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Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
iv Contents
14 Multiple Integration 969

14.1 Iterated Integrals and Area in the Plane 970
14.2 Double Integrals and Volume 978
14.3 Change of Variables: Polar Coordinates 990
14.4 Center of Mass and Moments of Inertia 998
Section Project: Center of Pressure on a Sail 1005
14.5 Surface Area 1006
Section Project: Surface Area in Polar Coordinates 1012
14.6 Triple Integrals and Applications 1013
14.7 Triple Integrals in Other Coordinates 1024
Section Project: Wrinkled and Bumpy Spheres 1030
14.8 Change of Variables: Jacobians 1031
Review Exercises 1038
P.S. Problem Solving 1041
15 Vector Analysis 1043
15.1 Vector Fields 1044
15.2 Line Integrals 1055
15.3 Conservative Vector Fields and Independence of Path 1069
15.4 Green’s Theorem 1079
Section Project: Hyperbolic and Trigonometric Functions 1087
15.5 Parametric Surfaces 1088
15.6 Surface Integrals 1098
Section Project: Hyperboloid of One Sheet 1109
15.7 Divergence Theorem 1110
15.8 Stokes’s Theorem 1118
16 Additional Topics in Differential Equations 1129

16.1 Exact First-Order Equations 1130
16.2 Second-Order Homogeneous Linear Equations 1137
16.3 Second-Order Nonhomogeneous Linear Equations 1145
Section Project: Parachute Jump 1152
16.4 Series Solutions of Differential Equations 1153
Contents v
Appendices
Appendix A: Proofs of Selected Theorems A2
Appendix B: Integration Tables A3
Appendix C: Precalculus Review (Online)*
Appendix D: Rotation and the General Second-Degree
Equation (Online)*
Appendix E: Complex Numbers (Online)*
Appendix F: Business and Economic Applications (Online)*
Appendix G: Fitting Models to Data (Online)*
Answers to All Odd-Numbered Exercises A89

Index A125
*Available at the text-specific website www.cengagebrain.com
Preface
Welcome to Calculus, Eleventh Edition. We are excited to offer you a new edition with even more
resources that will help you understand and master calculus. This textbook includes features and
resources that continue to make Calculus a valuable learning tool for students and a trustworthy
teaching tool for instructors.
Calculus provides the clear instruction, precise mathematics, and thorough coverage that you expect
for your course. Additionally, this new edition provides you with free access to three companion websites:
• CalcView.com––video solutions to selected exercises

• CalcChat.com––worked-out solutions to odd-numbered exercises and access to online tutors
• LarsonCalculus.com––companion website with resources to supplement your learning
These websites will help enhance and reinforce your understanding of the material presented in
this text and prepare you for future mathematics courses. CalcView® and CalcChat® are also
available as free mobile apps.
Features
NEW ®
The website CalcView.com contains video
solutions of selected exercises. Watch
instructors progress step-by-step through
solutions, providing guidance to help you
solve the exercises. The CalcView mobile app
is available for free at the Apple® App Store®
or Google Play™ store. The app features an
embedded QR Code® reader that can be used
to scan the on-page codes and go directly
to the videos. You can also access the videos
at CalcView.com.
UPDATED ®
In each exercise set, be sure to notice the reference to
CalcChat.com. This website provides free step-by-step
solutions to all odd-numbered exercises in many of
our textbooks. Additionally, you can chat with a tutor,
at no charge, during the hours posted at the site. For
over 14 years, hundreds of thousands of students have
visited this site for help. The CalcChat mobile app is
also available as a free download at the Apple® App
Store® or Google Play™ store and features an
embedded QR Code® reader.
App Store is a service mark of Apple Inc. Google Play is a trademark of Google Inc.
QR Code is a registered trademark of Denso Wave Incorporated.
vi
Preface vii
REVISED LarsonCalculus.com
All companion website features have been updated based on this revision. Watch videos explaining
concepts or proofs from the book, explore examples, view three-dimensional graphs, download articles
from math journals, and much more.
NEW Conceptual Exercises

The Concept Check exercises and Exploring Concepts exercises appear in each section. These
exercises will help you develop a deeper and clearer knowledge of calculus. Work through these
exercises to build and strengthen your understanding of the calculus concepts and to prepare you for
the rest of the section exercises.
REVISED Exercise Sets

The exercise sets have been carefully and extensively examined to ensure they are rigorous and
relevant and to include topics our users have suggested. The exercises are organized and titled
so you can better see the connections between examples and exercises. Multi-step, real-life exercises
reinforce problem-solving skills and mastery of concepts by giving you the opportunity to apply the
concepts in real-life situations.
REVISED Section Projects

Projects appear in selected sections and encourage you to explore applications related to the topics
you are studying. We have added new projects, revised others, and kept some of our favorites.
All of these projects provide an interesting and engaging way for you and other students to work
and investigate ideas collaboratively.
How Do You See It? Exercise

The How Do You See It? exercise in each section presents 56. HOW DO YOU SEE IT? Each figure shows
a problem that you will solve by visual inspection using the a region of integration for the double integral
concepts learned in the lesson. This exercise is excellent for ∫R∫ f (x, y) dA. For each region, state whether
horizontal representative elements, vertical
classroom discussion or test preparation.
representative elements, or polar sectors would
yield the easiest method for obtaining the limits
Applications of integration. Explain your reasoning.
Carefully chosen applied exercises and examples are included
(a) (b) (c)
throughout to address the question, “When will I use this?” y y y
These applications are pulled from diverse sources, such as
current events, world data, industry trends, and more, and
R
relate to a wide range of interests. Understanding where
R R
calculus is (or can be) used promotes fuller understanding of
the material. x x x
viii Preface
Chapter Opener
Each Chapter Opener highlights real-life 166 Chapter 3 Applications of Differentiation
applications used in the examples and exercises. 3.1 Extrema on an Interval

Understand the definition of extrema of a function on an interval.
Section Objectives Understand the definition of relative extrema of a function on an open interval.
Find extrema on a closed interval.
A bulleted list of learning objectives provides
Extrema of a Function
you with the opportunity to preview what will In calculus, much effort is devoted to determining the behavior of a function f on an
be presented in the upcoming section. interval I. Does f have a maximum value on I? Does it have a minimum value? Where
is the function increasing? Where is it decreasing? In this chapter, you will learn
how derivatives can be used to answer these questions. You will also see why these
questions are important in real-life applications.
Theorems y
Theorems provide the conceptual framework 5 (2, 5) Maximum Definition of Extrema

Let f be defined on an interval I containing c.
for calculus. Theorems are clearly stated and 4 f(x) = x 2 + 1
1. f (c) is the minimum of f on I when f (c) ≤ f (x) for all x in I.
3
separated from the rest of the text by boxes 2
2. f (c) is the maximum of f on I when f (c) ≥ f (x) for all x in I.
The minimum and maximum of a function on an interval are the extreme
for quick visual reference. Key proofs often (0, 1) Minimum values, or extrema (the singular form of extrema is extremum), of the function
on the interval. The minimum and maximum of a function on an interval are
follow the theorem and can be found at −1 1 2 3
x
also called the absolute minimum and absolute maximum, or the global
minimum and global maximum, on the interval. Extrema can occur at interior
LarsonCalculus.com. (a) f is continuous, [−1, 2] is closed.
points or endpoints of an interval (see Figure 3.1). Extrema that occur at the
y endpoints are called endpoint extrema.
5
Not a
Definitions 4
maximum
f(x) = x 2 + 1
A function need not have a minimum or a maximum on an interval. For instance, in
Figures 3.1(a) and (b), you can see that the function f (x) = x2 + 1 has both a minimum
As with theorems, definitions are clearly stated 3
and a maximum on the closed interval [−1, 2] but does not have a maximum on the
2 open interval (−1, 2). Moreover, in Figure 3.1(c), you can see that continuity (or the
using precise, formal wording and are separated lack of it) can affect the existence of an extremum on the interval. This suggests the
(0, 1) Minimum theorem below. (Although the Extreme Value Theorem is intuitively plausible, a proof
from the text by boxes for quick visual reference. −1 1 2 3
x of this theorem is not within the scope of this text.)
(b) f is continuous, (−1, 2) is open.
Explorations
THEOREM 3.1 The Extreme Value Theorem
y
If f is continuous on a closed interval [a, b], then f has both a minimum and a
Maximum maximum on the interval.
Explorations provide unique challenges to 5
4
(2, 5)
study concepts that have not yet been formally 3

g(x) = x 2 + 1, x ≠ 0
2, x=0
Exploration
covered in the text. They allow you to learn by 2
Finding Minimum and Maximum Values The Extreme Value Theorem (like
Not a
discovery and introduce topics related to ones minimum
x
the Intermediate Value Theorem) is an existence theorem because it tells of the
existence of minimum and maximum values but does not show how to find
presently being studied. Exploring topics in this −1 1 2 3
(c) g is not continuous, [−1, 2] is closed.

these values. Use the minimum and maximum features of a graphing utility to
find the extrema of each function. In each case, do you think the x-values are
way encourages you to think outside the box. Figure 3.1 exact or approximate? Explain your reasoning.
a. f (x) = x2 − 4x + 5 on the closed interval [−1, 3]
b. f (x) = x3 − 2x2 − 3x − 2 on the closed interval [−1, 3]
Remarks
These hints and tips reinforce or expand upon
concepts, help you learn how to study
mathematics, caution you about common errors, 9781337275347_0301.indd 166 9/15/16 12:48 PM
address special cases, or show alternative or

additional steps to a solution of an example.
Historical Notes and Biographies

Historical Notes provide you with background information on the foundations of calculus.
The Biographies introduce you to the people who created and contributed to calculus.
Technology
Throughout the book, technology boxes show you how to use technology to solve problems
and explore concepts of calculus. These tips also point out some pitfalls of using technology.
Putnam Exam Challenges

Putnam Exam questions appear in selected sections. These actual Putnam Exam questions will
challenge you and push the limits of your understanding of calculus.
Student Resources
Student Solutions Manual for Multivariable Calculus
ISBN-13: 978-1-337-27539-2
Need a leg up on your homework or help to prepare for an exam? The Student
Solutions Manual contains worked-out solutions for all odd-numbered exercises. This
manual is a great resource to help you understand how to solve those tough problems.
CengageBrain.com
To access additional course materials, please visit www.cengagebrain.com. At the
CengageBrain.com home page, search for the ISBN of your title (from the back
cover of your book) using the search box at the top of the page. This will take you
to the product page where these resources can be found.
MindTap for Mathematics

MindTap® provides you with the tools you need to better manage your limited
time––you can complete assignments whenever and wherever you are ready to
learn with course material specifically customized for you by your instructor and
streamlined in one proven, easy-to-use interface. With an array of tools and
apps––from note taking to flashcards––you’ll get a true understanding of course
concepts, helping you to achieve better grades and setting the groundwork for your
future courses. This access code entitles you to 3 terms of usage.
Enhanced WebAssign®
Enhanced WebAssign (assigned by the instructor) provides you with instant feedback
on homework assignments. This online homework system is easy to use and includes
helpful links to textbook sections, video examples, and problem-specific tutorials.
ix
Instructor Resources
Complete Solutions Manual for Multivariable Calculus
ISBN-13: 978-1-337-27542-2
The Complete Solutions Manual contains worked-out solutions to all exercises
in the text. It is posted on the instructor companion website.
Instructor’s Resource Guide (on instructor companion site)

This robust manual contains an abundance of instructor resources keyed to the
textbook at the section and chapter level, including section objectives, teaching
tips, and chapter projects.
Cengage Learning Testing Powered by Cognero (login.cengage.com)

CLT is a flexible online system that allows you to author, edit, and manage test
bank content; create multiple test versions in an instant; and deliver tests from your
LMS, your classroom, or wherever you want. This is available online via
www.cengage.com/login.
Instructor Companion Site

Everything you need for your course in one place! This collection of book-specific
lecture and class tools is available online via www.cengage.com/login. Access and
download PowerPoint® presentations, images, instructor’s manual, and more.
Test Bank (on instructor companion site)

The Test Bank contains text-specific multiple-choice and free-response test forms.
MindTap for Mathematics

MindTap® is the digital learning solution that helps you engage and transform
today’s students into critical thinkers. Through paths of dynamic assignments and
applications that you can personalize, real-time course analytics, and an
accessible reader, MindTap helps you turn cookie cutter into cutting edge,
apathy into engagement, and memorizers into higher-level thinkers.
Enhanced WebAssign®
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online homework solution, WebAssign. Enhanced WebAssign engages students
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e-books (YouBook), helping students to develop a deeper conceptual understanding
of their subject matter. Quick Prep and Just In Time exercises provide opportunities
for students to review prerequisite skills and content, both at the start of the course
and at the beginning of each section. Flexible assignment options give instructors
the ability to release assignments conditionally on the basis of students’ prerequisite
assignment scores. Visit us at www.cengage.com/ewa to learn more.
x
Acknowledgments
We would like to thank the many people who have helped us at various stages of
Calculus over the last 43 years. Their encouragement, criticisms, and suggestions
have been invaluable.
Reviewers
Stan Adamski, Owens Community College; Tilak de Alwis; Darry Andrews;
Alexander Arhangelskii, Ohio University; Seth G. Armstrong, Southern Utah
University; Jim Ball, Indiana State University; Denis Bell, University of Northern
Florida; Marcelle Bessman, Jacksonville University; Abraham Biggs, Broward
Community College; Jesse Blosser, Eastern Mennonite School; Linda A. Bolte,
Eastern Washington University; James Braselton, Georgia Southern University;
Harvey Braverman, Middlesex County College; Mark Brittenham, University of
Nebraska; Tim Chappell, Penn Valley Community College; Mingxiang Chen, North
Carolina A&T State University; Oiyin Pauline Chow, Harrisburg Area Community
College; Julie M. Clark, Hollins University; P.S. Crooke, Vanderbilt University;
Jim Dotzler, Nassau Community College; Murray Eisenberg, University of
Massachusetts at Amherst; Donna Flint, South Dakota State University;
Michael Frantz, University of La Verne; David French, Tidewater Community College;
Sudhir Goel, Valdosta State University; Arek Goetz, San Francisco State University;
Donna J. Gorton, Butler County Community College; John Gosselin, University of
Georgia; Arran Hamm; Shahryar Heydari, Piedmont College; Guy Hogan, Norfolk
State University; Marcia Kleinz, Atlantic Cape Community College; Ashok Kumar,
Valdosta State University; Kevin J. Leith, Albuquerque Community College;
Maxine Lifshitz, Friends Academy; Douglas B. Meade, University of South Carolina;
Bill Meisel, Florida State College at Jacksonville; Shahrooz Moosavizadeh;
Teri Murphy, University of Oklahoma; Darren Narayan, Rochester Institute of
Technology; Susan A. Natale, The Ursuline School, NY; Martha Nega, Georgia
Perimeter College; Sam Pearsall, Los Angeles Pierce College; Terence H. Perciante,
Wheaton College; James Pommersheim, Reed College; Laura Ritter, Southern
Polytechnic State University; Leland E. Rogers, Pepperdine University;
Paul Seeburger, Monroe Community College; Edith A. Silver, Mercer County
Community College; Howard Speier, Chandler-Gilbert Community College;
Desmond Stephens, Florida A&M University; Jianzhong Su, University of Texas at
Arlington; Patrick Ward, Illinois Central College; Chia-Lin Wu, Richard Stockton
College of New Jersey; Diane M. Zych, Erie Community College
Many thanks to Robert Hostetler, The Behrend College, The Pennsylvania State
University, and David Heyd, The Behrend College, The Pennsylvania State University,
for their significant contributions to previous editions of this text.
We would also like to thank the staff at Larson Texts, Inc., who assisted in preparing
the manuscript, rendering the art package, typesetting, and proofreading the pages and
supplements.
On a personal level, we are grateful to our wives, Deanna Gilbert Larson and
Consuelo Edwards, for their love, patience, and support. Also, a special note of thanks
goes out to R. Scott O’Neil.
If you have suggestions for improving this text, please feel free to write to us. Over
the years we have received many useful comments from both instructors and students,
and we value these very much.
Ron Larson
Bruce Edwards
xi
11 Vectors and the
Geometry of Space
11.1 Vectors in the Plane
11.2 Space Coordinates and Vectors in Space
11.3 The Dot Product of Two Vectors
11.4 The Cross Product of Two Vectors in Space
11.5 Lines and Planes in Space
11.6 Surfaces in Space
11.7 Cylindrical and Spherical Coordinates
Geography (Exercise 47, p. 807)
Modeling Data
(Exercise 105, p. 796)
Work (Exercise 62, p. 778)
Auditorium Lights
(Exercise 99, p. 769)
Navigation (Exercise 84, p. 761)

751
Clockwise from top left, Denis Tabler/Shutterstock.com; Naypong/Shutterstock.com;
Losevsky Photo andCopyright
Video/Shutterstock.com;
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All Rights Reserved. May notImages/Shutterstock.com
be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
752 Chapter 11 Vectors and the Geometry of Space
11.1 Vectors in the Plane

Write the component form of a vector.
Perform vector operations and interpret the results geometrically.
Write a vector as a linear combination of standard unit vectors.
Component Form of a Vector

Q Many quantities in geometry and physics, such as area, volume, temperature, mass, and
Terminal time, can be characterized by a single real number that is scaled to appropriate units of
point measure. These are called scalar quantities, and the real number associated with each
P PQ is called a scalar.
Initial Other quantities, such as force, velocity, and acceleration, involve both magnitude
point and direction and cannot be characterized completely by a single real number. A directed
A directed line segment line segment is used to represent such a quantity, as shown in Figure 11.1. The
\
Figure 11.1 directed line segment PQ has initial point P and terminal point Q, and its length (or
\
magnitude) is denoted by PQ . Directed line segments that have the same length and
direction are equivalent, as shown in Figure 11.2. The set of all directed line segments
\
that are equivalent to a given directed line segment PQ is a vector in the plane and is
denoted by
\
v = PQ .
In typeset material, vectors are usually denoted by lowercase, boldface letters such as
u, v, and w. When written by hand, however, vectors are often denoted by letters with
arrows above them, such as → u, →v , and →
w.
Equivalent directed line segments Be sure you understand that a vector represents a set of directed line segments
Figure 11.2 (each having the same length and direction). In practice, however, it is common not to
distinguish between a vector and one of its representatives.
Vector Representation: Directed Line Segments

Let v be represented by the directed line segment from (0, 0) to (3, 2), and let u be
represented by the directed line segment from (1, 2) to (4, 4). Show that v and u are
equivalent.
Solution Let P(0, 0) and Q(3, 2) be the initial and terminal points of v, and let
R(1, 2) and S(4, 4) be the initial and terminal points of u, as shown in Figure 11.3. You
\ \
can use the Distance Formula to show that PQ and RS have the same length.
\
PQ = √(3 − 0)2 + (2 − 0)2 = √13

\
RS = √(4 − 1)2 + (4 − 2)2 = √13

y
Both line segments have the same direction,
because they both are directed toward the 4
(4, 4)
S
upper right on lines having the same slope.
\ 2−0 2 3
u
Slope of PQ = =
3−0 3
(1, 2) (3, 2)
2 Q
and R
\ 4−2 2 v
Slope of RS = = 1
4−1 3
\ \
Because PQ and RS have the same length P (0, 0) 1

x
2 3 4
and direction, you can conclude that the two
vectors are equivalent. That is, v and u are The vectors u and v are equivalent.
equivalent. Figure 11.3
11.1 Vectors in the Plane 753
y
The directed line segment whose initial point is the origin is often the most
convenient representative of a set of equivalent directed line segments such as those
4
shown in Figure 11.3. This representation of v is said to be in standard position. A
directed line segment whose initial point is the origin can be uniquely represented by
3 the coordinates of its terminal point Q(v1, v2 ), as shown in Figure 11.4. In the next
(v1, v2) definition, note the difference in the notation between the component form of a vector
2 Q v = 〈v1, v2 〉 and the point (v1, v2).
1 v
v = 〈 v1, v2 〉 Definition of Component Form of a Vector in the Plane
(0, 0)
P
x If v is a vector in the plane whose initial point is the origin and whose terminal
1 2 3 4
point is (v1, v2 ), then the component form of v is v = 〈v1, v2 〉. The coordinates
A vector in standard position v1 and v2 are called the components of v. If both the initial point and the
Figure 11.4 terminal point lie at the origin, then v is called the zero vector and is denoted
by 0 = 〈0, 0〉.
This definition implies that two vectors u = 〈u1, u2 〉 and v = 〈v1, v2 〉 are equal if
and only if u1 = v1 and u2 = v2.
The procedures listed below can be used to convert directed line segments to
component form or vice versa.
1. If P( p1, p2) and Q(q1, q2) are the initial and terminal points of a directed line \
segment, then the component form of the vector v represented by PQ is

〈v1, v2 〉 = 〈q1 − p1, q2 − p2 〉.
Moreover, from the Distance Formula, you can see that the length (or magnitude)
of v is
v = √(q1 − p1)2 + (q2 − p2)2 Length of a vector

= √v12 + v22.
2. If v = 〈v1, v2 〉, then v can be represented by the directed line segment, in standard

position, from P(0, 0) to Q(v1, v2).
The length of v is also called the norm of v. If v = 1, then v is a unit vector.
Moreover, v = 0 if and only if v is the zero vector 0.
y Component Form and Length of a Vector
Q (− 2, 5) 6 Find the component form and length of the vector v that has initial point (3, −7) and
terminal point (−2, 5).
4
Solution Let P(3, −7) = ( p1, p2) and Q(−2, 5) = (q1, q2 ). Then the components
of v = 〈v1, v2 〉 are
x
−6 −4 −2 2 4 6 v1 = q1 − p1 = −2 − 3 = −5
−2
v and
−4
v2 = q2 − p2 = 5 − (−7) = 12.
−6
P (3, − 7)
So, as shown in Figure 11.5, v = 〈−5, 12〉, and the length of v is
−8
v = √(−5)2 + 122
Component form of v: v = 〈−5, 12〉 = √169
Figure 11.5 = 13.
Vector Operations
Definitions of Vector Addition and Scalar Multiplication

Let u = 〈u1, u2 〉 and v = 〈v1, v2 〉 be vectors and let c be a scalar.
1. The vector sum of u and v is the vector u + v = 〈u1 + v1, u2 + v2 〉.
2. The scalar multiple of c and u is the vector
cu = 〈cu1, cu2 〉.
3. The negative of v is the vector
1 3
v − v
v 2 2v −v 2 −v = (−1)v = 〈−v1, −v2 〉.
4. The difference of u and v is
u − v = u + (−v) = 〈u1 − v1, u2 − v2 〉.
Geometrically, the scalar multiple of a vector v and a scalar c is the vector that is
The scalar multiplication of v ∣∣
c times as long as v, as shown in Figure 11.6. If c is positive, then cv has the same
Figure 11.6 direction as v. If c is negative, then cv has the opposite direction.
The sum of two vectors can be represented geometrically by positioning the
vectors (without changing their magnitudes or directions) so that the initial point of
one coincides with the terminal point of the other, as shown in Figure 11.7. The vector
u + v, called the resultant vector, is the diagonal of a parallelogram having u and v
as its adjacent sides.
u+v
u u u+v
u
v v
To find u + v, (1) move the initial point of v (2) move the initial point of u
to the terminal point of u, or to the terminal point of v.
Figure 11.7
WILLIAM ROWAN HAMILTON
(1805–1865)
Figure 11.8 shows the equivalence of the geometric and algebraic definitions
Some of the earliest work with
vectors was done by the Irish
of vector addition and scalar multiplication and presents (at far right) a geometric
mathematician William Rowan interpretation of u − v.
Hamilton. Hamilton spent many
years developing a system of (ku1, ku2)
vector-like quantities called
quaternions. It was not until the (u1 + v1, u2 + v2)
latter half of the nineteenth (u1, u2)
ku
century that the Scottish u+v ku2 −v
physicist James Maxwell u u2 u u−v
(u1, u2)
(1831–1879) restructured u u2
Hamilton’s quaternions in a (v1, v2) u + (−v) v
form useful for representing v v2
u1
physical quantities such as v1 u1
force, velocity, and acceleration. ku1
See LarsonCalculus.com to read
more of this biography. Vector addition Scalar multiplication Vector subtraction
Figure 11.8
The Granger Collection, NYC
Vector Operations
For v = 〈−2, 5〉 and w = 〈3, 4〉, find each of the vectors.
a. 12 v b. w − v c. v + 2w
Solution
a. 12 v = 〈 12 (−2), 12 (5)〉 = 〈 −1, 52〉
b. w − v = 〈w1 − v1, w2 − v2 〉
= 〈3 − (−2), 4 − 5〉
= 〈5, −1〉
c. Using 2w = 〈6, 8〉, you have
v + 2w = 〈−2, 5〉 + 〈6, 8〉
= 〈−2 + 6, 5 + 8〉
= 〈4, 13〉.
Vector addition and scalar multiplication share many properties of ordinary

arithmetic, as shown in the next theorem.
THEOREM 11.1 Properties of Vector Operations

Let u, v, and w be vectors in the plane, and let c and d be scalars.
1. u+v=v+u Commutative Property
2. (u + v) + w = u + (v + w) Associative Property
3. u+0=u Additive Identity Property
4. u + (−u) = 0 Additive Inverse Property
5. c(du) = (cd)u
6. (c + d)u = cu + du Distributive Property
EMMY NOETHER (1882–1935) 7. c(u + v) = cu + cv Distributive Property
One person who contributed
8. 1(u) = u, 0(u) = 0
to our knowledge of axiomatic
systems was the German
mathematician Emmy Noether.
Noether is generally recognized Proof The proof of the Associative Property of vector addition uses the Associative
as the leading woman Property of addition of real numbers.
mathematician in recent history.
(u + v) + w = [〈u1, u2 〉 + 〈v1, v2 〉] + 〈w1, w2 〉
= 〈u1 + v1, u2 + v2 〉 + 〈w1, w2 〉
= 〈(u1 + v1) + w1, (u2 + v2 ) + w2 〉
= 〈u1 + (v1 + w1), u2 + (v2 + w2)〉
= 〈u1, u2 〉 + 〈v1 + w1, v2 + w2 〉
FOR FURTHER INFORMATION
= u + (v + w)
For more information on Emmy
Noether, see the article “Emmy The other properties can be proved in a similar manner.
Noether, Greatest Woman
Mathematician” by Clark Any set of vectors (with an accompanying set of scalars) that satisfies the eight
Kimberling in Mathematics properties listed in Theorem 11.1 is a vector space.* The eight properties are the vector
Teacher. To view this article, space axioms. So, this theorem states that the set of vectors in the plane (with the set of
go to MathArticles.com. real numbers) forms a vector space.
* For more information about vector spaces, see Elementary Linear Algebra, Eight Edition, by Ron Larson (Boston,
Massachusetts: Cengage Learning, 2017).
Granger, NYC — All rights reserved.
THEOREM 11.2 Length of a Scalar Multiple

Let v be a vector and let c be a scalar. Then
∣∣
cv = c v. ∣c∣ is the absolute value of c.
Proof Because cv = 〈cv1, cv2 〉, it follows that

cv = 〈cv1, cv2 〉
= √(cv1)2 + (cv2)2
= √c 2v12 + c 2v22
= √c2(v12 + v22)
∣∣
= c √v12 + v22
= ∣c∣ v.
In many applications of vectors, it is useful to find a unit vector that has the same
direction as a given vector. The next theorem gives a procedure for doing this.
THEOREM 11.3 Unit Vector in the Direction of v

If v is a nonzero vector in the plane, then the vector
v 1
u= = v
v v
has length 1 and the same direction as v.
Proof Because 1v is positive and u = (1v )v, you can conclude that u has the
same direction as v. To see that u = 1, note that
u = (v1 )v = ∣v1 ∣v = v1 v = 1.

So, u has length 1 and the same direction as v.
In Theorem 11.3, u is called a unit vector in the direction of v. The process of

multiplying v by 1v to get a unit vector is called normalization of v.
Finding a Unit Vector

Find a unit vector in the direction of v = 〈−2, 5〉 and verify that it has length 1.
Solution From Theorem 11.3, the unit vector in the direction of v is
v 〈−2, 5〉
=
v √(−2)2 + (5)2
1
= 〈−2, 5〉
√29
=
−2
〈,
√29 √29
5
. 〉
This vector has length 1, because
√( ) ( ) = √294 + 2529 = √2929 = 1.

−2 2 2
5
+
√29 √29
y
Generally, the length of the sum of two vectors is not equal to the sum of their
v lengths. To see this, consider the vectors u and v as shown in Figure 11.9. With u and
v as two sides of a triangle, the length of the third side is u + v, and
u + v ≤ u + v.
u u+v Equality occurs only when the vectors u and v have the same direction. This result is
called the triangle inequality for vectors. (You are asked to prove this in Exercise 73,
Section 11.3.)
x Standard Unit Vectors

The unit vectors 〈1, 0〉 and 〈0, 1〉 are called the standard unit vectors in the plane and
Triangle inequality are denoted by
Figure 11.9
i = 〈1, 0〉 and j = 〈0, 1〉 Standard unit vectors
y
as shown in Figure 11.10. These vectors can be used to represent any vector uniquely,
as follows.
2 v = 〈v1, v2 〉 = 〈v1, 0〉 + 〈0, v2 〉 = v1 〈1, 0〉 + v2 〈0, 1〉 = v1i + v2 j
The vector v = v1i + v2 j is called a linear combination of i and j. The scalars v1 and
v2 are called the horizontal and vertical components of v.
1 j = 〈0, 1〉
Writing a Linear Combination of Unit Vectors

i = 〈1, 0〉
x
1 2 Let u be the vector with initial point (2, −5) and terminal point (−1, 3), and let
v = 2i − j. Write each vector as a linear combination of i and j.
Standard unit vectors i and j a. u
Figure 11.10 b. w = 2u − 3v
Solution
a. u = 〈q1 − p1, q2 − p2 〉 = 〈−1 − 2, 3 − (−5)〉 = 〈−3, 8〉 = −3i + 8j
b. w = 2u − 3v = 2(−3i + 8j) − 3(2i − j) = −6i + 16j − 6i + 3j = −12i + 19j
If u is a unit vector and θ is the angle (measured counterclockwise) from the

positive x-axis to u, then the terminal point of u lies on the unit circle, and you have
y
u = 〈cos θ, sin θ〉 = cos θi + sin θj Unit vector
as shown in Figure 11.11. Moreover, it follows that any other nonzero vector v making
1 (cos θ , sin θ ) an angle θ with the positive x-axis has the same direction as u, and you can write
u v = v〈cos θ, sin θ〉 = v cos θi + v sin θj.

sin θ
θ
x
−1
cos θ 1 Writing a Vector of Given Magnitude and Direction
The vector v has a magnitude of 3 and makes an angle of 30° = π6 with the positive
−1 x-axis. Write v as a linear combination of the unit vectors i and j.
Solution Because the angle between v and the positive x-axis is θ = π6, you can
write
The angle θ from the positive x-axis
to the vector u π π 3√3 3
v = v cos θi + v sin θj = 3 cos i + 3 sin j = i + j.
Figure 11.11 6 6 2 2
Vectors have many applications in physics and engineering. One example is

force. A vector can be used to represent force, because force has both magnitude and
direction. If two or more forces are acting on an object, then the resultant force on the
object is the vector sum of the vector forces.
Finding the Resultant Force

Two tugboats are pushing an ocean liner, as shown in Figure 11.12. Each boat is
exerting a force of 400 pounds. What is the resultant force on the ocean liner?
y
Solution Using Figure 11.12, you can represent the forces exerted by the first and
400 cos(− 20°) second tugboats as
F2 − 20° 400 sin(− 20°) F1 = 400〈cos 20°, sin 20°〉 = 400 cos(20°)i + 400 sin(20°)j
400
F2 = 400〈cos(−20°), sin(−20°)〉 = 400 cos(20°)i − 400 sin(20°)j.
x
F1 400
The resultant force on the ocean liner is
400 sin(20°)
20°
F = F1 + F2
400 cos(20°)
= [400 cos(20°)i + 400 sin(20°)j] + [400 cos(20°)i − 400 sin(20°)j]
The resultant force on the ocean liner = 800 cos(20°)i
that is exerted by the two tugboats ≈ 752i.
Figure 11.12
So, the resultant force on the ocean liner is approximately 752 pounds in the direction
of the positive x-axis.
In surveying and navigation, a bearing is a direction that measures the acute

angle that a path or line of sight makes with a fixed north-south line. In air navigation,
bearings are measured in degrees clockwise from north.
y
N
Finding a Velocity
W E See LarsonCalculus.com for an interactive version of this type of example.
S An airplane is traveling at a fixed altitude with a negligible wind factor. The airplane
is traveling at a speed of 500 miles per hour with a bearing of 330°, as shown in
v1 Figure 11.13(a). As the airplane reaches a certain point, it encounters wind with a
velocity of 70 miles per hour in the direction N 45° E (45° east of north), as shown in
120° Figure 11.13(b). What are the resultant speed and direction of the airplane?
x Solution Using Figure 11.13(a), represent the velocity of the airplane (alone) as
v1 = 500 cos(120°)i + 500 sin(120°)j.
(a) Direction without wind
The velocity of the wind is represented by the vector
y v2 = 70 cos(45°)i + 70 sin(45°)j.
v2 N The resultant velocity of the airplane (in the wind) is
W E v = v1 + v2
S = 500 cos(120°)i + 500 sin(120°)j + 70 cos(45°)i + 70 sin(45°)j
v ≈ −200.5i + 482.5j.
Wind v1
To find the resultant speed and direction, write v = v(cos θi + sin θj). Because
θ v ≈ √(−200.5)2 + (482.5)2 ≈ 522.5, you can write
x v ≈ 522.5 (−200.5
522.5
i+
522.5 )
482.5
j ≈ 522.5[cos(112.6°)i + sin(112.6°)j].
(b) Direction with wind The new speed of the airplane, as altered by the wind, is approximately 522.5 miles per
Figure 11.13 hour in a path that makes an angle of 112.6° with the positive x-axis.
11.1 Exercises See CalcChat.com for tutorial help and worked-out solutions to odd-numbered exercises.
Finding a Magnitude of a Vector In

CONCEPT CHECK Exercises 19–24, find the magnitude of v.
1. Scalar and Vector Describe the difference between
a scalar and a vector. Give examples of each.
19. v = 4i 20. v = −9j
2. Vector Two points and a vector are given. Determine
21. v = 〈8, 15〉 22. v = 〈−24, 7〉
which point is the initial point and which point is the
terminal point. Explain. 23. v = −i − 5j 24. v = 3i + 3j
P(2, −1), Q(−4, 6), and v = 〈6, −7〉 Sketching Scalar Multiples In Exercises 25 and 26,
sketch each scalar multiple of v.
Sketching a Vector In Exercises 3 and 4, (a) find the 25. v = 〈3, 5〉 (a) 2v (b) −3v (c) 72v (d) 23v
component form of the vector v and (b) sketch the vector with
its initial point at the origin. 26. v = 〈−2, 3〉 (a) 4v (b) − 12v (c) 0v (d) −6v
3. y 4. y Using Vector Operations In Exercises

(5, 4) 27 and 28, find (a) 23u, (b) 3v, (c) v − u, and
4 2
3 v (d) 2u + 5v.
x
2 (1, 2) −4 − 2 2 4
v 27. u = 〈4, 9〉, v = 〈2, −5〉 28. u = 〈−3, −8〉, v = 〈8, 7〉
1
x (− 4, − 3) (2, − 3)
1 2 3 4 5 Sketching a Vector In Exercises 29–34, use the figure to
−1 −6
sketch a graph of the vector. To print an enlarged copy of the
graph, go to MathGraphs.com.
Equivalent Vectors In Exercises 5–8, find the
29. −u y
vectors u and v whose initial and terminal points
are given. Show that u and v are equivalent. 30. 2u
Terminal Terminal 31. −v
Initial Point Point Initial Point Point 32. 12v u v
5. u: (3, 2) (5, 6) 6. u: (−4, 0) (1, 8) 33. u − v
x
v: (1, 4) (3, 8) v: (2, −1) (7, 7) 34. u + 2v
7. u: (0, 3) (6, −2) 8. u: (−4, −1) (11, −4)
Finding a Unit Vector In Exercises 35– 38,
v: (3, 10) (9, 5) v: (10, 13) (25, 10) find the unit vector in the direction of v and verify
that it has length 1.
Writing a Vector in Different Forms In
Exercises 9–16, the initial and terminal points of a 35. v = 〈3, 12〉 36. v = 〈−5, 15〉
vector v are given. (a) Sketch the given directed line
segment. (b) Write the vector in component form.
37. v = 〈 32, 52〉 38. v = 〈−6.2, 3.4〉
(c) Write the vector as the linear combination of the
Finding Magnitudes In Exercises 39–42, find the following.
standard unit vectors i and j. (d) Sketch the vector
with its initial point at the origin. (a) u (b) v (c) u + v
Initial Point
Terminal
Point Initial Point
Terminal
Point
(d) uu (e) vv (f ) uu ++ vv
9. (2, 0) (5, 5) 10. (4, −6) (3, 6) 39. u = 〈1, −1〉, v = 〈−1, 2〉
11. (8, 3) (6, −1) 12. (0, −4) (−5, −1) 40. u = 〈0, 1〉, v = 〈3, −3〉
13. (6, 2) (6, 6) 14. (7, −1) (−3, −1) 41. u = 〈 1, 12〉 , v = 〈2, 3〉
15. (32, 43 ) (12, 3) 16. (0.12, 0.60) (0.84, 1.25) 42. u = 〈2, −4〉, v = 〈5, 5〉
Finding a Terminal Point In Exercises 17 and 18, the Using the Triangle Inequality In Exercises 43 and 44,
vector v and its initial point are given. Find the terminal point. sketch a graph of u, v, and u + v. Then demonstrate the
triangle inequality using the vectors u and v.
17. v = 〈−1, 3〉; Initial point: (4, 2)
43. u = 〈2, 1〉, v = 〈5, 4〉
18. v = 〈4, −9〉; Initial point: (5, 3)
44. u = 〈−3, 2〉, v = 〈1, −2〉
Finding a Vector In Exercises 45 – 48, find the Finding Values In Exercises 61–66, find a and b such that
vector v with the given magnitude and the same v = au + bw, where u = 〈1, 2〉 and w = 〈1, −1〉.
direction as u.
61. v = 〈4, 5〉 62. v = 〈−7, −2〉
Magnitude Direction 63. v = 〈−6, 0〉 64. v = 〈0, 6〉
45. v = 6 u = 〈0, 3〉 65. v = 〈1, −3〉 66. v = 〈−1, 8〉
46. v = 4 u = 〈1, 1〉
Finding Unit Vectors In Exercises 67–72, find a unit
47. v = 5 u = 〈−1, 2〉
vector (a) parallel to and (b) perpendicular to the graph of f
48. v = 2 u = 〈 √3, 3〉 at the given point. Then sketch the graph of f and sketch the
vectors at the given point.
Finding a Vector In Exercises 49 – 52, find the
component form of v given its magnitude and the 67. f (x) = x2, (3, 9) 68. f (x) = −x2 + 5, (1, 4)
angle it makes with the positive x-axis. 69. f (x) = x3, (1, 1) 70. f (x) = x3, (−2, −8)
49. v = 3, θ = 0° 50. v = 5, θ = 120° 71. f (x) = √25 − x2, (3, 4)
51. v = 2, θ = 150° 52. v = 4, θ = 3.5°
72. f (x) = tan x, (π4 , 1)
Finding a Vector In Exercises 53 – 56, find the component
form of u + v given the lengths of u and v and the angles that Finding a Vector In Exercises 73 and 74, find the
u and v make with the positive x-axis. component form of v given the magnitudes of u and u + v and
the angles that u and u + v make with the positive x-axis.
53. u = 1, θ u = 0° 54. u = 4, θ u = 0°
v = 3, θ v = 45° v = 2, θ v = 60° 73. u = 1, θ = 45° 74. u = 4, θ = 30°
55. u = 2, θ u = 4 56. u = 5, θ u = −0.5 u + v = √2, θ = 90° u + v = 6, θ = 120°
v = 1, θ v = 2 v = 5, θ v = 0.5 75. Resultant Force Forces with magnitudes of 500 pounds

and 200 pounds act on a machine part at angles of 30° and
−45°, respectively, with the x-axis (see figure). Find the
EXPLORING CONCEPTS direction and magnitude of the resultant force.
Think About It In Exercises 57 and 58, consider two
y
forces of equal magnitude acting on a point.
500 lb
57. When the magnitude of the resultant is the sum of the
magnitudes of the two forces, make a conjecture about 180 N
30°
the angle between the forces. x
− 45° θ
58. When the resultant of the forces is 0, make a conjecture 275 N
x
about the angle between the forces.
200 lb
59. Triangle Consider a triangle with vertices X, Y, and
\ \ \
Z. What is XY + YZ + ZX ? Explain.
Figure for 75 Figure for 76
76. Numerical and Graphical Analysis Forces with

magnitudes of 180 newtons and 275 newtons act on a hook
60. HOW DO YOU SEE IT? Use the figure (see figure). The angle between the two forces is θ degrees.
to determine whether each statement is true or
false. Justify your answer. (a) When θ = 30°, find the direction and magnitude of the
resultant force.
(b) Write the magnitude M and direction α of the resultant
b t force as functions of θ, where 0° ≤ θ ≤ 180°.
a d w (c) Use a graphing utility to complete the table.
c s
θ 0° 30° 60° 90° 120° 150° 180°
u v
M
(a) a = −d (b) c = s α
(c) a + u = c (d) v + w = −s
(d) Use a graphing utility to graph the two functions M and α.
(e) a + d = 0 (f ) u − v = −2(b + t)
(e) Explain why one of the functions decreases for increasing
values of θ, whereas the other does not.
77. Resultant Force Three forces with magnitudes of 84. Navigation

75 pounds, 100 pounds, and 125 pounds act on an object at A plane flies at a
angles of 30°, 45°, and 120°, respectively, with the positive constant groundspeed
x-axis. Find the direction and magnitude of the resultant force. of 400 miles per hour
78. Resultant Force Three forces with magnitudes of due east and encounters
400 newtons, 280 newtons, and 350 newtons act on an object at a 50-mile-per-hour wind
angles of −30°, 45°, and 135°, respectively, with the positive from the northwest. Find
x-axis. Find the direction and magnitude of the resultant force. the airspeed and compass
direction that will allow
Cable Tension In Exercises 79 and 80, determine the the plane to maintain its
tension in the cable supporting the given load. groundspeed and eastward
direction.
79. A B
80. 10 in. 20 in.
50° 30°
A B
C True or False? In Exercises 85–94, determine whether the
statement is true or false. If it is false, explain why or give an
24 in.
example that shows it is false.
3000 lb
85. The weight of a car is a scalar.
C
86. The mass of a book is a scalar.
5000 lb 87. The temperature of your blood is a scalar.
88. The velocity of a bicycle is a vector.
81. Projectile Motion A gun with a muzzle velocity of
89. If u and v have the same magnitude and direction, then u and
1200 feet per second is fired at an angle of 6° above the
v are equivalent.
horizontal. Find the vertical and horizontal components of the
velocity. 90. If u is a unit vector in the direction of v, then v = v u.
82. Shared Load To carry a 100-pound cylindrical weight, 91. If u = ai + bj is a unit vector, then a2 + b2 = 1.
two workers lift on the ends of short ropes tied to an eyelet 92. If v = ai + bj = 0, then a = −b.
on the top center of the cylinder. One rope makes a 20° angle
away from the vertical and the other makes a 30° angle (see 93. If a = b, then ai + bj = √2 a.
figure). 94. If u and v have the same magnitude but opposite directions,
(a) Find each rope’s tension when the resultant force is vertical. then u + v = 0.
(b) Find the vertical component of each worker’s force. 95. Proof Prove that
u = (cos θ )i − (sin θ )j and v = (sin θ )i + (cos θ )j

20°
30°
are unit vectors for any angle θ.
96. Geometry Using vectors, prove that the line segment
joining the midpoints of two sides of a triangle is parallel to,
and one-half the length of, the third side.
100 lb
97. Geometry Using vectors, prove that the diagonals of a
parallelogram bisect each other.
98. Proof Prove that the vector w = u v + v u bisects the
83. Navigation A plane is flying with a bearing of 302°. angle between u and v.
Its speed with respect to the air is 900 kilometers per hour.
The wind at the plane’s altitude is from the southwest at 99. Using a Vector Consider the vector u = 〈x, y〉. Describe
100 kilometers per hour (see figure). What is the true direction the set of all points (x, y) such that u = 5.
of the plane, and what is its speed with respect to the ground?
N
PUTNAM EXAM CHALLENGE
100. A coast artillery gun can fire at any angle of elevation
W E
between 0° and 90° in a fixed vertical plane. If air
S resistance is neglected and the muzzle velocity is
constant (= v0 ), determine the set H of points in the
plane and above the horizontal which can be hit.
100 km/h This problem was composed by the Committee on the Putnam Prize Competition.
900 km/h © The Mathematical Association of America. All rights reserved.
32° 45°
Mikael Damkier/Shutterstock.com
11.2 Space Coordinates and Vectors in Space

Understand the three-dimensional rectangular coordinate system.
Analyze vectors in space.
Coordinates in Space
z Up to this point in the text, you have been primarily concerned with the two-dimensional
coordinate system. Much of the remaining part of your study of calculus will involve
the three-dimensional coordinate system.
yz-plane
Before extending the concept of a vector to three dimensions, you must be able to
xz-plane
identify points in the three-dimensional coordinate system. You can construct this
system by passing a z-axis perpendicular to both the x- and y-axes at the origin, as
shown in Figure 11.14. Taken as pairs, the axes determine three coordinate planes:
the xy-plane, the xz-plane, and the yz-plane. These three coordinate planes separate
y three-space into eight octants. The first octant is the one for which all three coordinates
x xy-plane
are positive. In this three-dimensional system, a point P in space is determined by an
ordered triple (x, y, z), where x, y, and z are as follows.
The three-dimensional coordinate x = directed distance from yz-plane to P
system y = directed distance from xz-plane to P
Figure 11.14
z = directed distance from xy-plane to P
Several points are shown in Figure 11.15.
6
(− 2, 5, 4)
5 −6
4 −5
(2, − 5, 3) −4
3 −3
2
−8 1
−4
−2
REMARK The y
three-dimensional rotatable 3 8
(1, 6, 0)
4
graphs that are available at 5
LarsonCalculus.com can help 6 (3, 3, − 2)
you visualize points or objects x
in a three-dimensional Points in the three-dimensional coordinate system are
coordinate system. represented by ordered triples.
Figure 11.15
A three-dimensional coordinate system z z
can have either a right-handed or a

left-handed orientation. To determine the
y x
orientation of a system, imagine that you
are standing at the origin, with your arms x y
pointing in the direction of the positive

x- and y-axes and with the positive z-axis
pointing up, as shown in Figure 11.16. Right-handed Left-handed
system system
The system is right-handed or left-handed
Figure 11.16
depending on which hand points along the
x-axis. In this text, you will work exclusively
with the right-handed system.
11.2 Space Coordinates and Vectors in Space 763
z
Many of the formulas established for the two-dimensional coordinate system can
(x2, y2, z2)
be extended to three dimensions. For example, to find the distance between two points
in space, you can use the Pythagorean Theorem twice, as shown in Figure 11.17. By
Q doing this, you will obtain the formula for the distance between the points (x1, y1, z1)
d and (x2, y2, z2).
P ⏐z2 − z1⏐
y
x (x1, y1, z1)
(x2, y2, z1) d = √(x2 − x1)2 + ( y2 − y1)2 + (z2 − z1)2 Distance Formula
(x2 − x1)2 + (y2 − y1)2
The distance between two points in Finding the Distance Between Two Points in Space
space
Figure 11.17 Find the distance between the points (2, −1, 3) and (1, 0, −2).
Solution
d = √(1 − 2)2 + (0 + 1)2 + (−2 − 3)2 Distance Formula
= √1 + 1 + 25
= √27
= 3√3
z A sphere with center at (x0, y0, z0) and radius r is defined to be the set of all points
(x, y, z) such that the distance between (x, y, z) and (x0, y0, z0) is r. You can use the
Distance Formula to find the standard equation of a sphere of radius r, centered at
(x, y, z) (x0, y0, z0). If (x, y, z) is an arbitrary point on the sphere, then the equation of the sphere is
r
(x0, y0, z 0 )
(x − x0)2 + ( y − y0)2 + (z − z 0)2 = r 2 Equation of sphere
y
as shown in Figure 11.18. Moreover, the midpoint of the line segment joining the points
x (x1, y1, z1) and (x2, y2, z2) has coordinates
Figure 11.18
x1 + x2 y1 + y2 z1 + z2
( 2
,
2
,
2
. ) Midpoint Formula
Finding the Equation of a Sphere

Find the standard equation of the sphere that has the points
(5, −2, 3) and (0, 4, −3)
as endpoints of a diameter.
Solution Using the Midpoint Formula, the center of the sphere is
(5 +2 0, −22+ 4, 3 −2 3) = (52, 1, 0). Midpoint Formula
By the Distance Formula, the radius is
√( ) √974 = √297.
5 2
r= 0− + (4 − 1)2 + (−3 − 0)2 =
2
Therefore, the standard equation of the sphere is
(x − 52)
2 97
+ ( y − 1)2 + z 2 = . Equation of sphere
4
z
Vectors in Space
〈v1, v2, v3〉
v In space, vectors are denoted by ordered triples v = 〈v1, v2, v3 〉. The zero vector is
denoted by 0 = 〈0, 0, 0〉. Using the unit vectors
〈0, 0, 1〉
k i = 〈1, 0, 0〉, j = 〈0, 1, 0〉, and k = 〈0, 0, 1〉
j 〈0, 1, 0〉
the standard unit vector notation for v is
i y
〈1, 0, 0〉 v = v1i + v2 j + v3k
as shown in Figure 11.19. If v is represented by the directed line segment from
x
P( p1, p2, p3) to Q(q1, q2, q3 ), as shown in Figure 11.20, then the component form of v
is written by subtracting the coordinates of the initial point from the coordinates of the
The standard unit vectors in space terminal point, as follows.
Figure 11.19
v = 〈v1, v2, v3 〉 = 〈q1 − p1, q2 − p2, q3 − p3 〉
z
Q(q1, q2, q3)

Vectors in Space
P(p1, p2, p3) v Let u = 〈u1, u2, u3 〉 and v = 〈v1, v2, v3 〉 be vectors in space and let c be a
scalar.
1. Equality of Vectors: u = v if and only if u1 = v1, u2 = v2, and u3 = v3.
y 2. Component Form: If v is represented by the directed line segment from
P( p1, p2, p3) to Q(q1, q2, q3), then
v = 〈v1, v2, v3 〉 = 〈q1 − p1, q2 − p2, q3 − p3 〉.
x 3. Length: v = √v12 + v22 + v32
v = 〈q1 − p1, q2 − p2, q3 − p3〉
Figure 11.20
4. Unit Vector in the Direction of v:
v
v
=
1
( )
〈v , v , v 〉, v ≠ 0
v 1 2 3
5. Vector Addition: v + u = 〈v1 + u1, v2 + u2, v3 + u3 〉
6. Scalar Multiplication: cv = 〈cv1, cv2, cv3 〉
Note that the properties of vector operations listed in Theorem 11.1 (see Section 11.1)
are also valid for vectors in space.
Finding the Component Form of a Vector in Space

See LarsonCalculus.com for an interactive version of this type of example.
Find the component form and magnitude of the vector v having initial point (−2, 3, 1)
and terminal point (0, −4, 4). Then find a unit vector in the direction of v.
Solution The component form of v is
v = 〈q1 − p1, q2 − p2, q3 − p3 〉 = 〈0 − (−2), −4 − 3, 4 − 1〉 = 〈2, −7, 3〉
which implies that its magnitude is
v = √22 + (−7)2 + 32 = √62.
The unit vector in the direction of v is
v
u=
v
1
= 〈2, −7, 3〉
√62
= 〈 2
,
−7
,
3
√62 √62 √62
. 〉
y
Recall from the definition of scalar multiplication that positive scalar multiples of
a nonzero vector v have the same direction as v, whereas negative multiples have the
direction opposite of v. In general, two nonzero vectors u and v are parallel when there
is some scalar c such that u = cv. For example, in Figure 11.21, the vectors u, v, and
u = 2v
w are parallel because
u
w = −v
u = 2v and w = −v.
v Definition of Parallel Vectors

w
x Two nonzero vectors u and v are parallel when there is some scalar c such
that u = cv.
Parallel vectors
Figure 11.21
Parallel Vectors
Vector w has initial point (2, −1, 3) and terminal point (−4, 7, 5). Which of the
following vectors is parallel to w?
a. u = 〈3, −4, −1〉
b. v = 〈12, −16, 4〉
Solution Begin by writing w in component form.
w = 〈−4 − 2, 7 − (−1), 5 − 3〉 = 〈−6, 8, 2〉
a. Because u = 〈3, −4, −1〉 = − 12 〈−6, 8, 2〉 = − 12 w, you can conclude that u is
parallel to w.
b. In this case, you want to find a scalar c such that
〈12, −16, 4〉 = c〈−6, 8, 2〉.
To find c, equate the corresponding components and solve as shown.
12 = − 6c c = −2
−16 = 8c c = −2
4= 2c c= 2
Note that c = −2 for the first two components and c = 2 for the third component.
This means that the equation 〈12, −16, 4〉 = c〈−6, 8, 2〉 has no solution, and the
vectors are not parallel.
z
Using Vectors to Determine Collinear Points
(1, − 2, 3)
P 4 Determine whether the points
2 P(1, −2, 3), Q(2, 1, 0), and R(4, 7, −6)
(2, 1, 0)
2 are collinear.
Q 4 \ \
8
6 6
8
Solution The component forms of PQ and PR are
x y \
PQ = 〈2 − 1, 1 − (−2), 0 − 3〉 = 〈1, 3, −3〉

and
\
(4, 7, − 6) R PR = 〈4 − 1, 7 − (−2), −6 − 3〉 = 〈3, 9, −9〉.

The points P, Q, and R lie on the same These two vectors have a common initial point. So, P, Q, and R lie on the same line
\ \ \ \
line. if and only if PQ and PR are parallel—which they are because PR = 3 PQ , as shown
Figure 11.22 in Figure 11.22.
Standard Unit Vector Notation

a. Write the vector v = 4i − 5k in component form.
b. Find the terminal point of the vector v = 7i − j + 3k, given that the initial point
is P(−2, 3, 5).
c. Find the magnitude of the vector v = −6i + 2j − 3k. Then find a unit vector in
the direction of v.
Solution
a. Because j is missing, its component is 0 and
v = 4i − 5k = 〈4, 0, −5〉.
b. You need to find Q(q1, q2, q3) such that
\
v = PQ = 7i − j + 3k.
This implies that q1 − (−2) = 7, q2 − 3 = −1, and q3 − 5 = 3. The solution of
these three equations is q1 = 5, q2 = 2, and q3 = 8. Therefore, Q is (5, 2, 8).
c. Note that v1 = −6, v2 = 2, and v3 = −3. So, the magnitude of v is
v = √(−6)2 + 22 + (−3)2 = √49 = 7.
The unit vector in the direction of v is
1
7 (−6i + 2j − 3k) = − 76i + 27 j − 73k.
Measuring Force
z A television camera weighing 120 pounds is supported by a tripod, as shown in

Figure 11.23. Represent the force exerted on each leg of the tripod as a vector.
P (0, 0, 4)
Solution Let the vectors F1, F2, and F3 represent the forces exerted on the three legs.
Q3 )−
3 1
, ,0
2 2 ) From Figure 11.23, you can determine the directions of F1, F2, and F3 to be as follows.
\
F1 = PQ 1 = 〈0 − 0, −1 − 0, 0 − 4〉 = 〈0, −1, −4〉
〈 23 − 0, 12 − 0, 0 − 4〉 = 〈 23, 12, −4〉

Q1 (0, − 1, 0) \ √ √
y F2 = PQ 2 =
Q2 ) 3 1
2 2 )
, ,0
F3 = PQ 3
\
= 〈−
√
3
− 0, − 0, 0 − 4〉 = 〈−
1
, , −4〉.
3 1 √
x 2 2 2 2
Figure 11.23 Because all three legs have the same length and the total force is distributed equally
among the three legs, you know that F1 = F2 = F3 . So, there exists a constant c
such that
F1 = c 〈0, −1, −4〉, F2 = c 〈 23, 12, −4〉,

√
and F3 = c − 〈 √3 1
2
, , −4 .
2 〉
Let the total force exerted by the object be given by F = 〈0, 0, −120〉. Then, using
the fact that
F = F1 + F2 + F3
you can conclude that F1, F2, and F3 all have a vertical component of −40. This
implies that c(−4) = −40 and c = 10. Therefore, the forces exerted on the legs can
be represented by
F1 = 〈0, −10, −40〉,
F2 = 〈 5√3, 5, −40〉,
and
F3 = 〈 −5√3, 5, −40〉.
11.2 Exercises See CalcChat.com for tutorial help and worked-out solutions to odd-numbered exercises.
Classifying a Triangle In Exercises 29–32, find the lengths

CONCEPT CHECK of the sides of the triangle with the indicated vertices, and
1. Describing Coordinates A point in the three- determine whether the triangle is a right triangle, an isosceles
dimensional coordinate system has coordinates (x0, y0, z0 ). triangle, or neither.
Describe what each coordinate measures.
29. (0, 0, 4), (2, 6, 7), (6, 4, −8)
2. Coordinates in Space What is the y-coordinate of
30. (3, 4, 1), (0, 6, 2), (3, 5, 6)
any point in the xz-plane?
31. (−1, 0, −2), (−1, 5, 2), (−3, −1, 1)
3. Comparing Graphs Describe the graph of x = 4 on
(a) the number line, (b) the two-dimensional coordinate 32. (4, −1, −1), (2, 0, −4), (3, 5, −1)
system, and (c) the three-dimensional coordinate system.
Finding the Midpoint In Exercises 33 –36,
4. Parallel Vectors Explain how to determine whether find the coordinates of the midpoint of the line
two nonzero vectors u and v are parallel. segment joining the points.
33. (4, 0, −6), (8, 8, 20)

Plotting Points In Exercises 5– 8, plot the points in the
same three-dimensional coordinate system. 34. (7, 2, 2), (−5, −2, −3)
5. (a) (2, 1, 3) (b) (−1, 2, 1) 35. (3, 4, 6), (1, 8, 0)

36. (5, −9, 7), (−2, 3, 3)
6. (a) (3, −2, 5) (b) (32, 4, −2)
7. (a) (5, −2, 2) (b) (5, −2, −2) Finding the Equation of a Sphere In
8. (a) (0, 4, −5) (b) (4, 0, 5) Exercises 37–42, find the standard equation of the
sphere with the given characteristics.
Finding Coordinates of a Point In Exercises
9–12, find the coordinates of the point. 37. Center: (7, 1, −2); Radius: 1
38. Center: (−1, −5, 8); Radius: 5
9. The point is located three units behind the yz-plane, four units 39. Endpoints of a diameter: (2, 1, 3), (1, 3, −1)
to the right of the xz-plane, and five units above the xy-plane. 40. Endpoints of a diameter: (−2, 4, −5), (−4, 0, 3)
10. The point is located seven units in front of the yz-plane, 41. Center: (−7, 7, 6), tangent to the xy-plane
two units to the left of the xz-plane, and one unit below the
42. Center: (−4, 0, 0), tangent to the yz-plane
xy-plane.
11. The point is located on the x-axis, 12 units in front of the Finding the Equation of a Sphere In Exercises 43–46,
yz-plane. complete the square to write the equation of the sphere in
12. The point is located in the yz-plane, three units to the right of standard form. Find the center and radius.
the xz-plane, and two units above the xy-plane. 43. x2 + y2 + z2 − 2x + 6y + 8z + 1 = 0
Using the Three-Dimensional Coordinate System In 44. x2 + y2 + z2 + 9x − 2y + 10z + 19 = 0
Exercises 13– 24, determine the location of a point (x, y, z) that 45. 9x2 + 9y2 + 9z2 − 6x + 18y + 1 = 0
satisfies the condition(s).
46. 4x2 + 4y2 + 4z2 − 24x − 4y + 8z − 23 = 0
13. z = 1 14. y = 6
Finding the Component Form of a Vector in Space In
15. x = −3 16. z = −5 Exercises 47 and 48, (a) find the component form of the vector v,
17. y < 0 18. x > 0 (b) write the vector using standard unit vector notation, and
(c) sketch the vector with its initial point at the origin.
∣∣
19. y ≤ 3 ∣∣
20. x > 4
z z
21. xy > 0, z = −3 22. xy < 0, z = 4 47. 48.
23. xyz < 0 24. xyz > 0 6 6
4 4
Finding the Distance Between Two Points 2 (4, 0, 3) 2
(2, 4, 3) v (0, 5, 1)
in Space In Exercises 25–28, find the distance v
(4, 2, 1) y 2 y
between the points. 6
4
4 6
6 6
25. (4, 1, 5), (8, 2, 6) 26. (−1, 1, 1), (−3, 5, −3)
x x
27. (0, 2, 4), (3, 2, 8) 28. (−3, 7, 1), (−5, 8, −4)
Writing a Vector in Different Forms In Exercises 49 65. z has initial point (1, −1, 3) and terminal point (−2, 3, 5).
and 50, the initial and terminal points of a vector v are given. (a) −6i + 8j + 4k (b) 4j + 2k
(a) Sketch the directed line segment. (b) Find the component
form of the vector. (c) Write the vector using standard unit 66. z has initial point (5, 4, 1) and terminal point (−2, −4, 4).
vector notation. (d) Sketch the vector with its initial point at (a) 〈7, 6, 2〉 (b) 〈14, 16, −6〉
the origin.
Using Vectors to Determine Collinear
49. Initial point: (−1, 2, 3) Points In Exercises 67–70, use vectors to
Terminal point: (3, 3, 4) determine whether the points are collinear.
50. Initial point: (2, −1, −2)
67. (0, −2, −5), (3, 4, 4), (2, 2, 1)
Terminal point: (−4, 3, 7)
68. (4, −2, 7), (−2, 0, 3), (7, −3, 9)
Finding the Component Form of a Vector in 69. (1, 2, 4), (2, 5, 0), (0, 1, 5)
Space In Exercises 51–54, find the component 70. (0, 0, 0), (1, 3, −2), (2, −6, 4)
form and magnitude of the vector v with the given
initial and terminal points. Then find a unit vector Verifying a Parallelogram In Exercises 71 and 72,
in the direction of v. use vectors to show that the points form the vertices of a
parallelogram.
51. Initial point: (3, 2, 0) 52. Initial point: (1, −2, 4)
Terminal point: (4, 1, 6) Terminal point: (2, 4, −2) 71. (2, 9, 1), (3, 11, 4), (0, 10, 2), (1, 12, 5)
53. Initial point: (4, 2, 0) 54. Initial point: (1, −2, 0) 72. (1, 1, 3), (9, −1, −2), (11, 2, −9), (3, 4, −4)
Terminal point: (0, 5, 2) Terminal point: (1, −2, −3) Finding the Magnitude In Exercises 73–78, find the
magnitude of v.
Finding a Terminal Point In Exercises 55 and 56, the
vector v and its initial point are given. Find the terminal point. 73. v = 〈−1, 0, 1〉 74. v = 〈−5, −3, −4〉
55. v = 〈3, −5, 6〉 75. v = 3j − 5k 76. v = 2i + 5j − k
Initial point: (0, 6, 2) 77. v = i − 2j − 3k 78. v = −4i + 3j + 7k
56. v = 〈 1, − 23, 12 〉 Finding Unit Vectors In Exercises 79–82, find
Initial point: (0, 2, 52 ) a unit vector (a) in the direction of v and (b) in the
direction opposite of v.
Finding Scalar Multiples In Exercises 57 and 58, find
each scalar multiple of v and sketch its graph. 79. v = 〈2, −1, 2〉 80. v = 〈6, 0, 8〉
57. v = 〈1, 2, 2〉 81. v = 4i − 5j + 3k 82. v = 5i + 3j − k
(a) 2v (b) −v Finding a Vector In Exercises 83–86, find the vector v with
(c) 32 v (d) 0v the given magnitude and the same direction as u.
58. v = 〈2, −2, 1〉 Magnitude Direction
(a) −v (b) 2v 83. v = 10 u = 〈0, 3, 3〉
(c) 12 v (d) 52 v 84. v = 3 u = 〈1, 1, 1〉
3
85. v = u = 〈2, −2, 1〉
Finding a Vector In Exercises 59– 62, find the vector z, 2
given that u = 〈1, 2, 3〉, v = 〈2, 2, −1〉, and w = 〈4, 0, −4〉. 86. v = 7 u = 〈−4, 6, 2〉
1
59. z = u − v + w 60. z = 5u − 3v − 2w Sketching a Vector In Exercises 87 and 88, sketch the
61.
1
3z − 3u = w 62. 2u + v − w + 3z = 0 vector v and write its component form.
87. v lies in the yz-plane, has magnitude 2, and makes an angle of

Parallel Vectors In Exercises 63– 66, determine
30° with the positive y-axis.
which of the vectors is/are parallel to z. Use a
graphing utility to confirm your results. 88. v lies in the xz-plane, has magnitude 5, and makes an angle of
45° with the positive z-axis.
63. z = 〈3, 2, −5〉 64. z = 12 i − 23 j + 43 k
(a) 〈−6, −4, 10〉 (a) 6i − 4j + 9k Finding a Point Using Vectors In Exercises 89 and 90,
use vectors to find the point that lies two-thirds of the way
(b) 〈 2, 〉
4
− 10 4 3
3, 3 (b) −i + 3j − 2k from P to Q.
(c) 〈6, 4, 10〉 (c) 12i + 9k
89. P(4, 3, 0), Q(1, −3, 3)
(d) 〈1, −4, 2〉 (d) 34i − j + 98 k
90. P(1, 2, 5), Q(6, 8, 2)
99. Auditorium Lights

EXPLORING CONCEPTS The lights in an auditorium are 24-pound discs of radius
91. Writing The initial and terminal points of the vector v 18 inches. Each disc is supported by three equally spaced
are (x1, y1, z1) and (x, y, z). Describe the set of all points cables that are L inches long (see figure).
(x, y, z) such that v = 4.
92. Writing Let r = 〈x, y, z〉 and r0 = 〈1, 1, 1〉. Describe
the set of all points (x, y, z) such that r − r0 = 2.
93. Writing Let r = 〈x, y, z〉. Describe the set of all L
points (x, y, z) such that r > 1.
18 in.
94. HOW DO YOU SEE IT? Determine (x, y, z)

for each figure. Then find the component form (a) Write the tension T in each cable as a function of L.
of the vector from the point on the x-axis to the Determine the domain of the function.
point (x, y, z). (b) Use a graphing utility and the function in part (a) to
(a) z (b) z
complete the table.
(0, 3, 3)
(4, 0, 8)
(x, y, z) L 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
(x, y, z)
T
y y
(0, 3, 0) (0, 4, 0) (c) Use a graphing utility to graph the function in part (a).
(4, 0, 0) Determine the asymptotes of the graph.
(3, 0, 0)
x x (d) Confirm the asymptotes of the graph in part (c)
analytically.
(e) Determine the minimum length of each cable when a
95. Using Vectors Consider two nonzero vectors u and v,
cable is designed to carry a maximum load of 10 pounds.
and let s and t be real numbers. Describe the geometric figure
generated by connecting the terminal points of the three
vectors tv, u + tv, and su + tv.
100. Think About It Suppose the length of each cable in
96. Using Vectors Let u = i + j, v = j + k, and Exercise 99 has a fixed length L = a and the radius of each
w = au + bv. disc is r0 inches. Make a conjecture about the limit lim− T
r0 →a
(a) Sketch u and v. and give a reason for your answer.
(b) If w = 0, show that a and b must both be zero. 101. Load Supports Find the tension in each of the
supporting cables in the figure when the weight of the crate
(c) Find a and b such that w = i + 2j + k.
is 500 newtons.
(d) Show that no choice of a and b yields w = i + 2j + 3k.
z C
97. Diagonal of a Cube Find the component form of the unit 45 cm 70 cm
D
vector v in the direction of the diagonal of the cube shown in B C
65 cm 60 cm
the figure. y
x 18 ft
z 115 cm
z
A A
D B
100 6 ft 8 ft
10 ft
v
− 50
Figure for 101 Figure for 102
y y
102. Construction A precast concrete wall is temporarily
x 75 kept in its vertical position by ropes (see figure). Find the
⏐⏐v⏐⏐= 1 x
total force exerted on the pin at position A. The tensions in
Figure for 97 Figure for 98 AB and AC are 420 pounds and 650 pounds, respectively.
98. Tower Guy Wire The guy wire supporting a 100-foot 103. Geometry Write an equation whose graph consists of the
tower has a tension of 550 pounds. Using the distance shown set of points P(x, y, z) that are twice as far from A(0, −1, 1)
in the figure, write the component form of the vector F as from B(1, 2, 0). Describe the geometric figure represented
representing the tension in the wire. by the equation.
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one, was a very sensible idea, as I certainly felt I should be much
more comfortable in a house I could call my own, without interfering
with the ways and the convenience of others. Miriam was particularly
anxious that I should make myself as much “at home” with her, as
possible; still I found, that Walderheros and myself occupied the
whole house, to the exclusion of her and her two children. For the
accommodation thus afforded me, I paid a rent treble the amount of
what she would have received from any one else; three ahmulahs a-
week is considered a most extravagant price for lodgings in Shoa,
and I gave Miriam two dollars a month, being ten ahmulahs a-week.
Unfortunately for me, Lieut. Barker had resided in the same house
nearly four months, and having always had a plentiful supply of cash,
I could see my economical housekeeping greatly disappointed the
expectation of Miriam’s friends, who, on my taking up my quarters in
her house had congratulated her on the favour of Allah, which was
so evidently shown to her by another “Gypt” coming to reside with
her.
The poor woman herself, however, was very thankful for the few
salt pieces I could offer her weekly, and being sensible that it was
only because I had not more to give, she never annoyed me with
hints of disappointed expectations, or invidious comparisons with the
habits of my predecessor; although others, who had no business to
expect anything from me, were much less delicate in their allusions
to the liberality of the “Kapitan,” who, to judge by the kind inquiries
respecting him, made by male and female, old and young, seemed
to have been a universal favourite among the inhabitants of Aliu
Amba.
Walderheros, whose greatest weakness was to be considered the
servant of a most powerful and influential master, felt any sneers at
my poverty a great deal more acutely than myself, and which, after
all, he generally excited himself, by his assumption of importance,
and the affectation of swearing by my name, “Ahkeem e moot,” “may
the doctor die,” if a thing was not so and so, as if I had been a
magnate of the land; for besides swearing by the life of the Negoos
upon all important matters, the dependents of Abyssinian noblemen
are accustomed, in private life, or on trivial occasions, to asseverate
the truth of anything by similar imprecations upon the lives of their
masters. This practice has not a bad effect upon a listening stranger,
being a very pleasing characteristic of the natural affection that ought
to exist between master and servant.
Several affronts that Walderheros had received about my
economy, and the small establishment I kept up, determined him at
length to put it to Tinta himself, if such a scandalous little place I lived
in was fit for a friend of the Negoos, and as I supported this
expostulation by a direct request to have a proper domicile
appointed for me during my stay in Shoa, my worthy balderabah
undertook to see the Negoos next day about the matter. This was so
far satisfactory to Walderheros, who could now talk about nothing
else but my new house, and a large garden which was to be
attached to it, and where, according to his account, teff grass,
jowarhee, and cayenne pepper plants would all flourish most
advantageously, especially as regarded my expenditure. According
to his account, there could be no question about the success of my
housekeeping. Everything was propitious, and he amused me by the
manner in which he used to endeavour to convince me how
comfortable we should be. He had a wife, and he had a slave girl,
caught by himself on some Galla expedition; besides these, I was to
buy a donkey, and then there was himself, all of whom were to work
like horses, and save me three ahmulahs a-week, about seven-
pence halfpenny, and, in fact, my whole expenditure, by his making
out, was to be a dollar a-month, one-half for his wages during that
time, and the remainder for the purchase of poultry and sheep.
Tinta, in two or three days, brought a reply from the Negoos, that I
was to look out what house would suit me, and if I were well enough
to visit him at Ankobar, where he was coming to from Angolahlah, in
the course of the week, he would then give the necessary directions
to put me in possession of my choice.
Night and morning we were now to be seen, Walderheros and
myself, slowly walking along the narrow confined lanes in search of a
house that would suit us. I leaning upon him on one hand, and in the
other, to assist in supporting my weakened frame, I carried a slender
rod, about seven feet long, called a “zank,” in common use, as an
aid when walking, by the people of Shoa. We visited every vacant
house in the town to examine their condition and character, and
occupied ourselves entirely by suggesting alterations and repairs, or
devising sundry projects of domestic comfort, in connexion with the
expected grant by the Negoos of the one which I should prefer. For
five or six days we thus amused ourselves, and when the eve of the
day came on which I was to see the Negoos at Ankobar, we were as
far from having come to a decisive choice, as upon the first day we
commenced the search. Some were too old, some stood in a
crowded neighbourhood, the repairs of others would have required
an outlay of five or six dollars, here the thatch was nearly all gone,
and there the garden was too small, and the last was worse than all,
for, by a curious accident, the roof settled down on the top of us as
we entered, the wattled wall on the outside giving way as we pushed
open the dilapidated door to get in. There was not one, in fact, that I
could fix my mind upon, and Walderheros being equally difficult to
please, we might have continued a long time without coming to a
decision, had not the next day’s visit to the Negoos rendered it
necessary to fix upon some one, that I might be prepared to answer
the Negoos’s usual question, “What is it you desire?” in return for the
memolagee or offering I had prepared for his acceptance, and which,
as it was of a peculiar kind, it shall be treated of in the next chapter.
CHAPTER XIII.
Custom of giving Memolagee.—Sugar boiling.—Success.—Gratify
the Negoos.—Receive house.—Claims of kindred.—Remarks
upon intestate property.—The two brothers of late owner.—
Removal to new residence.
A custom exists in every Abyssinian court, which requires that no
one shall go empty handed into the presence of royalty. Every visitor
to the Negoos of Shoa in this manner brings with him some present,
which, after having been registered by an officer appointed for that
purpose, is deposited at the feet of the monarch. In return, it is
expected that some request on the part of the inferior is to be
graciously acceded to, and if what is asserted be true, the Negoos is
obliged by the law of custom to consent to whatever is asked, should
he accept, in the first instance, the proffered gift. A monstrous
exaggeration of this system of presenting gifts, to be returned by
some greater amount of property, is, at all events, practised very
considerably, by the Abyssinians, upon ignorant strangers, for the
custom is not confined to an interchange of favours with royalty, but
is general also among all classes. I have myself frequently been
imposed upon, or at least have had attempts made to impose upon
me in this manner, when ridiculously small presents were offered,
and then on my acceptance followed some exorbitant request. A
memolagee of eggs, for example, would usher in a modest demand
for as many dollars; when, from a calculation I have frequently made,
one of the latter would purchase one thousand eggs, at the rate of
five eggs for a needle, of which two hundred could be bought for a
dollar. Again, a jar of ale, containing about five gallons, which would
cost the third of an ahmulah, or salt-piece, or the third of two-pence
halfpenny, would be deemed quite a sufficient gift to ask in return a
slave girl, or a mule. To prevent all mistakes, after I had discovered
that I had given considerable offence, in some cases, by refusing
what had been demanded, I made it a rule to know previously to my
accepting it, what was the object for which the memolagee was
offered, and even then it was very seldom I would consent to give
more than the market value of the pumpkins, water melons, and
smuggled honey, which generally constituted these propitiatory
offerings.
The memolagee I had prepared for this visit to the Negoos, at
Ankobar, was about two pounds of sugar which I had managed to
manufacture from cane growing in the neighbourhood of Aliu Amba. I
calculated upon the effect that such a present would have upon the
naturally sagacious mind of the gifted monarch of Shoa, and that the
usefulness of such an article, introduced as a manufactured product
of his own country, would strike him as being of more importance
than many richer presents, the use and value of which he could not,
from the circumstances of his situation, have any idea of.
On my arrival in Shoa, I found that the Wallasmah Mahomed
cultivated sugar-cane in a valley, at the foot of the prison hill of
Guancho, and that he supplied the table of the Negoos with it as a
sweetmeat, small pieces being cut off with a knife, and masticated
as I have seen the inhabitants of Ceylon enjoying it. Whilst staying at
Miriam’s house, I conceived the project of boiling down some sugar
as a mode of employing myself when confined indoors by the fever,
or the wet weather. For this purpose I sent Walderheros to the
Wallasmah with a canister of gunpowder as a memolagee for some
sugar-cane, and got in return as much as my zealous servant could
stand under, considering that he had to carry the bundle upon his
head and shoulders for nearly six miles, along roads of no ordinary
kind in the wet season, for that rich, greasy, slipperiness of surface,
where toes well stuck into the mud, alone admits of any chance of
the barefooted wayfarer, pulling himself up the steep “banks and
braes” he has to surmount.
Possessing no means of crushing the cane properly, I was obliged
to have resort to simply pounding it in a large wooden mortar, two or
three of which, of different sizes, are generally to be found in every
house in Shoa. Miriam, her son, Walderheros, and myself occupied
ourselves one day peeling and slicing the long stalks before we
could place the cut-up cane in the mortar, and then we were
employed two days more in triturating it, during which process a little
water was added to take up the saccharine juice, and to free it,
according to my idea, more readily from the cane. Two handsful of
the beaten mass were then placed at a time, in one of my towels,
which being folded up, the two extremities were collected together,
and by dint of a great deal of twisting and screwing by two of us, we
managed to force out the liquid portion, leaving a hard round ball of
woody fibrous substance, which, however, had been pounded
sufficiently fine to receive and retain, very visibly, the diaper pattern
of the cloth in which it was strained. These refuse cakes were very
greedily eaten by some goats, and I dare say, such food would be
highly nutritious to animals. The expressed juice having been
received into my copper cooking vessels, they were placed
uncovered upon a low fire, where they continued until more than
one-half of the liquid portion was driven off. The remainder was then
poured into some shallow earthenware dishes, which, with stones
carefully placed under the lower edges of the vessels, to obviate the
inconvenient slope, were exposed upon the conical roof of the
house, to the evaporating influence of the temporary and dodging
glimpses of sunshine, that struggled through the vast number of
clouds, which at this season of the year obscured the sky.
How well I recollect my querulous anxiety, and the patient
watchfulness of Walderheros, as all day long we were obliged to be
on the expectant quick move, to bring out of the passing showers
these evaporating dishes, and which, at length, we were obliged to
submit to the continued action of a slow fire indoors to effect our
object, for we discovered, that what between the moisture in the air,
and the frequent falls of rain the season was not at all propitious for
sugar making. In the end we succeeded in obtaining about two
pounds of very excellent brown sugar, as the result of our joint
labours, and very well pleased all parties were with their success.
It was curious to observe the interest that was taken in the
process by the inhabitants of Aliu Amba, nearly all of whom visited
me during the three or four days we were employed, and not a few
insisted upon helping us. Of these latter, Walderheros was especially
jealous, as he wished all the honour and glory as the actual
manufacturer to devolve upon himself, giving me only the credit of
knowing how it should be done, and of directing him. When the
sugar had crystallized and assumed the shape of the much-desired
luxury, a new class of visitors then came begging for a little as a
medicine for their sick children, and these became so numerous, and
I could not well refuse their request, that at last Walderheros, in
despair, complained to Tinta, who had all along been much
interested in the success of the experiment, and who immediately
came, and advised me to put the sugar into his charge, if I wished to
save any for the Negoos.
Here I must observe, that although the very simple art of
extracting the sugar from the cane was unknown to the inhabitants
generally of Shoa, still a few visitors from Ankobar, and a messenger
from the Negoos, who had been sent to Aliu Amba on purpose to
learn if the rumour was true which had reached the palace, that I
was engaged in this manufacture, had seen Shoan sugar before.
These assured me that the French traveller, M. Rochet d’Hericourt,
when he was in Shoa, had made sugar for the Negoos, so that
although I observed on this occasion great ignorance of a simple but
important art among the Shoans, still I do not wish to be understood
as claiming the honour of having first introduced sugar-making into
their country.
It was fortunate for me that I had thus turned my attention to
subjects likely to benefit the good people of Shoa, for as it so
happened, in the middle of the night, I was attacked with a paroxysm
of fever so violent that it quite disabled me for the rest of the next
day, and prevented me making any attempt to proceed to Ankobar.
As, however, I had sent word by the messenger of the Negoos that I
was coming, and my balderabah Tinta had arranged everything for
our starting together by sunrise, I considered that it would be as well
to send my servant with the sugar, and a verbal message to the
Negoos, stating why I could not attend myself in person. Tinta also
considered, that circumstanced as I was, it would be the best plan
for me to adopt, and readily agreed to accompany Walderheros, and
explain my wishes respecting the house. After a little conversation,
we also fixed upon the one most likely to suit me, and they then
departed with the sugar, which I had packed up for them in an old tin
powder-canister.
They returned early in the afternoon attended by a long train of
Tinta’s servants, and three palace affaroitsh, bearing presents of
wheaten bread, honey, and a jar of preserved butter called “natta
kibbee,” the only kind that can be obtained in Shoa during the times
of the rains.
The reception of my balderabah and envoy, Walderheros, at the
palace had been most nattering, and my request for a house
complied with immediately by the gratified monarch, who also
ordered one of the affaroitsh to remain in Aliu Amba to see me
comfortably settled in my new quarters.
The next morning was a very busy one for Walderheros, as from
my illness everything had devolved upon him. He had first to arrange
with two surviving sisters of the late owner of the house, who came
forward to claim sundry articles of furniture that had remained in the
house after the death of their brother. In Shoa, when a man dies,
leaving no male heirs, the King takes all that he died possessed of;
even the widow and female children have no claim to anything but
that which is granted to them by the justice and compassion of the
monarch. These relations are, however, so far considered, that a
small “memolagee” only is expected, and they are then generally
allowed to retain the personal property of the deceased, but the
landed estate is always retained and granted to some other male
servitor capable of bearing arms. This concession, small as it is,
does not extend to other ties of kindred, for a person dying and
leaving only sisters or brothers, all kinds of property possessed by
the deceased is seized by the governor of the town in which he had
resided, for the benefit of the Negoos, and an account of all such
intestate property is annually drawn up by that officer. When a
governor himself dies, before his successor takes office, an
inventory of every thing contained in a large store house is made,
and sometimes all the articles, generally household furniture, are
taken to be examined by the Negoos, who, retaining the most
valuable himself, returns the remainder to the charge of the new
governor. From these repositories are rewarded minor meritorious
acts, and sometimes the things are exposed to sale by a kind of
auction, and thus disposed of. It is not unusual for household
furniture and utensils, instead of being carried to the gimjon bait, the
King’s store house, the only public building found in the towns and
villages of Shoa, to be allowed to remain in the house to which they
have belonged, and in that case, the next holder upon whom the
King has conferred it, comes in for these conveniences. It was so in
my case, for I found that I had not only obtained possession of a
house, but found it ready furnished also. One little drawback from my
apparent good fortune was the circumstance that everything was in
such a dilapidated and rotten condition, that I was not surprised at
the governor not insisting upon such rubbish being taken to that
general repository, the “gimjon bait.” The fact is, the good people of
Shoa manage, as in every other country, to remedy by some
conventional subterfuge any political or social injustice; and here,
where the descent of property is diverted from its natural course by
an arbitrary custom, the evil is counteracted by the exchange, during
illness, of everything valuable in furniture or household utensils with
near relations, for the most worthless description of the same
articles, so that in case of death the Negoos gets a very sorry
collection as the heir-at-law to the deceased.
No sooner did Tinta proceed to the house to put Walderheros in
possession, than the two women, sisters of the late possessor, came
forward, and improving upon the general system, of making the
exchange of old worn out things for nearly new ones, they now
appealed to a cloud of witnesses, who took part with them, to testify
that many of the jars, baking pans, and instruments for clearing and
spinning cotton that were in the house, absolutely belonged to them,
and which at various times they had lent to their deceased brother.
Tinta, to prove his devotion to me, for being now considered to be in
great favour with the Negoos, my friendship was valuable, demurred
to the claims of the women; but Walderheros, who knew me a little
better, put an end to their vociferous claims, and recommending
them to see me upon the subject, said it would probably be all
settled satisfactorily without a complaint being made to the Negoos,
which had been threatened by Tinta.
The market value of every thing that formed their claim did not
amount to half a dollar, but as the matter seemed to interest all the
inhabitants of the town, it must have been considered of some
importance in their eyes, so when they came to appeal to me, and I
fully understood, by the interpretation of some Arabs resident in Aliu
Amba, what it was that was required, I told the two women they had
my consent to take away whatever they chose, only to be quick
about it, so that on the morrow I might enter upon my new
possession without any more trouble.
July 23d.—This morning, my house having been well swept and
dusted, I was summoned by Walderheros to come and superintend
all other arrangements myself. I managed to walk down from
Miriam’s, and a new large alga, or bedstead, had been sent from the
King’s store for my use. It was placed for the present in the garden,
an ox skin, as usual, being spread over it, so I had nothing to do but
to throw myself upon it, and as my boxes and cooking utensils were
brought in, direct Walderheros where to place them. Fortunately, no
rain fell this day, and my new neighbours, anxious to testify their
happiness to have me among them, kept thronging into the garden,
amusing themselves also by surveying the premises, suggesting
repairs and improvements with the most officious good feeling
possible. As all the inhabitants around were Mahomedans, several of
my visitors sent to their houses for their gourd shell water pipes, and
placing large stones beneath them, took up their several positions in
a semicircle around the front of my bed. Miriam, to whom I had given
three dollars, pleasingly surprised at receiving so much, seemed
most anxious that I should be comfortably settled in my new
residence, her son helping Walderheros in arranging everything
properly, whilst she busied herself preparing coffee for my numerous
visitors.
I was tired and worn out by the time sunset sent them to their
several homes, and left me to move into the house, where I sat upon
one of my boxes until the alga had been forced into a narrow recess
between the double walls, and my bed reported by the indefatigable
Walderheros to be at length ready for me to retire to rest. The pretty
wife of Sheik Tigh had brought me some teff bread for supper, as
she expected there would be a deal too much for us to do on the first
day of my removal, not to feel obliged to any one taking the trouble
of baking off our hands. The “wort,” or cayenne soup being also
prepared, after a light Abyssinian supper, I slept better than I
expected, or could have hoped for.
CHAPTER XIV.
Division of time.—My new servant, Goodaloo.—Thatching house.—
Islam assistants.—Kindness of Tinta.—Finish roof.—Feast upon
the occasion.—Remarks upon practice of eating raw meat.
The Abyssinians divide the day and night into eight portions of three
hours each, and as they commence their fasts the evening
preceding, it is to be presumed that they begin a new day at sunset,
like the Jews and Arabs. Three hours after sunset is leilet, “evening,”
all the time intervening between nine o’clock and twelve being so
called. From “night’s noon,” or aculilielet, until duro-oitshiart,
“cockcrow,” is another term of three hours, and from cockcrow to
twart, “sunrise,” is three more; after twart is arrafat, or “nine o’clock;”
then aculican, “mid-day,” between which and sunset is tuzziart, or
“afternoon.”
During the first night after taking possession of my new house,
about the hour of “duro-oitshiart,” (here let the reader learn a little
Amharic), I was awakened, by a loud thunder-storm, to the
disagreeable discovery that my new residence was not water-proof,
for the roof admitted a great deal more rain than it threw off, and had
not Walderheros constructed a kind of pent-house over my bed with
a stiffly-dried ox-hide, I should have been very soon wet through.
The necessity, too, of having some kind of candle or other on
emergencies, was forcibly suggested to us, by the difficulty we
experienced in getting the damp fire-wood lighted, by the blaze of
which alone we could see to arrange our substitutes for umbrellas.
Walderheros, however, soon overcame all difficulties, and after
extending his bed, the aforesaid skin, over me for my protection, he
coiled himself up under a huge Amharic shield, tilted upon its edge,
and supported by a stick in that position.
It is unnecessary to say we did not go to sleep again, but kept
talking away about what we would do to the roof, as soon as the sun
had risen, and we could only get out. Accordingly by twart (sunrise),
Walderheros had started on a long walk nearly to Ankobar to get
some straw, and also to engage a “wandum,” that is, a near relation
of his whom I had determined, at his request, to receive as an
additional servant. His wages were to be only five ahmulahs a-
month, about one shilling and a half-penny, and as he was stated to
be the very first of all modern thatchers, I did not consider this an
extravagant demand, particularly as I required his services so much
at this time.
“Wandum” is, strictly speaking, brother, but with the Shoans it is
used as a general term for all male relatives. An uncle is the
“wandum,” of the mother or father, as the case may be, whilst
cousins, especially between opposite sexes, appear to be more
affectionately related than our brothers or sisters. A friend is called
“wordage,” a name derived from some relation between them and
one’s own bowels, “word,” signifying that viscera, which reminded
me of a scriptural passage, where, describing the affection of some
one for another, it is said that “his bowels yearned towards him.”
“Bal-ingero,” is another expressive term for a companion, signifying
“the possessor or sharer of bread.” And as I am on the subject, I may
mention, that an additional term of friendly relationship among this
very social people, is derived from the circumstance of the marriage
tie in this country, being but very loosely observed. “Leech enart,”
mother’s child, is sometimes bestowed upon a very dear friend, as
being expressive of a great deal more affection than “Leech abat,”
father’s child.
By “arrafat,” nine o’clock, a.m., Walderheros, and his wandum,
Goodaloo, appeared at the rude misshapen wicket in the small ring
fence of jowarree stalks, that enclosed my garden. Both were
bending beneath huge bundles of the straw-like cimbyllal grass, but
being too large to admit of passing through the narrow entrance,
they were thrown down in the little lane that led from my house, and
from a few other neighbouring ones, into the principal street on our
side of the town, to the market-place.
Goodaloo, was spare, short, and active, seemingly designed by
nature for the ticklish occupation he professed; for the frail stick
skeleton roof, when divested of the old straw, looked as if it would
have given way beneath the foot of a cat. After a professional
survey, and a most important consultation with Tinta, his deputy, a
Christian like himself, and half-a-dozen rich Islam inhabitants, it was
determined to be most advisable, that only a portion of the roof
should be renewed at once, so that I might have the shelter, either of
the old or of the newly finished roof, to sleep under, during the three
days required to put all to rights. The Governor and his Deputy,
however, were the only useful members of this Council, for the
former directed his servants to supply me with the necessary grass,
whilst the latter assisted Goodaloo in thatching. The Islam
gentlemen, with the cool dignity which, somehow or other, they do
assume most naturally, sat down upon the skins brought for that
purpose, and proceeded to call for coffee, and to give directions to
their Christian superiors, in a manner that would have delighted
Satan himself, to have observed, if he takes any pleasure at all, in
seeing honest, simple humility, treated with the most evident
contempt.
All this time, I was glad to keep out of the way, lying upon the alga
inside; but when actual business commenced, I began to think I must
retreat into the open air. Black, sooty flakes, now began to fall thickly
from the glistening well-smoked roof frame, which consisted of long
bamboo canes, that diverging from an elevated centre spread
around in a wide circumference, to rest upon a round wattled wall of
sticks and mud. To this annoyance, was soon added falling bits of
rotten thatch, that descended upon my bare head and shoulders,
until I could stand it no longer, but rushed out of the dirty mess and
seated myself upon a quantity of clean straw near to my
Mahomedan visitors, who appeared to have made my garden a
public café, for they kept coming and going all day, staying a little to
watch if the proceedings were going on to their satisfaction, and
aiding, to the extent of an “Inshallah” (please God), “it would be
finished by to-morrow.”
Before evening, one-third of the roof was well covered in, for as I
had promised to give a couple of sheep at the conclusion of the
business, to the servants of Tinta, they worked away at his cimbyllal
grass, as if it had been all my own; and had I not inwardly resolved
to return his kindness in some way or other, my conscience would
have often induced me to call out, “Hold! enough!”
July 30th.—By cock-crow again Tinta’s servants were at my gate
with straw, and Walderheros and Goodaloo went out to recommence
upon the roof. We continued to be highly favoured by the weather,
only a slight shower or two interrupting the otherwise bright sunshine
in which I lay basking on my straw couch all day. A thick mist
enveloped the whole length of the Ankobar range in front, which
seemed to attract all the clouds, or at least condensed the moisture
in the atmosphere to the west of Aliu Amba, leaving the more
favoured country to the east beneath a clear and beautiful sky. The
heavy bank of fog, however, prognosticated rain to us, and every
time it caught the eye of Walderheros, he seemed to move as quickly
again, as he supplied with fast filled arms the bundles of cimbyllal to
the two workmen upon the roof. So expeditiously, indeed, did all
proceed, that before sunset the whole was finished, although, for
farther security and ornament, another day’s labour was required,
which was promised with much self-gratulation by Goodaloo, who
confidently asserted that had the house been thatched for the
Negoos himself, it could not have been done more quickly or more
scientifically.
It being too late, and the men too tired to kill and dress sheep,
Tinta’s servants partook, as last evening, of a plain repast with
Goodaloo and Walderheros, consisting only of dry teff pancakes, and
a sop or two in a shallow earthenware vessel of the cayenne soup.
To improve this very poor dinner, I gave Walderheros an ahmulah to
get some “tallah,” and he bought for that sum about fifteen gallons of
excellent ale. This he and two of his companions brought into the
house in three large jars, a girl following with the ahmulah, which, I
expect, she had changed for one of her mother’s smallest, and after
spanning the salt-piece before my face, with a very lackadaisical
look, intimated that it was a very thin one, and she hoped I would
give her a larger one instead. Walderheros, who was just as cunning
as any of his countrymen or women either, always kept the
ahmulahs he received in exchange for dollars in two bags, one
containing the larger, the other the smaller ones. With the former,
sheep and tobacco were purchased, as for these commodities none
but the best ahmulahs are taken, whilst the latter were generally
given in return for services performed by any of the neighbours, and
which I paid for, according to Walderheros’s idea, far too liberally. In
the present case, on my telling the girl she should choose for herself,
down came the bag containing the little ones, the trick of which I was
not then aware, and after a long search, none pleasing the lady, she
withdrew, keeping the one which had been originally given to her.
One of the jars being now placed upon a low chair that had come
to me as a memolagee for some medicine, a long mekanet, or girdle,
from the loins of one of the party was carefully wrapped around the
wide circular mouth of the jar, after the dirty dry seal of cow-dung
and clay had been removed. Over the lip of the vessel, slowly
strained through the cloth, flowed the now released liquor, which was
received into well-shaped drinking-horns of a conical form, and about
nine inches deep. One, full of the sparkling beverage, was handed to
me, Walderheros, in the first place, pouring a little into the hollow of
his hand and drinking it, as the tasters of food and of drink of old are
represented to have done previous to serving their superiors. This
little ceremonial, though its origin is entirely forgotten by the Shoans,
is never omitted by them, and we here find a custom, first
established by a fearful policy, still retained as a matter of form, and
as a dutiful obeisance of inferiors to their masters. The drinking party
sat together in the dark talking for some hours, industriously
replenishing the horns until two of the jars were emptied of their
contents, when, pretty comfortable, no doubt, Walderheros and his
friends quietly subsided upon the ground, where they had been
sitting so long; their busy talk was stayed at once, and all was soon
as still as the night should be.
July 31st.—Long before sunrise I was again disturbed by Tinta’s
servants, who were up and leaving my house to return home, so as
not to be absent at the first call of their master. This day was to be
devoted to the beautifying and adorning the new roof after the most
approved design. The broken neck of an old jar was soon found,
which served as a kind of coronet to gather the loose ends of the
thatch at the apex. Immediately below this were thrust two sticks
across each other, their projecting extremities preventing a tight
band of very pliant twigs from starting, and which beneath it had
been twisted several times around the loose ends, still farther to
secure this part of the roof, that, as the centre of the whole, was
something analogous to the key stone of an arch.
This being finished, the flat hands of Walderheros and Goodaloo
were applied to the irregular projecting straw ends of the lower edge
or circumference of the roof, which were patted gently back into one
even line, with something like the attention to detail of a careful
barber arranging the straggling hairs of a full-bottomed wig. The
circuit of the whole having been made, I was duly called upon to
inspect their work; but as I supposed that it was not so much to give
an opinion as it was to express my approbation, I took care
sufficiently to gratify them, by stating it to be my firm belief that no
“Gypt” could have done it half so well. To subdue unqualified
approbation, and that my praise should have the more importance,
as coming from a man of decidedly good taste, I suggested that a
brightly painted red earthenware crown piece to the whole, like those
used to beautify their churches, would have looked more religious,
and better than the ragged rusty looking neck of the broken jar,
which, not having been put on exactly square, but cocked a little on
one side, gave a rather saucy slovenly finish to my cottage ornée.
My indefatigable Islam friends now came to congratulate me upon
my roof being finished, and began asking about the cow, with the
blood of which I was to sanctify the door-posts, as they said, to keep
“Shaitan” from disturbing me. They contended that, to render the
charm efficacious, the animal must be killed by a Mahomedan. I
shook my head, and denied the necessity of this, or indeed of the
sacrifice at all; but I told them, as they had helped me so much, they
were very welcome to partake of the two sheep Walderheros had
already gone to purchase. They said not a word in reply, and many
of them considered my offer to be a gross insult, and stayed away
several days in consequence. However, as I had now begun to
speak a little Amharic, and did not require their assistance so much
as formerly to interpret for me, I was ungrateful enough to allow them
to come round again in their own good time.
The evening was spent by Walderheros and his friends killing the
sheep; and having boiled the meat in several earthenware vessels,
demonstrated, by a very hearty meal, that on ordinary occasions the
Shoans are as fond of cooked meat as the rest of mankind.
The customary practice of eating it raw, so singular, and
apparently so characteristic of a barbarous and savage disposition,
has, in Abyssinia, a natural inducement for its indulgence, which, I
think, is an apt illustration of the manner, in which man is led
instinctively, to the employment of such means within his reach, to
enable him fully to enjoy life, under whatever circumstances of
situation he may be placed.
The difference of food between the inhabitants of the Arctic region
and those of low intertropical countries is so great, that it has not
failed to strike physiologists, who have, from the comparison, been
led to the knowledge of an important truth in the natural economy of
man. It has been observed that human life is supported in these
opposite extremes of situation by different kinds of food, and that
whilst in the north, blubber and enormous quantities of raw meat are
devoured by the natives, that in the torrid zone, vegetables constitute
the principal diet. The reason is, that during the process of digestion
a considerable amount of natural heat is engendered in the system,
and this is found to be determined in quantity by the nature of the
food. An entirely fleshy diet occasions the development of its
maximum, and contributes materially to the comfort of man in cold
situations, whilst, on the contrary, vegetables are scarcely able to
excite sufficient heat necessary to convert them into nutriment; and,
in fact, beneficent nature has provided for such a want, by supplying
in hot climates a sort of artificial warmth, in the stimulating aromatics
which are the characteristic productions of the torrid zone.
The high table land of Abyssinia, although situated between the
tropic of Cancer and the equator, from its great elevation of ten
thousand feet or more above the level of the sea, possesses a
climate which is not less cold than that of the northern parts of
Scotland. Being a country but poorly wooded, the chief supply of fuel
being the dung of cattle, an instinctive feeling dependent upon the
pleasures of a state of warmth, has taught the Abyssinians that the
flesh of animals eaten raw is a source of great physical enjoyment,
by the cordial and warming effects upon the system produced by its
digestion, and to which I am convinced bon vivants more civilized
than the Abyssinians would resort if placed in their situation.
Travellers who have witnessed their “brunde” feasts can attest the
intoxicating effects of this kind of food, and they must have been
astonished at the immense quantities that can be eaten in the raw
state, compared to that when the meat is cooked, and at the
insensibility which it sometimes produces. Eating raw meat,
therefore, a usual practice with the Esquimaux, and which among
them is an absolute necessity, by the Abyssinians is considered a
luxury, or in fact as a kind of dissipation, for eating it in that state is
only indulged in by them at festivals, and it is then taken as a means
of enjoyment, and is not more barbarous or disgusting than getting
tipsy upon strong drinks.
CHAPTER XV.
Market day in Aliu Amba.—Toll of wares.—Court of Piepoudre.—
Appearance of the market.—The salt money.—Character of the
different vendors.—The prices of several articles.—No Jews in
Abyssinia.
July 29.—The next Friday, feeling somewhat stronger, I determined
to accompany Walderheros to the market-place. As in England, the
days of such weekly meetings, for the convenience of sale or barter,
vary in the towns of Shoa. In Aliu Amba the Mahomedan Sabbath is
found most convenient, whilst Ankobar market is held on Saturdays,
and in other places Mondays or Tuesdays are the appointed days.
Nothing, I think, characterizes a peaceful people, or a healthy social
condition, more than these weekly meetings for the mutual
convenience of buyers and sellers. The security of property is so
apparent, honest industry and prudent economy so evident, that
even in the most unfavourable positions for the increase of
knowledge, and the advance of civilization, wherever these
evidences of a people’s foresight and good disposition exist, I never
despair, but that when other more favourable opportunities are
vouchsafed, the soil will not be found unfruitful of the good seed that
may be scattered upon it. This struck me the more forcibly, from my
previous sojourn in Adal; for with what different feelings did I witness
the busy restlessness, and the not inharmonious murmur, of the
multitude of smiling contented beings that were gathered in the
market-place to-day, from those I have experienced, when startled
by the sudden cry, the confused rush to arms, and the silent
squatting of my Dankalli associates, either in the sullen muttering
calahm circle, or else, as with loud yells of defiance, they formed the
line of immediate fight; either of which characterized the only public
assemblies I ever witnessed among them.

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applications used in the examples and exercises. 3.1 Extrema on an Interval

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11.1 Vectors in the Plane

Component Form of a Vector

Vector Representation: Directed Line Segments

PQ  = √(3 − 0)2 + (2 − 0)2 = √13

RS  = √(4 − 1)2 + (4 − 2)2 = √13

Because PQ and RS have the same length P (0, 0) 1

segment, then the component form of the vector v represented by PQ is

v = √(q1 − p1)2 + (q2 − p2)2 Length of a vector

2. If v = 〈v1, v2 〉, then v can be represented by the directed line segment, in standard

y Component Form and Length of a Vector

Definitions of Vector Addition and Scalar Multiplication

The Granger Collection, NYC

Vector addition and scalar multiplication share many properties of ordinary

THEOREM 11.1 Properties of Vector Operations

Granger, NYC — All rights reserved.

THEOREM 11.2 Length of a Scalar Multiple

Proof Because cv = 〈cv1, cv2 〉, it follows that

THEOREM 11.3 Unit Vector in the Direction of v

u =  (v1 )v  = ∣v1 ∣v = v1 v = 1.

In Theorem 11.3, u is called a unit vector in the direction of v. The process of

Finding a Unit Vector

√( ) ( ) = √294 + 2529 = √2929 = 1.

x Standard Unit Vectors

i = 〈1, 0〉 and j = 〈0, 1〉 Standard unit vectors

Writing a Linear Combination of Unit Vectors

If u is a unit vector and θ is the angle (measured counterclockwise) from the

u v = v〈cos θ, sin θ〉 = v cos θi + v sin θj.

Vectors have many applications in physics and engineering. One example is

PQ = √(3 − 0)2 + (2 − 0)2 = √13

RS = √(4 − 1)2 + (4 − 2)2 = √13

v = √(q1 − p1)2 + (q2 − p2)2 Length of a vector

u = (v1 )v = ∣v1 ∣v = v1 v = 1.

u v = v〈cos θ, sin θ〉 = v cos θi + v sin θj.

55. u = 2, θ u = 4 56. u = 5, θ u = −0.5 u + v = √2, θ = 90° u + v = 6, θ = 120°

v = 1, θ v = 2 v = 5, θ v = 0.5 75. Resultant Force Forces with magnitudes of 500 pounds