosques
where they concentrated on quaint teacher. They were later moved to teachers
houses. Emphasis was in reading and writing especially Arabic. The methods
used were repetition and rote learning until children could memorize whole
chapters of the Quran. Almost all children were expected to attend.
2. MADRASAH. Were privately owned. Were like high school. Attended by
children of the wealthy because they had to pay. They leant Arabic literature,

40
 drama, mathematics, astronomy, metaphysics, chemistry and medicine. Some
of the schools offered religion, law, rhetoric and history. These schools
resembled the monastic and cathedral schools. The main purpose in these
schools was mainly interpretation. There was little innovation. Sometimes
poor children could get sponsorship.
3. JAMI. These were colleges of liberal arts which resembled modern
universities. Students and professors lived together. Some had medical
schools, laboratories and teaching hospitals. They also had astronomy schools.
Other schools taught mathematics, agriculture, music, navigation and physics.
The methods used were scientific. They made many discoveries. Between 9th
and 12th century Islamic had their peak of civilization. They established what
they called the golden age of learning science, architecture and art. During this
time, the Arabs benefited a lot from the graeco roman china, India, Africa.
They spread and interacted and leant from them. They translated the classical
knowledge and shared it all over Islamic world. They leant a lot from
medieval scholars especial Thomas Aquinas.

Their contributions to education

Islamic golden age lasted for over 500 years. It was founded on scientific and literary
philosophy and therefore was able to produce scholars in almost any branch of
knowledge. Western civilization owes a lot to the Islamic education as demonstrated
in the following examples;

1. Islam revived the study and development of science. In so doing they made
many scientific inventions e.g. in chemistry they discovered potash, silver
nitrate, nitric and sulphuric acid. In mathematics they introduced the Arabic
numerals, decimal notification and advanced geometry. They invented algebra
and developed spherical trigonometry especially the sine tangent and
cotangent. In physics they invented the pendulum. They also built several
astronomic observatories and instruments.
41
 2. In the 9th and 10th century Muslim scholars, compiled preserved and improved
great works of Greeks and Romans. In their wide travels this was transmitted
to the west through libraries, research bureaus and translation centers. The
work was therefore brought to Western Europe. This opened the way for the
European renaissance.
3. They contributed to higher education because they had universities and
institutions of scientific research long before the Europeans e.g. the first
international conference of since was held in Baghdad in the 8th century. By
the 10th century fully fledged universities had been established in these places;
Cordova (Spain)
Cairo (Egypt)
4. The Muslims practiced scientific farming and devised advanced systems of
irrigation, land reclamation and flood control.
5. In arts and architecture, they were very advanced and it is shown by
construction of mosques cities, palaces and tombs.
6. In medicine they studied physiology, hygiene methods of treatment, blood
circulation and surgery.

The Muslims greatly influenced the western learning and education especially in
availing the classical works in Spain where it was spread to other parts of Europe.
They had the golden age while Europe had the dark ages.

SCHOLASTICISM AND RISE OF UNIVERSITEIS

In the early medieval period, people saw faith as being sufficient in itself and needing
no rational defense. This is what made some people withdraw from the ways of the
world and become preoccupied with the world to come. From the 11th century
theologians and scholars began to concern themselves with philosophical problems
relating to Christianity. They wanted to understand the metaphysics of the universe as

42
stipulated in their Aristotelian philosophy and of man’s relationship to it. They
wanted to understand the nature of god, the purpose he has for man and how best man
could fulfill that purpose or obligation. In their attempt to understand these scholars
developed a method of inquiry which was to have a greater medical education. This
was scholasticism. Scholasticism was a synthesis between Aristotelian philosophy
and the Roman Catholic faith. Dominated between 10th -12th c. the main aim of this
methodology was to show the initial harmony between wisdom and faith. It was an
attempt to have Christian support different rational ideas.

It attempted to support the church though intellect.

Process – factors that led to scholasticism

a. There was place. The barbarian invasion had shaped. There was relative peace
in Europe. This was possible for intellectual activity.
b. There was tale renewal in learning in the 12th century. This was marked by
instruction and an Aristotelian learning philosophy accompanied by many
Arabic commentaries medieval scholars get interested in these ideas and were
ready to accept the logical procedures offered by such work.
c. Islamic influences provided the west with the Muslim method of kale – use of
reason and knowledge to help understand problems arising from the study of
religious beliefs. As Christian scholars got attracted to the use of reason to
clarify issues of faith and revelation, they developed a Christian equivalent to
kalam – scholasticism – use knowledge to understand faith.
d. Exposure to other cultures and beliefs during the crusades made people
skeptical. They began to speculate on Christian doctrines which they had
accepted blindly. This led to a more vigorous study of religion and wishes to
apply reason to it.

The main feature of scholasticism was to cite all known authorities on anything on an
issue e.g. was the world really created by god. They would cite the scriptures, quote

43
scriptures, quote scientific writings and reasons then try to reconcile so that in the end
everyone was satisfied. It was not a completely scientific methodology, neither was it
completely religious.

Importance of scholasticism

1. It corrected the mystical tendencies of the past. It got rid of the unnecessary
contemplation introduced to Europe and which was wasting people’s energies
and withdrawing the best brains from the world (hermits).

2. It exposed Europe to the ancient classical thought of philosophy.

3. It saved Europe from ignorance thereby paving way for modern research and
science – logical method of approaching things.

4. It forced Christendom to wake up and state its theological position as being

district and opposed to Islam. This led to formulation of beliefs in a logical
way which helped defend the faith against any intellectual arguments.

Some criticisms of scholasticism

1. Being theoretical rather than practical in approach

2. Its main aim was to interpret Aristotle’s work and the bible not to pursue new
knowledge. Did not want to look beyond ancient texts – a backward looking
movement.

3. It aimed to explain why everything was for the best and therefore it did not
aim at changing the world.

• Although scholasticism was not progressive the church used it to keep

education alive through the middle ages. It was also continued during the
period of renaissance and the scientific revolution which were also initiated by
the Roman Catholic Church.
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 • Scholasticism became a dominant intellectual and educational methodology in
the new universities that developed in Europe. Thomas Aquinas was one of
the most outstanding scholastic philosophers.

RISE OF UNIVERSITIES IN MEDIEVAL AGES

The ancient worked had its own universities e.g. Alexandria, Athens, Constantinople,
Lyons and Odessa. These went down because of Christian’s fanaticism and barbarian
invasions. They disintegrated by about 800 AD. The Muslims came up and had their
own universities e.g. Baghdad, Basra, Cairo. These also came down at around 12th
century. The western Muslim universities especially in Spain e.g. Cordova, Seville,
Toledo came up and lasted up to the 15th century when they were suppressed but the
Christian fanaticism. The Muslim universities can be referred to as the parents to
modern universities. They were well established.

Medieval universities

Initially developed from cathedral and monastic schools

• When they became large that they had to be organized in a different way.

• They were organized into areas of study. They ceased to be just local schools
when people came from far to attend the schools.

• Many times masters (teachers) would draw a big number of students e.g.
Thomas Aquinas. These were like travelling universities. Both masters and
students moved along. Once teachers and students met, he would set a chair
and teach. In this way a university or a stadium was created. A group of
students with a master. Once the group was formed, they made a guild. This
could get a charter to guide them. The guilds were formed for protection
against people interfering. The guilds also helped them gain recognition in

45
 both religious and secular world. A university can be defined as a study. A
cooperate body of master and students. A cooperation of scholars.

A charter gave the university rights to confer degrees and give licenses to teach. It
also exempted them from military service. It protected them especially students when
they were travelling from unjust arrest. The charter also gave them the right to strike
if their privileges were infringed. These charters were giving them privileges a
protection. Certain towns e.g. Paris and Rome became centers of learning and
attracted students from all over Europe. The universities were open for all
nationalities.

FACTORS THAT LED TO RISE OF UNIVERSITIES

1. By the 12th century some cathedral schools had grown so large that the
existing organization was having problems dealing with the numbers. As a
result of this, masters and students organized associations related to their field
(university).

2. The crusades, revival of commerce and contact with eh Arabic scholarship.

a. Revival of commerce and crusades expanded the people’s world through

travelling. This excited their mind and imagination and it broadened their
knowledge hence raising their general intelligence and demanded for
more.

b. In their travel, the Europeans came into contact with the Muslim scholars
who had stored and refined Greek and roman classical learning. They got
this information which awakened intellectual life.

3. Muslims in their own right contributed to the rise of the university. They had
made important studies in most disciplines e.g. literature, philosophy,

46
 mathematics, law, science and medicine. They had developed university in
such places as Syria, Egypt, Timbuktu and Spain.

4. The end of feudalism and rise of modern European cities. Between 1100 and
1200 Ad cities had grown around monasteries and castles. People wanted
freedom from feudalism. As a result of this freedom new classes of people
(bankers, merchants) emerged. They wanted education for their children and
were able to pay for it. They wanted education to help their children go into
the right profession. This encouraged growth of universities.

5. With the revival of trade and commerce, there was better communication
between cities of Europe and the trading partners. Trade fairs became
common – people could exchange ideas and experiences. It opened up
people’s world and there was more general knowledge’s students would travel
more easily. Medieval universities grew in towns which had good
communication network e.g. London, oxford, Paris, Genoa, Venice, Hamburg,
saleroom, bologna, Cambridge.

6. The scholastic philosophy contributed to the rise of universities. It placed

emphasis on reasoning and logic to the problems of religion. This new
approach stimulated of religion. This new approach stimulated study of
theology in the emerging universities. This was the main methodology in the
universities.

7. Medieval guilds also contributed. These were self-governing bodies in which

issues affecting a particular trade or industry were debated and policies made.
They wanted education provided for their members.

8. The Catholic Church especially the Dominicans produced acclaimed scholars

e.g. Thomas Aquinas and students came from all over Europe to listen to
them.

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ORGANIZATION AND STRUCTURE

1. They were organized like guilds. At that time no individual was sure of his
rights and so needed to be protected by an organization of his line/interests.
These guilds got charters.

2. Masters were organized into faculties – it meant a kind of knowledge but later
the term came to mean department of study e.g. faculty of law, theology, art.
Later the term came to refer to men in control of a department of study. Each
faculty elected a dean annually.

3. There were two main types of faculties; the arts faculty providing liberal
education. Professional schools preparing doctors, lawyers and theologians.

4. Students lived according to their means. Wealthy students lived in their own
houses – some had servants and hired tutors. However the majority of students
rented houses as collective residences. Gradually these residences developed
into colleges which eventually became directly identified with the studies
pursued by students who lived in them.

5. Outside the lecture halls students grouped themselves as per place or country
of origin and each group elected a councilor.

6. Deans and councilors formed the university council which elected the rector –
chief executive of the university (equivalent of vice chancellor today).

METHODS OF TEACHING

1. Lectio – lecture – master read and explained the text.

2. Disputation – students would then debate relevant points with each other. At
times the students and master would have public disputations.
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These metros were the only reasonable at that time because books were unavailable.
Books were handwritten on expensive parchments’ books were very expensive. Even
up to 13th century the master was the only one who had a book. Towards end of 13th
century copying and selling of books became a regular industry especially in
university cities. Texts were copied called stationers P1 stationazii. They sold to
student or to people who hired them out to students. These people were librarii.

Latin was the universal long and the medium of communication. The award of
degrees was very strict. Duration was 3-7 for one to get a degree. You had also to
defend a thesis inform of the faculty.

Impact of universities

Generally speaking universities influenced the society politically – unlike monastic

and cathedral schools, universities were democratic in nature. People were
encouraged to know their rights and to ask for them. They also encouraged freedom
of opinion and expression. The universities were respected politically they influenced
the people’s way of thinking.

There was intellectual influence. Universities increased intellectual interest. Teachers

and libraries were more accessible than in the previous institutions..

THE RENAISSANCE AND EDUCATION (1320-1600AD)

Renaissance means rebirth. It is a period in history used to refer to a time of revival in

learning. It is a term used to refer to rebirth in all spheres of life – placing special
emphasis on worldliness, on man i.e. on his abilities and passion for learning. There
was in this period emphasis on scholarly exactness – what is exact. Reason was seen
to be more important than faith. Renaissance started in Italy later spread to the rest of
Europe. As it spread it acquired the term humanism from humanities in Italian which
it means culture. The word is an appropriate term since the main emphasis was on
man e.g. broadening his social and cultural outlooks, developing his potentialities and

49
leading him to self – realization and freeing him from the old dogmatic beliefs. The
renaissance changed both the purpose and method of education. Up to the 4th century
AD the aim of the roman and Greek education was to prepare people to become good
and useful citizens of the state, when the church took over the control of education.
This changed and the aim became to prepare a person for the world to come,
discourage people from pleasures of the world. The renaissance aimed at restoring the
world to the ideals of earlier education – self culture and preparation for usefulness
and success in the world here not in the world to come.

COMPARISON OF RENAISSANCE AND MEDIEVAL

1. Medieval man’s life rotated on divine power i.e. god. He saw all creation
being controlled by this force which was beyond his interference or control. In
renaissance perception of history was more humanistic, it was centered more
on temporal world rather than on the one to come. While people were
concerned with religious things, they were also involved in secular ones.

2. The renaissance exalted man as the centre of the world while the medieval
period exalted god and heaven. Renaissance focused on man’s life and sought
to help him realize his potential.

3. Medieval education advocated rejection of the body whereas the renaissance

glorified the body. Renaissance asserted that life should be enjoyed to the full;
body should be looked after, beautified etc.

4. During the renaissance there was passion for learning and emphasis for
scholarly erectness where reason was seen as more important than faith. There
was a call to return to the old classical roman and Greek learning. There was
development of appreciation for humanities – areas of knowledge that refine
the spirit e.g. philosophy, art, music (aesthetics).

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 5. Renaissance was a period of optimism where man felt that no discovery and
scientific advance was beyond their achievement. People realized their
potentialities in creation unlike living in the medieval helplessness. This
means that people realized that they could have some control over nature –
could be part of creation.

6. Renaissance brought a break from previous religious dogmas. They saw the
world as being dominated by law not miracles.

7. During the renaissance, theology lost its position as queen of sciences to the
languages and physical sciences.

CAUSES OF RENAISSANCE

1. Crusades – led to contact with eastern civilization where the Europeans

realized that the Muslims were more advanced. They also came into contact
with the Greek culture and authors and as a result people began to crave for
new products and commodities which in turn stimulated industry (business
and commerce). Two things came into force; intellectual challenge and
industries.

2. Trade and commercial activities among some free states e.g. Florence, Venice
and Genoa stimulated by business of equipping and transportation of the many
crusaders. This led to the emergence of a middle class who had a new manner
of living with new values. This middle class was composed of merchants,
bankers, trader’s book keepers etc and these people found medieval education
inadequate because they wanted education that would train them for their
professions in order to enhance their industries.

3. There was general revival of commerce and city life which created a new
middle class which was financially able and weakened the feudal system
gradually destroying the medieval system.

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4. There was emergence of nation states. The crusades brought unity to Western
Europe leading to national states. These new states needed bureaucrats to
work in the various branches of government and they found the scholastic
type of education inadequate. They started embracing humanistic/renaissance
type of education. Development of nation states was accompanied by national
consciousness. They emphasized development of their vernacular rather than
use of Latin.

5. The new discoveries. The work of explorers and scientific discoveries

quickened the spirit of I investigation and enquiry e.g. Magellan discovered
that the world was round. There was also expiration of new lands which led to
new ideas, challenges and knowledge. These discoveries gave way to free
inquiry and attitude that demanded concrete proof rather than the dogmatic
beliefs.

6. The rise of universities with faculties of law and medicine to supplement

theology stimulated desire for intellectual achievement freedom and
dissatisfaction with the restricted thought of the church. This led to a rational
reflection of the faith thereby liberating the individual.

7. The introduction of the prim ting press towards the end of 15th century and
introduction of paper from the east to Europe opened the way for the
invention of printing. Books replaced manuscripts and it was easy to produce
many books information could spread to more people more easily and
therefore education was more widespread.

8. There was degeneration of the Roman Catholic Church because of corruption.

This made people move interested in contemporary world rather than religious
beliefs.

a. All these factors helped people to develop intellectual freedom and

individual personality that led to artistic, moral and spiritual rebirth of
52
 Western Europe. This produced the beginnings of modern culture
emancipation and enthusiasm in independent thought, speech and action.

b. Renaissance started in Italy later spread to Germany. Although it can be

considered as a simple movement there were marked differences e.g.
Italian renaissance had emphasis on art, literature and architecture. In
Germany it was more religious. It focused on criticizing scriptural and
theological writings distorted by medieval copyists/scribes. Germany
viewed her problems from a moral point.

REINASSANCE AND EDUCATION

1. Local rulers of Italian states capitalized on the decreasing authority of the

pope to increase their influence on politics, economics and education. In
education they established their own court schools (public government) to
train people for public service. This led to a humanistic education that
emphasized classics/popular rise.

2. Renaissance education in general aimed at preparing for life. It contained

elements of modern education. They took all knowledge established by the
church and scholastic traditions as mere assumptions. Instead of being bound
by formal theories the new education aspired in the freedom and
expressiveness of classical literature. This was a reaction to the medieval
education which gave no opportunity for change and progress and which did
not provide for the individual which was the main emphasis by humanists.

3. Universities took a leading role in stimulating intellectual life which

challenged previous life, beliefs and types of education. This enabled Europe
to move from ecclesiastical bondage into a free life of modern world where
faith was put on human capacities and possibilities. The move emphasized the
revival of Latin and Greek literature natural since and art.

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 4. Development of vernaculars became vital for new education and many
humanistic materials were produced in native languages.

5. Most humanistic educators insisted on education that aimed at formulation of

an all rounded and liberal gentleman and according to them this could be done
by teaching Greek and literature.

6. Renaissance liberated education e.g.

a. It encouraged development of a freeman possessing his own individuality

and power to participate effectively in everyday life. Education was
thought to be based on a wide knowledge of life in the past and
appreciation of opportunities in the future

b. From 15th century there were four growing tendencies in education;

i. An Endeavour to make education natural instead of abstract and

theoretical inclusion of an aesthetic element unknown in medieval
education.

ii. Inclusion of education on care of the body which had been neglected
and despised in previous education

iii. A move to provide education to all classes of people and not only to
clerics or aristocrats

iv. A move to adopt gentle and attractive methods of teaching instead of

harsh and repulsive methods used in the past.

Summary

Renaissance was a transitional period between medieval and modern times. Although
the period may not boost of great philosophers, summary of achievements;

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 a. Introduced preliminaries of later development in education

b. It broke down the rigid scholastic system

c. It revived classical studies

d. It encouraged independent thought

e. It brought interest in the worldly activities of the past e.g. Italian humanists
twined to the study of classical writers giving birth to the modern historical
approach to problems and human life.

f. It increased authority of science. Experimental science displaced some

Christians notions e.g. in the 17th century Galileo and Newton a new attitude
to nature.

g. It was a period renowned in architecture painting and poetry e.g. leopards ad

Vinci, Michelangelo

h. Renaissance created an atmosphere where individual talent could flourish by

reviving the knowledge of the Greek world – individuals were given
emphasis.

Vittorino da feltre (1378-1446) one of the educators of this period.

RELIGIOUS REFORMATION AND EDUCATION 16TH CENTURY

What led to the reformation?

During the medieval times before renaissance church had a strong hold on education
(Roman Catholic Church).

The main problem was that the church was powerful, dictatorial and dogmatic and
nobody could question it. There was the infallibility of the pope. He was always right.
A lot of practices and of religion had come up. People were opposed to 2 main things;
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 a. Sacramental systems

b. Indulgencies

Sacraments e.g. baptism, confirmation, Eucharist, marriage, romance, ordination;

These were overemphasized and people were opposed to them.

Indulgencies – paying for holiness – paying of money for sins. Church was corrupt.
The reformers wanted change. They wanted;

• A return to the simple religion of charts came up with the creed

• A return to belief of Christianity as explained by scriptures and by early

fathers

• They wanted to be allowed to read the bible without any intermediaries

• To be allowed to make decisions as to what their Christian duty was after

personal interpretation of the bible

The church refused these demands and the reformists protested. Broke away and
formed the protestant churches. These were either priests or bishops. Two of them
were; martin Luther and john Calvin.

The new churches had their own theologies of education. They started their own
schools and had their own ways of teaching. Generally speaking the Protestants
emphasized individual biblical reading and interpretation. It influenced their
education in that it encouraged universal literacy practices. Reformation was an
application of the renaissance way of thinking to religion. Certain factors facilitated
the reformation;

1. Renaissance – it formed the base for critical thinking encouraged people to

question church and its practices.
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 2. Idea of shift from thinking about heaven, new discoveries taking place and
commercialization made people not happy with the conservative theology of
the church and therefore wanted something different

3. There was a general ill will from Germany to Italy. Italy was the seat of the
church. Other countries in Europe contributed to Italy. Germany was against
this. When martin Luther German rebelled, people supported him.

MARTIN LUTHER (1483-1546)

His ideas on education were the most progressive. He divided the German school
system into 3 levels;

1. The vernacular schools- these were schools for common citizens. Medium of
instruction was vernacular. Open to both sexes. The curriculum included
literacy, physical education, singing, religion and house trades. These schools,
according to Luther were compulsory (universal education)

2. Latin secondary school. Latin was the language of instruction. These were for
preparing people who would either continue with higher education or go to
religious life. They would get skills in religious instructions subjects were
Greek, history, rhetoric, mathematics, music and gymnastics.

3. Universities – these were for training people for service for state church.

The following are lathers contributions;

a. Through his influence, methods of instruction improved and educational spirit

was improved. Encouraged free thought and free enquiry, understanding
rather than rote learning.

b. He translated the bible into German. He therefore encouraged study of mother

tongue. Each person could read the bible for themselves.

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 c. He called on secular society and government to support education. He called
on each city to support some teachers – moving education away from church.

d. Luther saw education not only important for religious but also for secular life.
He argued that if you are educated you would bring up your children properly,
run your family well and if you are in government govern properly. He
emphasized on parents to educate their children.

e. He started schools which were to be maintained by treasury – public schools

f. Although he gave priority to the teaching of religion, he encouraged and

recommended study of other subjects e.g. languages, mathematics, history,
pie. and music

g. He said that school should be enjoyable not a prison.

Luther was a very liberal person who saw teaching and learning as very important for
both religion and secular life. He had a strong respect for teaching. He said when
comparing it to preaching, it is the best work of all others, the noblest, the most useful
and the best.

By mid 16th century Lutheranism was the state church of many states of northern
Germany and Scandinavian countries.

JOHN CALVIN – CALVINISM AND EDUCATION (1509-1564)

Calvin was French. His opposition ideas lead him to be expelled from furnace to
settle in genera Switzerland. He was a lawyer. He was particularly opposed to the
sacramental system. Scriptures he believed was enough to tell one about god.

Some of calving contributions were;

a. He emphasized scriptural reading – it meant that both the clergy and laity had
to be literate.
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 b. According to Calvin, all human begins inherited Adams sin. He believed that
children are more prone to sin and therefore formal education was seen as a
way of disciplining and curbing evil. In order to stop this evil, discipline was
very harsh and he even encouraged corporal punishment. Calvin rejected play
and idleness children were required to be busy.

c. Like Luther he advocated for a dual system, common people attending

vernacular schools and classic Latin school for the upper class to prepare them
for leadership.

Protestants came as a threat to the Roman Catholic Church. There came the catholic
Counter Reformation.

CATHOLIC OUTER REFORMATION

The Catholics found that the biggest weapon war education. The counter reformation
was led by a group called the society of Jesus – Jesuits. This group was founded by a
Spanish scholar st. Ignatius of Loyola (1491-1556).

Ignatius was interested in providing both religious and secular education. He regarded
Latin as essential for both priests and gentlemen (people of class). He was concerned
with education of the elite and therefore little attention was given to education of the
masses. He relied heavily and emphasized study of scholars especially. Quintilian and
Cicero. The Jesuits curriculum entailed;

a. Language and literature with emphasis on Latin and Greek classics. They had
vernacular studies, poetry, rhetoric and history. This curriculum was called
human letters.

b. They also had arts or natural sciences e.g. physics, metaphysics, mathematics
and logic

c. Theology and biblical studies as the higher level of education.

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The Jesuits education also had

1. Their teachers were thoroughly prepared

2. Their teaching was systematic with a lot of repetition which included oral and
written review of the leant work – thoroughness.

3. Discipline was authoritative and punishment related to learning was

discouraged.

4. The Jesuits society used the best education ideas of their time in terms of
curriculums organization, teaching methods and so their schools became very
successful and attracted many people including the Protestants. Their schools
were spread around the world. By 1640 they had 370 colleges and more
secondary schools and universities than the Protestants. The only criticism is
they concentrate too much on higher and more than basic education n. they
also concentrate more on aristocratic than the common man.

MODERN MOVEMETNS AND EDUCATION

The final expression of the renaissance was the rising up of modern science in Europe
in the 17th century. This is when there was a mark by transition from natural
philosophy to science. A time when there was emphasis on quantitative understanding
of nature e.g. measurement of shape and size to come up with mathematical
descriptions of nature/world. This was a time which was marked by a diminishing
authority of the church and the increasing power of science. 17th and 18th century
have been referred to as age of enlightenment and age of reason. It was a time when
anything unscientific was questioned. There was a scientific revolution. Great
scientific discoveries e.g. Galileo, Newton. It was a time which saw the bill of rights
in England, industrial revolution and the French revolution. Various movements came
up which had great impact on education.

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 • Realism,

• Naturalism

REALISM

This movement came up as a general reaction against Christian humanism and

scholasticism which was seen as an idea isolating school from real life and ignoring
personal and individual needs was showing dissatisfaction due to school separating
people from society. Realism was searching for reality. It was attempting to have an
approach that would meet human needs through such things as vernacular
instructions, more effiencient methods of teaching, better schools and broader
curriculum. In this movement the problem that man and nature faced were
approached inductively by means of scientific observation and experimentation rather
than deductively with nature being seen in terms of being pre-determined by god.

Wanted to understand nature so as to control it. Two educators of realism were John
ammos Comenius and John Locke.

JOHN AMOS COMENIUS (1592-1670)

He was a bishop and he believed that education is acquired through sense

experiences. He believed that the highest goal of education should be eternal
happiness with God which could only be achieved through the art of earthly
happiness with god which could only be achieved through the art of earthly living that
was good. He combined his religious enthusiasm and his passion for knowledge.
Education according to Comenius is education should embrace all knowledge,
teaching all things to all men. He is referred to as the father to modern education.
Some of his ideas are;

1. On curriculum – every subject should be taught in school even if in general

but history should be emphasized. He emphasized the importance of textbook.

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 He developed some textbooks in Latin. He emphasized the use of vernacular
but also advocated for learning of other languages.

2. On school organization – schools should be organized in levels of education

for both sexes with each level naturally leading to the next

1-6 years school of I infancy

7-12 years vernacular school. This school should be in every village

13-18 years Latin school which should be in every city

19-24 years university for those with ability and will for higher education.

He also suggested that schools should open and close at certain times of the
year and have regular timetables each day. It should take care of breaks and
co-curricular activities.

3. On methodology he emphasized use of models and pictures teaching aids to

aid senses. He advocated for early education. This would help the mind from
being corrupted. He said that education should proceed from general to
specific, simple to complex known to unknown.

JOHN LOCKE (1632-1704)

He was mainly concerned with physical development and educating young children.
His ideas were;

1. He is the one associated with eh idea that the mind of the child is a tabula rasa
a blank state for writing his experiences through training and learning.

2. A teacher needs to understand the Childs moods, interests and capabilities

before planning for his education.

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 3. Teachers should be kind as unhappy experiences lead to total dislike by the
child.

4. The main aim of education is to develop good manners and virtue in children.
He encouraged firm through not harsh discipline for the purpose of training a
child in good habits.

5. Teachers should not only have good education but should also be people of
integrity. This is because they take over the place of parents in instructing the
child.

6. Children should be allowed enough time to play.

NATURALISM

Naturalism like realism believed in the supremacy of universal laws rather than
manmade laws such as stratification of society. The best example of a naturalist
educator is Rousseau.

JEAN JACQUES ROUSSEAU (1712-1778)

He advocated a return to nature in education returning to natural roles in guiding

human life. He was opposed to manmade laws e.g. stratification of society. According
to him all education (content, method and curriculum) in totality should be based on
natural laws. His education ideas are articulated in exile, a book which he wrote
describing a person called exile. Emile to Rousseau was an example of a well
educated person. He gives a guide on how to educate people. The book is in five
volumes; volume 1-4 talk about educating exile in his developmental stages. Volume
5 talks about educating women. In educating exile each stage of his life had a specific
curriculum and method. The general principles in exile are;

1. Innocence and the perfect goodness of the child. The child is born naturally
good.
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 2. Education should be strictly based on nature, meaning that education was to
be based on the child’s natural interest and activities. Children should be
encouraged to follow their natural interest and natural needs.

3. The teacher should be a facilitator to allow learning through nature and

discoveries education is natural and the role of the teacher is to arrange nature
for learning to take place.

4. Rousseau was opposed to the 3RS because literacy learning contained

artificial symbols and so do not bring natural learning. Rousseau hated books,
he said. They merely teach us to talk of what we do not know and they come
between the child and nature. His child Emile had only” Robinson Crusoe.”

5. Rousseau was not opposed to moral education but he did not want it imposed
unto the child. He advocated that moral training should be done through
natural experience e.g. a child who breaks a window should be made to sit
against it without clothes so as to learn the importance of windows.

6. Rousseau’s idea for education for women was retrogressive. A perfect woman
(Sophie in his book) has no real individuality on her own because her
education was to complete the happiness of man. She was to learn music
embroidery, designing, morality with the aim of providing a good home for
the man Emile. She did not read. Emile was to make Sophie to the way he
wanted her to be. He was to command, she was to obey. Rousseau was the
first person to advance the recapitulation theory as a basis for educational
organization (reviewing and repeating) building things on others. He
compared the development of the child from birth to maturity to the way
human begins have developed from savagery to civilization

Process of development (Emile)

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An animal/birth > partially civilized > solitary being/Robinson Crusoe > rational
being > social being

Rousseau advocated the stage theory where he said that certain faculties arise at
certain stages of the child’s development education at each stage must relate to the
characteristics of that stage.

1. Infancy (birth – 5 yrs)

This is the state of nature where the child is like an animal with few needs.

2. Childhood (5-12 yrs)

This is a non moral and non social stage. The child has few needs but is active
and dormant

3. Boyhood/girlhood stage (12-15 yrs)

This is the stage of solitude. It is a stage where they are less dominant. They
are curious and have power of judgment and so they seek to discover things.
They want to discover meaning up to this stage; he is still non moral and non
social. 10 years from the end of this stage, he becomes a social being who is
able to satisfy his own needs and therefore he gets married.

NB/

Rousseau encouraged special curriculum and methodology at each stage but

with the child at the centre. He did not advocate universal methodology but he
said that each individual’s needs and interests must be addressed uniquely.
This is child centered education which is the biggest contribution to modern
education. Rousseau is referred to as the father of child centered education.

OTHER EDUCATIONAL IDEAS/MOVEMETNS OF 19TH AND 20TH

CENTURIES
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1. Liberalism

This was a middle class ideology that emphasized on the freedom to do things.
It opposed the old aristocratic education and called for a utilitarian and
scientific education for upward social mobility. According to liberalists,
education was meant to enhance enlightenment and self progress.

2. Conservatism

This was a 19th century ideology opposed to rationalism, revolutionist and

liberalism. It was conservative. That if change will come it will come
gradually. Education was meant to perpetuate social stability. The role of
education was to translate culture as well as maintain the status quo.

3. Humanitarianism

This came up to try to address problems which were brought by

industrialization e.g. social stratification. Many people were dissatisfied
humanitarianism wanted to sue education to alleviate social problems through
e.g. Sunday schools by imparting religion and give them 3 RS

4. Nationalism

Due to industrial revolution, there was breakdown of communities, erosion of

attachments erosion of the attachment of church (disintegration) people started
to identify themselves in terms of their nations based on common descent
common language, common religion, common economic interests and
common traditions which at times cut across the political and social divide.
Each nation established its own boundaries, government as well as cultural
nationality based on common historic heritage. This ideology called for
national systems of education not only to enhance literacy but also encourage

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 loyalty to the state. The kind of education that was encouraged was education
which advocated knowledge of history and literature.

5. Marxism

This was an ideological, philosophical and political move which advocated for
a class warfare and violent revolution to bring about social change. Karl Marx
foresaw a permanent class struggle that would culminate in a classless society.
The capture of political leadership by the workers would also lead to the
capture of the education system. This would then lead to erosion of capitalism,
individualism and nationalism in order to address the welfare of the common
man.

These ideas have influenced education. The following were educators of these
times who were influenced by these ideologies;

• Herbart

• Pestalozzi

• Montessori

• Froebel

RADICAL AND PROGRESSIVE EDUCATION IN THE 20TH CENTURY

Education activities during the 20th built on the changes of the 19th century for the
purpose of addressing the socio economic and political challenges which arose from
the world wars. There was a move to modernization which brought the generation
gap. This gap was expressed in two ways;

1. The young questioned and challenged and rejected the established values of
society. This was seen by many student unrests in the 1960s.

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 2. The old people resisted social economic and political change

As a result of this generation gap and problems created by it there was created
an arena where different classes competed. This led to massive expansion and
experimentation in education to satisfy increasing expectations. Two main
movements came up progressivism and radicalism.

PROGRESSIVISM

This was an ideological crusade for social, economic and political justice based on the
belief in the power of human intelligence to deal with progress. This movement saw
man as being capable of using science to control the world. Democracy was
encouraged as a means of overcoming traditional ways as well as establishing rational
society to enable individuals realize their full potential. According to progressivisms
education should build a better society. The advocated the elimination of the social
classes. They advocated a broad based education in order to take care of the diverse
needs of children. In amrita they founded” The progressive Association” in 1918
which remained active until 1935. It was dominant; one of the most important
advocates of progressivism was john Dewey.

JOHN DEWEY (1859-1952)

He taught in a number of universities and finally in Chicago university where he

established a university elementary school and laboratory for research and experiment
in a new ideas and methods in education. At this school activities were based on
home life and basic industries rather than formal education. There was a deliberate
effort to establish as many connections between everyday life experiences and formal
work at school e.i. school was based on the Childs home experiences. This is how
Dewey defined education ‘a continuing reconstruction of experience’ he wrote a
book, experience and education and in this book, this is how he described education.
Intelligently directed development of possibilities inherited in ordinary experience.

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Dewey said that all experiences were important so school should not be isolated from
the wider experiences. These are his educational ideas;

1. He was opposed to the traditional view of the curriculum as packaged in

syllabuses, subjects and books. He realized that books were important because
they stored human experiences but he said they should not replace actual
experiences in learning. He viewed teaching in terms of learning and
experience and the main element being experience.

2. He also challenged the traditional teacher centered approach in education

which took the teacher as the sole or main authority forcing pupils to follow a
rigid system of regulation and rules. Teachers approach should be less direct a
facilitator to direct pupils as they go through their experiences. The child can
also contribute to his own learning in line with the democratic way of thinking
in America at that time.

3. He proposed a child centered approach to learning in order to promote

progress in learning. He said that the teacher needs to understand children in
general and individually in order to understand their needs and interests so as
to create a relevant learning environment i.e. he advocated knowledge of
educational psychology for teachers.

4. He advocated for a closer relationship between school and life. School should
not be preparation for life but it is life itself. Education should help a person
solve practical problems. Education should therefore be based on social needs
of that society. He advocated for practical training depending on the society
e.g. cooking, carpentry school and life must go together.

5. Dewey recognized that education is a process where the individual learns

independently to adjust to life in a democratic society. He advocated for the
addressing of individual differences in education.

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 6. He advocated for a problem solving method of learning that demands thinking
and reasoning children must constantly be presented with challenges. School
life should strengthen a person o overcome obstacles rather than avoiding
them.

7. He emphasized social interaction in learning advocated constructive work and

doing it in a social cooperative way arguing that the only way to prepare for
social life is to engage in it. This sort of learning prepares children for good
citizenship. He is the father of project method. A co operative study of a real
life situation.

MARIA MONTESSORI

She is known mainly for two things;

1. Design of materials for sensory training, visual and auditory materials

particularly to children. Enough and relevant materials for learning.

2. Activity method, Montessori teacher becomes the guide and the organizer.
Teacher then becomes an observer as learning takes place.

RADICAL EDUCATION

The most radical views with regard to education reforms during the 20th century are
by the de scholars. The main proponents

1. Were Ivan Illich book called “deschooling society” (1971)

2. Everet reamer book called” school is dead” (1971)

3. Paul Goodman book” compulsory miseducation” (1971).

These were radicals from both Europe and USA. Their views were that
schools were agents of social control rather than liberation. They argued that

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 school had confused its objectives and in so doing had destroyed the learners
many of whom left with nothing to show.

The following are their main arguments/ideas

1. Education and schooling are not necessarily the same and therefore should not
be confused with each other. You don’t need school to be educated.

2. As an institutionalized process schools make people believe they are the only
proper channels of genuine education and yet they favor the rich and
encourage competition among learners.

3. Schools have an anti educational effect on society. According to them school

involves itself in many activities which it performs poorly and therefore leads
to failure. Schooling infringes on people liberty by forcing children to attend
school whether they wish to or not. In addition, the syllabus is derived by
other people and is very rigid in both content and timing.

4. Schooling increases rather than decreases social inequalities. It favors children

from the late and more affluent families. Schools were instruments of
economic and cultural imperialism. The curriculum was determined by the
middle class and only valued certain types of knowledge e.g. popular music is
passionately loved by young people but is not part of the official curriculum.

As result of this argument Illich gave the following suggestions;

a. He called for deschooling of society. He said that the school only emphasized
the hidden curriculum e.g. competition of prizes, dependence on teachers
raving for certs/diplomas.

b. He said that the school is the enemy of learning and process of education and
should be avoided. He advocated for alternatives that allowed people to learn
how when and where they liked e.g. develop learning net works in which
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 knowledgeable people and less knowledgeable people would be linked. This
could be done through informal institutions such as museums, libraries,
seminars, markets etc where learning would not be separated from other
activates. According to him, this could also be done at the workplace so as not
to face difficulties associated with classroom. He also suggested that
everybody and everything in the world should be a learning resource. He
called for exchanges and arrangements for peer matching – establishing
agencies for contacting people with similar interests.

AFRICA BEFORE COLONIAL PERIOD

AFRICA INDIGENOUS EDUCATION

The first Europeans who came to Africa thought there was no education because there
was no formal schooling. Education is; preparation for living in the society into which
one is born.

Even before Europeans came, Africans had an elaborate education system. Generally
the African education had many similarities across the continent but there were also
distinctive features reflected in the particular life or culture of a community. The
basic similarity running across African societies was that education was strongly
adapted to the physical and social environment. The main goal of education was to
train the youths for adulthood within tier society by preparing them for their various
roles. It was education for living.

THE MAIN AIMS OF INDIGENOUS EDUCAITON

1. Conserve the cultural heritage of the family clan and ethnic group. It was
meant to preserve and perpetuate the knowledge, wisdom and culture as
handed down from generation to generation of a society.

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 2. Education was to adapt children to the physical and social environment and
teach them how to use it. Children were to learn the importance of the
environment and develop the right attitude towards it. They were also
equipped with the problems and possibilities of their environment so that they
could overcome or exploit it.

3. Education was to give them practical skills and knowledge that would be
useful to them as individuals and for the society.

4. Education was for character building, acquisition of physical aptitudes and

moral qualities. It was meant to develop an individual who was acceptable and
useful to his society. In general education emphasized social responsibility,
job orientation, political participation, spiritual and moral values.

5. Train specialists required by society e.g. blacksmith, medicine etc.

CHARACTERSITICS OF IDNIGENOUS AFRICAN EDUCATION

1. It was informal education mostly passed through social interaction.

2. It was non literate. Ideas/knowledge/skills were committed to memory and

passed on to theirs through demonstration or orally. E.g. history was passed
on from older people from what they had learned; music and art were taught
as part of rituals and ceremonies skills e.g. war fare, cultivation, hunting,
making of household utensils were given through practical demonstration.

NB

a. Learners were expected to participate actively and commit what they

learnt to memory. To make learning enjoyable successful and easier oral
literature e.g. songs, riddles, proverbs were used as techniques

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 b. Education was to help someone live better to remember facts was not
enough. The test was whether one could live according to expectation and
use the values leant.

3. Education was universal every child was to be educated and every adult was a
teacher. In order to train the younger ones for their future roles.

4. Education was functional. Education was meant to meet the real needs of the
individual and society. It was meant to enable the person to participate
responsibly and with dignity to the affairs of their society. In traditional
society, theory and practice were combined e.g. hunting, making porridge
from millet and sorghum.

5. Education was conservative. The future roles that chidden learnt were based
on what many generations of that society had laid down as part of that society.

6. Education was authoritarian. Traditional education did not encourage self

explanation among children. They were meant to listen, observe and to follow
the instructions of parents.

7. It was broad wide. It discouraged too much specialization. People who were
blacksmiths would also learn medicine etc. a new families had specialization
e.g. medicienmen/herbalists.

8. It input the emphasis on moral rather than intellectual aspects.

9. It was ritual oriented. Each major level of life was marked with a rite of
passage to mark graduation and help people be given instructions for next
level.

CONTENT

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 1. Physical environment determined the nature of economic activities to be
taught. It also determined production of objects that had both practical and
cultural value. Activities relating to the economy hunting fishing cultivating
etc were determined by physical environment.

2. Social environment – an individual was molded into being a cooperate

member of society. Individualism was greatly discouraged. E.g. child was
taught decency of speech and behavior, respect for their elders and older
family members and sharing in common takes both at home in society.
Become a useful and acceptable member.

Useful and acceptable member. Children were taught clan and tribal history
especially about heroes who contributed to their history. Oral traditional were
learnt through oral literature customs beliefs and expectations according to the
specific ethnic community (were taught. Adolescents over taught to reform to
their through avoidance of a lot of relationships were guided by taboos. Ritual
ceremonies were used to incorporate the young into more adult groups.
Feasts/festivals for memorizing events helped to make the youth cooperate
embers

Religion – Africans did not choose religion. Everybody was religious had to
be taught how to behave towards the 3 groups of beings. Unborn, living, dead.
This connection made it possible to have laws of doing things. Courtesy,
generosity, honesty etc were automatic in engraved in many African societies.

METHODS OF ISNTRUCTION

Generally informal methods

a. Play_ children were encouraged to play after work. In plan they developed
creativity used plan to learn future roles imitation.

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 b. Oral literature_ greatly used in teaching e.g. myths were used to explain things
beyond mans understanding e.g. creation, death legends to teach history of big
happenings. Some of there were mythical. Folktales were used for teaching
ethics and morality. Proverbs morality and ethics music and dance.

c. Learning_ by doing children was involved in practical work as early as

possible. They leant by being useful. It involved a lot of imitation. Learning
was based on sex roles.

FORMAL

Passing on theoretical and practical skills

a. Apprenticeship children learnt craft ship by working with the expert.

Hereditary skills were also passed on this way e.g. medicienemen/herbalists

b. Formal instructions were given in constant corrections and warning in some

aspects of domestic work e.g. herding, cultivation, fishing hunting. Formal
teaching took place during mitigation rites to prepare people to enter the next
stage. Seduction period where real teaching especially before initiation and
marriage.

DEVELOPMENT OF WESTERN EDUCATION IN AFRICA

1st contact of Europeans Portuguese conquered a part of North Africa then spread to
West Africa. Europeans were interested in trade of gold and slaves and other
materials. The Trans Atlantic trade made the contact more. Colonization came later
when Europeans came in large numbers. Europeans introduced Christianity and
education. They were educated to become mulatoes. Mixed race. They were to be
employed and were given more education than the Africans. The fight to stop slave
trade was another important contact e.g. Britain colonized Sierra Leone as a place for

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freed staves. Education was given by missionaries and colonialists. Missionaries
came to Africa to;

1. Stop slave trade

2. Evangelical revival in Europe and America

Christians in Europe started missionary groups to encourage further evangelization,

abolish slave trade and through evangelization console the Africans due to slave
trade. Some of these associations CMS, HGF.

The missionaries did not spread much due to problems especially towards the interior.

Colonialists

Before 1879 only a small portion was under European rule. Towards end of 19th
century and beginning of 20th century there was an influx of Europeans coming to
Africa_ The scramble.

Reasons for scramble;

1. Need to secure markets industrial revolution

2. Raw material search e.g. up to the 19th century Britain had monopoly of
manufactured goods of the world and it needed raw materials from African

3. By the 1880s France and Germany were industrialized and resented

dependence on Britain to source for their tropical products. Tehytoo wanted
their colonies.

4. There was a severe depression between 1873-1893 it was expensive buying

raw materials through African middlemen.

5. Some countries e.g. France had cost some their colonies elsewhere and
wanted others
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These factors led to the Berlin conference when Africa was divided up between
European powers behind African leaders. By 1914 infrastructure was in place in
Africa. They could now grow crops which they marketed home profitably. By the
beginning of 20th century, European had put in place various policies affecting even
education.

COLONIAL POLICIES AFFECTING EDUCATION

General policies – direct rule and indirect rule they affected education

Direct

French, German, Belgians, Portuguese

Indirect

British

In direct rule the European rulers were at all levels. Their argument was that the
African institutions were not good enough for what they wanted. Africans were
backward, illiterate, technologically por.

Indirect rule was where the British sued the African leaders to administer. They saw it
as more effective and it reduced the cost.

Policies of education

It includes; the French policies based on their general policy direct rule; British and
missionary. Direct rule led to assimilation in education, indirect rule led to the
adaptation policy in education.

ASSIMILATION

The policy was based on the assumption that one day all French colonies would
eventually become integral parts of the mother country France. The role of education
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was to familiarize students in the colonies with the European economic, social and
moral order as an important way of integrating them into the European culture.
According to this policy, French education in both France and the colonies was to be
uniform i.e. Content structure and methods education was used as a tool to assimilate
the Africans.

Objectives

1. Familiarize Africans with European systems since French systems had to be

the same. The assumption was that they wanted all people to be equal. They
wanted to suppress the African culture and encourage French culture which
they thought was superior.

2. Make Africans like Frenchmen, people of high quality (cherishing

metropolitan) in order to make black Frenchmen. Once assimilated one had
the rights of a French.

3. Maintain the stands spread mass education and make Africans identify with
France.

As a result of this;

a. Teachers were brought from France

b. Medium of instruction was French – no vernacular in the schools. They

were too many and not as suitable as French for technical training.

c. Curriculum was the same as in France

d. The same standards were to be maintained

Children who went to secondary were only allowed with thorough knowledge of
French. This policy was later criticized as being too rigid, unscientific and harmful to
the colonized. The French education was not wholly appropriate for the local needs.
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They also said that the education should not alienate them from their culture. The
French introduced the policy of association. It had these ideas;

Results

1. It sought cooperation of the colonized for economic and social development

their regions

2. French authorities were to respect native instruction

3. Colonial policy in each region was to be determined by local geographic and

ethnic considerations and the level of social, political and economic
development of the local people i.e. there was no uniformity.

4. Natives were to evolve on their own liens and French citizenship was to be
granted only to natives who had willingly accepted French civilization.

5. In education association focused on reserving aspects of African culture that

did not conflict with French standards of morality.

6. French educators were to combine lessons in French civilization and western

technical expertise with as many references as possible from the indigenous
culture. When it came to implementation, the French found it difficult to
distinguish between assimilation and association. In theory it was association
but assimilation in practice.

ADAPTATION

This was the British policy. It had the aim of making western education adapt to the
local situation in the colonies. The aim was to educate the Africans within his cultural
context so that he did not imitate the Europeans or set himself apart from the others.
The following summarize aspects of this policy;
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1. It aimed at cultural adaptation. European institutions were to be adjusted to
local political and social organizations in order to create a group of educated
Africans who were at the same time routed to their cultures.

2. There was a general dissatisfaction of introducing the British academic

curriculum in the colonies after the unrest and rise of nationalism in India
where such education had been offered. A living champion of this view was
lord chirol who wrote a book, Indian unrest. He advocated;

a. The colonized should be given industrial or vocational education

b. Education must be adapted to the local needs of the people.

3. Another administrator in India, lord laggard (British colonial governor in

India) wrote the book dual mandate. He advocated for not alienating Africans
from their culture. British education in Africa should aim at creating a group
of African civil servants who could manage an administration based on the
British model but adapted to the African conditions. The school in itself
should be conducted with native customs put in consideration e.g. dress,
etiquette.

4. Education was to be adapted to the existing conditions of life and enable

students to bring about improvement on these conditions. It was to train
people who are able to achieve their own goals without blind imitation of the
Europeans.

NB

On the whole the policy of adaptation aimed at combating political agitation

which was regarded as detrimental to the stability of the empire. It was to
make the Africans remain colonized.

As a result of these ideas;

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 a. There was a lot of adaptation especially in primary education there was
emphasis on local environment.

b. There was study of vernaculars and using them as media of instruction.

c. They encouraged African teachers to work in the schools

NB

For adaptation it worked very well for primary schools. For secondary, it
was difficult because they wanted to maintain high standards of education.
High standards were equated with European curriculum. The method,
exams etc was like in Britain so the students came out as British. Few
however went to secondary school.

MISSIONARIES

The missionaries came before the colonialists but were not able to spread
due to various problems e.g. infrastructure, finances, hostile peoples and
wild animal) with colonization, missionary activities thrived because there
was law and order. There was better communication so they could move
more easily. They also got financial support from the colonial government.

VIEW OF MISSIOANREIS ON AFRICANS

1. Saw them as pagans, no faith, didn’t know god who needed to be converted.

2. Saw them as savages – uncivilized people who had a lot of evil activities
expressed in the things they did e.g. dancing and drumming

3. Had the idea that Africans were lazy

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 4. Africans were of low mental capacity inferior in intelligence – emphasized
after drawings origin of species in 1859. Their policy was influenced by these
views.

AIMS AND ACTIVITIES

1. Their main objective was to evangelize and convert leading to civilization.

They set out a network of schools around their missions. These schools
offered 3RS – elementary literacy and religious instruction for baptism.

2. Missionary schools aimed at making converts, training African catechists and

creating an African middle class leading to European civilization (dressing
code, monogamy, working on particular days, food etc|).

3. Aimed to uprooting Africans from this depravity and savagery rooted in their
culture by;

a. They set up boarding schools – children to live in schools and mission – to

bring them from their primitive culture to European culture. When they
went back, they would not fit.

b. They gave them basic education;

The main education offered by the missionary was vocational due to the
following reasons;

1. They thought they could not cope with academic work due to their low
intelligence

2. They thought manual work was good remedy to cure the Africans of
their laziness and make them more industrious

3. Manual work was meant to instill values of hard work as a Christian

virtue.
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 4. They were following the footsteps of Hampton and Tuskegee where
vocational education had been used as an experiment to rehabilitate
freed slaves, and had been found to work very well in creating a black
Christian middle class.

NB

Although it was basically vocational, Protestants offered more

education for Africans because they wanted the people to read the
bible for themselves unlike the Catholics who did not encourage it.

5. The missionaries did not have enough funds so vocational education

assisted the students and the missionaries e.g. made furniture and sold,
built houses for them grew crops for food.

IMPACT OF WAR

Is dymustified on the superiority of Europeans. As such more opportunities were

created for Africans as propagated by the helps stokes commission.

General strategies in Africa since independence

Deliberations in the above conference set the stage for the development of educations
strategies in many countries in African. Some of these strategies were;

1. In line with the Addis Ababa conference, orientation of education shifted

towards training Africans to fill in high level positions in public and private
sectors. The colonial government had deliberately suppressed the expansion of
higher institution for Africans in order to limit their opportunities for taking
high level jobs.

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 The new African governments therefore committed large portions of the
budgets to expand education especially at secondary and higher education
levels

2. Curriculum reform

In a number of former British colonies curriculum reforms were carried out to

make education more meaningful and relevant putting more emphasis on local
needs. At lower levels curriculum was adapted to African needs. New and
relevant methods were also introduced.

3. At higher levels, there was an attempt to break away from British university
structure e.g. a university in Nigeria Nsuka adapted a more flexible cast
system – in order to overcome ignorance of African environment, many
English speaking universities introduced African studies.

4. There was change in organization of courses offered in the universities to

offer a more comprehensive range of professional training relating to local
needs.

5. The problem of unemployment during the 1960-2000 period caused a lot of

concern. Various experimental programmes were therefore set up to deal with
the problems in various countries village polytechnics.

6. There has also been diversification of the school’s curriculum. This helps to
expose students to vocational skills of their choice in addition to acquiring the
cognitive skills leant in preparation for university.

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