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Flow-Induced Vibration Handbook
for Nuclear and Process Equipment
Michel J. Pettigrew, Colette E. Taylor, Nigel J. Fisher
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10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
v
Contents
Preface xv
Acknowledgments xvii
Contributors xix
1 Introduction and Typical Vibration Problems 1

Michel J. Pettigrew
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Some Typical Component Failures 2
1.3 Dynamics of Process System Components 9
1.3.1 Multi-Span Heat Exchanger Tubes 9
1.3.2 Other Nuclear and Process Components 10
Notes 10
References 10
2 Flow-Induced Vibration of Nuclear and Process Equipment: An Overview 13

Michel J. Pettigrew and Colette E. Taylor
2.1 Introduction 13
2.1.1 Flow-Induced Vibration Overview 13
2.1.2 Scope of a Vibration Analysis 14
2.2 Flow Calculations 14
2.2.1 Flow Parameter Definition 14
2.2.2 Simple Flow Path Approach 15
2.2.3 Comprehensive 3-D Approach 16
2.2.4 Two-Phase Flow Regime 18
2.3 Dynamic Parameters 18
2.3.1 Hydrodynamic Mass 18
2.3.2 Damping 19
2.4 Vibration Excitation Mechanisms 25
2.4.1 Fluidelastic Instability 25
2.4.2 Random Turbulence Excitation 27
2.4.3 Periodic Wake Shedding 31
2.4.4 Acoustic Resonance 34
2.4.5 Susceptibility to Resonance 35
vi Contents
2.5 Vibration Response Prediction 36

2.5.5 Example of Vibration Analysis 38
2.6 Fretting-Wear Damage Considerations 40
2.6.1 Fretting-Wear Assessment 40
2.6.2 Fretting-Wear Coefficients 41
2.6.3 Wear Depth Calculations 42
2.7 Acceptance Criteria 42
2.7.4 Tube-to-Support Clearance 43
2.7.6 Two-Phase Flow Regimes 43
Note 43
References 44
3 Flow Considerations 47
John M. Pietralik, Liberat N. Carlucci, Colette E. Taylor, and Michel J. Pettigrew
3.1 Definition of the Problem 47
3.2 Nature of the Flow 48
3.2.1 Introduction 48
3.2.2 Flow Parameter Definitions 50
3.2.3 Vertical Bubbly Flow 54
3.2.4 Flow Around Bluff Bodies 55
3.2.5 Shell-Side Flow in Tube Bundles 56
3.2.6 Air-Water versus Steam-Water Flows 63
3.2.7 Effect of Nucleate Boiling Noise 63
3.2.8 Summary 67
3.3 Simplified Flow Calculation 67
3.4 Multi-Dimensional Thermalhydraulic Analysis 74
3.4.1 Steam Generator 74
3.4.2 Other Heat Exchangers 78
Acronyms 81
Nomenclature 81
Subscripts 82
Notes 83
References 83
4 Hydrodynamic Mass, Natural Frequencies and Mode Shapes 87

Daniel J. Gorman, Colette E. Taylor, and Michel J. Pettigrew
4.1 Introduction 87
4.2 Total Tube Mass 88
Contents vii
4.2.1 Single-Phase Flow 89

4.2.2 Two-Phase Flow 90
4.3 Free Vibration Analysis of Straight Tubes 93
4.3.1 Free Vibration Analysis of a Single-Span Tube 94
4.3.2 Free Vibration Analysis of a Two-Span Tube 97
4.3.3 Free Vibration Analysis of a Multi-Span Tube 99
4.4 Basic Theory for Curved Tubes 100
4.4.1 Theory of Curved Tube In-Plane Free Vibration 102
4.4.2 Theory of Curved Tube Out-of-Plane Free Vibration 104
4.5 Free Vibration Analysis of U-Tubes 105
4.5.1 Setting Boundary Conditions for the In-Plane Free Vibration Analysis of U-Tubes
Possessing Geometric Symmetry 106
4.5.2 Development of the In-Plane Eigenvalue Matrix for a Symmetric U-Tube 109
4.5.3 Generation of Eigenvalue Matrices for Out-of-Plane Free Vibration Analysis
of U-Tubes Possessing Geometric Symmetry 109
4.5.4 Free Vibration Analysis of U-Tubes Which Do Not Possess Geometric
Similarity 112
4.6 Concluding Remarks 114
Nomenclature 115
References 116
5 Damping of Cylindrical Structures in Single-Phase Fluids 119

Michel J. Pettigrew
5.1 Introduction 119
5.2 Energy Dissipation Mechanisms 119
5.3 Approach 123
5.4 Damping in Gases 124
5.4.1 Effect of Number of Supports 127
5.4.2 Effect of Frequency 128
5.4.3 Vibration Amplitude 128
5.4.4 Effect of Diameter or Mass 128
5.4.5 Effect of Side Loads 128
5.4.6 Effect of Higher Modes 129
5.4.7 Effect of Support Thickness 129
5.4.8 Effect of Clearance 132
5.5 Design Recommendations for Damping in Gases 132
5.6 Damping in Liquids 133
5.6.1 Tube-to-Fluid Viscous Damping 133
5.6.2 Damping at the Supports 136
5.6.3 Squeeze-Film Damping 138
5.6.4 Damping due to Sliding 141
5.6.5 Semi-Empirical Formulation of Tube-Support Damping 143
5.7 Discussion 147
5.8 Design Recommendations for Damping in Liquids 148
5.8.1 Simple Criterion Based on Available Data 148
5.8.2 Criterion Based on the Formulation of Energy Dissipation Mechanisms 148
viii Contents
Nomenclature 149
Subscripts 150
References 151
6 Damping of Cylindrical Structures in Two-Phase Flow 155

6.2 Sources of Information 155
6.3 Approach 157
6.4 Two-Phase Flow Conditions 158
6.4.1 Definition of Two-Phase Flow Parameters 158
6.4.2 Flow Regime 161
6.5 Parametric Dependence Study 162
6.5.1 Effect of Flow Velocity 163
6.5.2 Effect of Void Fraction 163
6.5.3 Effect of Confinement 168
6.5.4 Effect of Tube Mass 168
6.5.5 Effect of Tube Vibration Frequency 168
6.5.6 Effect of Tube Bundle Configuration 169
6.5.7 Effect of Motion of Surrounding Tubes 169
6.5.8 Effect of Flow Regime 170
6.5.9 Effect of Fluid Properties 171
6.6 Development of Design Guidelines 172
6.7 Discussion 177
6.7.1 Damping Formulation 177
6.7.2 Two-Phase Damping Mechanisms 177
6.8 Summary Remarks 178
Nomenclature 178
Subscripts 179
Note 179
References 180
7 Fluidelastic Instability of Tube Bundles in Single-Phase Flow 183

7.2 Nature of Fluidelastic Instability 183
7.3 Fluidelastic Instability: Analytical Modelling 185
7.4 Fluidelastic Instability: Semi-Empirical Models 186
7.5 Approach 191
7.6 Important Definitions 191
7.6.1 Tube Bundle Configurations 191
7.6.2 Flow Velocity Definition 191
7.6.3 Critical Velocity for Fluidelastic Instability 196
7.6.4 Damping 197
7.6.5 Tube Frequency 198
Contents ix
7.7 Parametric Dependence Study 198

7.7.1 Flexible versus Rigid Tube Bundles 198
7.7.2 Damping 201
7.7.3 Pitch-to-Diameter Ratio, P/D 201
7.7.4 Fluidelastic Instability Formulation 204
7.8 Development of Design Guidelines 206
7.9 In-Plane Fluidelastic Instability 209
7.10 Axial Flow Fluidelastic Instability 212
Nomenclature 214
Subscript 214
References 215
8 Fluidelastic Instability of Tube Bundles in Two-Phase Flow 219

8.2 Previous Research 219
8.2.1 Flow-Induced Vibration in Two-Phase Axial Flow 220
8.2.2 Flow-Induced Vibration in Two-Phase Cross Flow 221
8.2.3 Damping Studies 221
8.3 Fluidelastic Instability Mechanisms in Two-Phase Cross Flow 221
8.4 Fluidelastic Instability Experiments in Air-Water Cross Flow 224
8.4.1 Initial Experiments in Air-Water Cross Flow 224
8.4.2 Behavior in Intermittent Flow 227
8.4.3 Effect of Bundle Geometry 229
8.4.4 Flexible versus Rigid Tube Bundle Behavior 230
8.4.5 Hydrodynamic Coupling 232
8.5 Analysis of the Fluidelastic Instability Results 234
8.5.1 Defining Critical Mass Flux and Instability Constant 234
8.5.2 Comparison with Results of Other Researchers 235
8.5.3 Summary of Air-Water Tests 238
8.6 Tube Bundle Vibration in Two-Phase Freon Cross Flow 239
8.6.1 Introductory Remarks 239
8.6.2 Background Information 240
8.6.3 Experiments in Freon Cross Flow 240
8.7 Freon Test Results and Discussion 244
8.7.1 Results and Analysis 244
8.7.2 Proposed Explanations 247
8.7.3 Concluding Remarks 247
8.7.4 Summary Findings 249
8.8 Fluidelastic Instability of U-Tubes in Air-Water Cross Flow 250
8.8.1 Experimental Considerations 250
8.8.2 U-Tube Dynamics 251
8.8.3 Vibration Response 251
8.8.4 Out-of-Plane Vibration 251
8.8.5 In-Plane Vibration 254
x Contents
8.9 In-Plane (In-Flow) Fluidelastic Instability 255

8.9.1 In-Flow Experiments in a Wind Tunnel 255
8.9.2 In-Flow Experiments in Two-Phase Cross Flow 255
8.9.3 Single-Tube Fluidelastic Instability Results 256
8.9.4 Single Flexible Column and Central Cluster Fluidelastic Instability Results 258
8.9.5 Two Partially Flexible Columns 258
8.9.6 In-Flow Fluidelastic Instability Results and Discussion 261
8.10 Design Recommendations 261
8.10.1 Design Guidelines 261
8.10.2 Fluidelastic Instability with Intermittent Flow 263
8.11 Fluidelastic Instability in Two-Phase Axial Flow 264
Nomenclature 265
Subscripts 266
Note 266
References 266
9 Random Turbulence Excitation in Single-Phase Flow 271

Colette E. Taylor and Michel J. Pettigrew
9.2 Theoretical Background 271
9.2.1 Equation of Motion 272
9.2.2 Derivation of the Mean-Square Response 273
9.2.3 Simplification of Tube Vibration Response 274
9.2.4 Integration of the Transfer Function 275
9.2.5 Use of the Simplified Expression in Developing Design Guidelines 275
9.3 Literature Search 277
9.4 Approach Taken 277
9.5 Discussion of Parameters 279
9.5.1 Directional Dependence (Lift versus Drag) 279
9.5.2 Bundle Orientation 279
9.5.3 Pitch-to-Diameter Ratio (P/D) 279
9.5.4 Upstream Turbulence 280
9.5.5 Fluid Density (Gas versus Liquid) 283
9.5.6 Summary 283
9.6 Design Guidelines 284
9.7 Random Turbulence Excitation in Axial Flow 287
Nomenclature 287
References 288
10 Random Turbulence Excitation Forces Due to Two-Phase Flow 291

Colette E. Taylor and Michel J. Pettigrew
10.2 Background 291
10.3 Approach Taken to Data Reduction 295
Contents xi
10.4 Scaling Factor for Frequency 296

10.4.1 Definition of a Velocity Scale 297
10.4.2 Definition of a Length Scale 298
10.4.3 Dimensionless Reduced Frequency 301
10.4.4 Effect of Frequency 301
10.5 Scaling Factor for Power Spectral Density 302
10.5.1 Effect of Flow Regime 302
10.5.2 Effect of Void Fraction 304
10.5.3 Effect of Mass Flux 306
10.5.4 Effect of Tube Diameter 306
10.5.5 Effect of Correlation Length 306
10.5.6 Effect of Bundle and Tube-Support Geometry 307
10.5.7 Effect of Two-Phase Mixture 308
10.5.8 Effect of Nucleate Boiling 310
10.6 Dimensionless Power Spectral Density 311
10.7 Upper Bounds for Two-Phase Cross Flow Dimensionless Spectra 314
10.7.1 Bubbly Flow 314
10.7.2 Churn Flow 315
10.7.3 Intermittent Flow 316
10.8 Axial Flow Random Turbulence Excitation 318
10.9 Conclusions 323
Nomenclature 324
References 325
11 Periodic Wake Shedding and Acoustic Resonance 329

David S. Weaver, Colette E. Taylor, and Michel J. Pettigrew
11.2 Periodic Wake Shedding 332
11.2.1 Frequency: Strouhal Number 332
11.2.2 Calculating Tube Resonance Amplitudes 335
11.2.3 Fluctuating Force Coefficients in Single-Phase Flow 336
11.2.4 Fluctuating Force Coefficients in Two-Phase Flow 338
11.2.5 The Effect of Bundle Orientation and P/D on Fluctuating Force
Coefficients 346
11.2.6 The Effect of Void Fraction and Flow Regime on Fluctuating Force
Coefficients 347
11.3 Acoustic Resonance 354
11.3.1 Acoustic Natural Frequencies 354
11.3.2 Equivalent Speed of Sound 355
11.3.3 Acoustic Natural Frequencies (fa)n 356
11.3.4 Frequency Coincidence — Critical Velocities 356
11.3.5 Damping Criteria 358
11.3.6 Sound Pressure Level 361
11.3.7 Elimination of Acoustic Resonance 364
xii Contents
11.4 Conclusions and Recommendations 366

Nomenclature 367
References 369
12 Assessment of Fretting-Wear Damage in Nuclear and Process Equipment 373

Michel J. Pettigrew, Metin Yetisir, Nigel J. Fisher, Bruce A.W. Smith, and Victor P. Janzen
12.2 Dynamic Characteristics of Nuclear Structures and Process Equipment 374
12.2.1 Heat Exchangers 374
12.2.2 Nuclear Structures 375
12.3 Fretting-Wear Damage Prediction 376
12.3.1 Time-Domain Approach 376
12.3.2 Energy Approach 380
12.4 Work-Rate Relationships 380
12.4.1 Shear Work Rate and Mechanical Power 380
12.4.2 Vibration Energy Relationship 381
12.4.3 Single Degree-of-Freedom System 381
12.4.4 Multi-Span Beams Under Harmonic Excitation 382
12.4.5 Response to Random Excitation 382
12.4.6 Work-Rate Estimate: Summary 384
12.5 Experimental Verification 384
12.6 Comparison to Time Domain Approach 385
12.7 Practical Applications: Examples 386
Nomenclature 392
Note 393
References 394
13 Fretting-Wear Damage Coefficients 397

Nigel J. Fisher and Fabrice M. Guérout
13.2 Fretting-Wear Damage Mechanisms 397
13.2.1 Impact Fretting Wear 397
13.2.2 Trends 398
13.2.3 Work-Rate Model 402
13.3 Experimental Considerations 404
13.3.1 Experimental Studies 404
13.3.2 Room-Temperature Test Data 404
13.3.3 High-Temperature Experimental Facility 407
13.3.4 Wear Volume Measurements 409
13.4 Fretting Wear of Zirconium Alloys 409
13.4.1 Introduction 409
13.4.2 Experimental Set-Up 410
13.4.3 Effect of Vibration Amplitude and Motion Type 412
13.4.4 Effect of Pressure-Tube Pre-Oxidation and Surface Preparation 412
Contents xiii
13.4.5 Effect of Temperature 412

13.4.6 Effect of pH Control Additive and Dissolved Oxygen Content 413
13.4.7 Discussions 414
13.5 Fretting Wear of Heat Exchanger Materials 417
13.5.1 Work-Rate Model and Wear Coefficient 417
13.5.2 Effect of Test Duration 419
13.5.3 Effect of Temperature 422
13.5.4 Effect of Water Chemistry 424
13.5.5 Effect of Tube-Support Geometry and Tube Materials 426
13.5.6 Discussion 427
13.6 Summary and Recommendations 429
Nomenclature 429
Notes 429
References 430
Component Analysis 433

Introduction 433
Analysis of a Process Heat Exchanger 435
Analysis of a Nuclear Steam Generator U-Bend 445
Subject Index 463

xv
Preface
Excessive flow-induced vibration causing failures by fatigue or fretting wear must be avoided in
process and nuclear components. That is the purpose of this handbook. In this book, the term proc-
ess components is used generally to describe nuclear reactor internals, nuclear fuels, piping sys-
tems, and all shell-and-tube heat exchangers, including nuclear steam generators, power plant
condensers, boilers and coolers.
There are already a number of good books on flow-induced vibration. So, why another one? This
handbook is to help engineers to design, operate, and diagnose heat transfer equipment. The
emphasis in this handbook is on two-phase flow-induced vibration. Despite the fact that roughly
half of all heat exchanger equipment operates in two-phase flow, previous flow-induced vibration
texts have provided limited guidance regarding vibration induced by two-phase flow. The predic-
tion of fretting-wear damage is another important priority. The state of the art is presented in the
design guidelines, figures and tables. The use of these design guidelines is illustrated with example
calculations. To assist students and new design engineers, the calculations are supplemented and
presented with more explanation in an appendix.
Largely, this handbook is the outcome of some 40 years of research and development at the Cana-
dian Nuclear Laboratories. The emphasis of this book is the presentation of design guidelines based
on extensive analysis of the literature and, in particular, on experimental data obtained in the field
and at the Canadian Nuclear Laboratories in Chalk River.
We believe that this book will be useful to engineering design firms in the nuclear, petrochemical
and aerospace industries, graduate schools in mechanical engineering and technical support groups
in operating nuclear and petrochemical plants. This handbook is not a textbook, although it could
be used as a resource in a graduate course. We also hope that this book will help to stimulate further
research in the area of two-phase flow-induced vibration.
Michel J. Pettigrew
Colette E. Taylor
Nigel J. Fisher
xvii
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to recognize the institutions and colleagues who have provided permis-
sions, support and inspiration to this project. We begin by recognizing the publishers who have
kindly given permission to use copyrighted tables and figures. Rather than add the requested rec-
ognition statements to each figure, the following general statements are provided to avoid
repetition.
• Figures from the Congress of the Engineering Institute of Canada (EIC) reprinted with permission
from the EIC.
• Figures from the International Association for Structural Mechanics in Reactor Technology
(IASMiRT) conferences reprinted courtesy of IASMiRT.
• Figures from ANL Reports, copyright by Argonne National Laboratory, managed and operated by
the University of Chicago, U.S. Department of Energy, reprinted with permission.
• Figures from the Nuclear Power Safety, the Journal of Fluids and Structures, the Journal of Sound
and Vibration, the Journal of Multiphase Flow and the Journal of Nuclear Engineering and Design,
reprinted with permission from Elsevier.
• Figures from Convective Boiling and Condensation, Oxford Publishing Limited, Oxford, GB,
reproduced with permission of Oxford Publishing Limited through PLSclear.
•• Figures from AERE reports reproduced with the permission of UKAEA Scientific Publications.
Figures from Washington State University Reports reprinted with permission from the Wash-
ington State University Libraries.
• Figures from the 8th International Heat Transfer Conference reprinted with permission from
Begell House Inc.
• Figures from the Journal of Heat Transfer Engineering and the Journal of Nuclear Science and
Engineering, reprinted with permission of the publisher (Taylor & Francis Ltd, https://www.
tand-fonline.com/)
• Figures from Atomic Energy of Canada Ltd. Reports, used with permission from AECL.
This document is based on some 40 years of research and development conducted at Chalk River
Laboratories in the area of flow-induced vibration. This technology development effort was largely
supported by Atomic Energy of Canada Limited (AECL) and by the CANDU Owners Group (COG).
It also received support from the Heat Transfer and Fluid Flow Service (HTFS), the Centre d’Etudes
Nucleaires de Saclay (CEN-Saclay), the Pressure Vessel Research Council (PVRC) and the Wash-
ington Public Power Supply System (WPPSS). The support of all these organizations is very grate-
fully acknowledged. Many people have contributed to this effort including colleagues from industry
and universities. Recognizing that we will fail to acknowledge all of our partners, we have decided
to name some of the key individuals and institutions.
xviii Acknowledgments
The authors have benefited from discussions with researchers in other institutions such as
F. Axisa and B. Villard, Centre d’Etudes Nucleaires de Saclay; H.G.D. Goyder, UKAEA Harwell;
R.T. Hartlen, Ontario Hydro; N.W. Mureithi and many graduate students at École Polytechnique,
Montreal; I.G. Currie, University of Toronto; R.J. Rogers, University of New Brunswick and
M.P. Païdoussis, McGill University.
Visiting scientists, B.S. Kim, Korea Power Engineering Company Inc., Taejon, Korea; A. Yasuo,
Central Research Institute of Electric Power Industry, Japan; and Z.L. Qiao, Xian Jiaotong Univer-
sity, China, contributed to the development of the flow-induced vibration database.
The contributors would also like to recognize the input of colleagues from the Canadian Nuclear
Laboratories throughout the past 50 years: J. Albrecht, K.M. Boucher, W.A. Cook, T. Dickinson,
P. Feenstra, E.G. Hagberg, Y. Han, G. Knowles, J. Mastorakos, J. McGregor, K. Moore, J.N. Patrick,
P.J. Smith, Y. Sylvestre, J. H. Tromp, M.K. Weckwerth, and T. Whan. These individuals ably assisted
with construction, instrumentation and installation of various flow loops and test sections, as well
as copious data analysis.
Finally, the authors wish to express our gratitude to our understanding partners in life, for allow-
ing us to take the time to write this handbook and for their moral support.
xix
Contributors
Liberat N. Carlucci John M. Pietralik

Retired, Canadian Nuclear Laboratories Retired, Canadian Nuclear Laboratories
(previously, Atomic Energy of Canada Ltd.) (previously, Atomic Energy of Canada Ltd.)
Nigel J. Fisher
Bruce A. W. Smith
Retired, Canadian Nuclear Laboratories
(previously, Atomic Energy of Canada Ltd.)
Daniel J. Gorman
Professor Emeritus, Ottawa University Colette E. Taylor
(Deceased) Retired, Canadian Nuclear Laboratories
Fabrice M. Guérout
Canadian Nuclear Laboratories
David S. Weaver
Professor Emeritus, McMaster University
Victor P. Janzen
(previously, Atomic Energy of Canada Ltd.) Metin Yetisir
Canadian Nuclear Laboratories
Michel J. Pettigrew
Principal Engineer Emeritus, Canadian
Nuclear Laboratories
Adjunct Professor, Polytechnique Montreal
1
Introduction and Typical Vibration Problems

Michel J. Pettigrew
1.1 Introduction
Excessive flow-induced vibration must be avoided in process and nuclear system components. That
is the purpose of this handbook. The term “process components” is used generally here to describe
nuclear reactor internals, nuclear fuels, piping systems, and all shell-and-tube heat exchangers,
including nuclear steam generators, power plant condensers, boilers, coolers, etc. Higher
heat-transfer performance often requires higher flow velocities and more structural supports.
On the other hand, additional supports may increase pressure drop and costs. The combination
of high flow velocities and inadequate structural support may lead to excessive tube vibration. This
vibration can cause failures by fatigue or fretting wear. Failures are very undesirable in terms of
repair costs and lost production, particularly for high-capital-cost plants such as nuclear power
stations, petroleum refineries and oil exploitation platforms. To prevent these problems at the
design stage, a thorough flow-induced vibration analysis is recommended. Such analysis requires
good understanding of the dynamic parameters and vibration excitation mechanisms that govern
flow-induced vibration.
This handbook covers all relevant aspects of component vibration technology, namely: examples
of vibration failures, flow analysis, and vibration excitation and damping mechanisms. The latter
includes fluidelastic instability, periodic wake shedding, acoustic resonance, random turbulence,
flow-induced vibration analysis and fretting-wear predictions.
Chapter 2 is an overview of flow-induced vibration technology. The reader should start with this
chapter. In many cases, Chapter 2 will be sufficient to provide the required information. Each
aspect of the technology is covered in detail in the succeeding chapters. Typically, each chapter
includes a review of the state of the art, available laboratory data, brief review of theoretical con-
siderations and modeling, parametric analysis, recommendations for design, and sample
calculations.
The performance of process components is often limited by excessive vibration in a localized area,
e.g., near inlets, outlets, etc. The combination of detailed flow calculations and vibration technology
allows the designer to avoid such problems. Flow velocities and support design can be optimized to
allow maximum heat transfer in all regions of process components, resulting in higher heat-transfer
performance, less corrosion and fouling problems and reduced component size. The latter means
capital cost reduction and a more competitive manufacturing industry.
This handbook is for the practicing engineer who is designing or troubleshooting nuclear and
process system components. Design guidelines are proposed based on extensive analysis of the
Flow-Induced Vibration Handbook for Nuclear and Process Equipment, First Edition.
Michel J. Pettigrew, Colette E. Taylor, and Nigel J. Fisher.
© 2022 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. This Work is a co-publication between ASME Press and John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
2 1 Introduction and Typical Vibration Problems
literature and, in particular, on experimental data obtained in the field and at the Canadian Nuclear
Laboratories of Atomic Energy of Canada Limited at Chalk River, Ontario, Canada. Although it is
not intended as an undergraduate text book, it could be useful as a source of design data and
practical examples. To assist students and new design engineers, the example calculations
provided throughout this handbook are supplemented and presented with more explanation in
Appendix A.
There are already several useful books on flow-induced vibration, e.g. Au-Yang (2001), Blevins
(1990), Chen (1987), Kaneko et al (2014), Naudascher and Rockwell (1994), and Païdoussis (1998).
So, why another one in the form of a handbook? This book is complementary to the above books for
the following reasons. This book has greater emphasis on design guidelines. Much experimental
data is presented in the form of comprehensive data bases that include a significant number of
two-phase flow results. Particular attention is given to damping in single- and two-phase flow,
two-phase flow-induced vibration mechanisms such as fluidelastic instability and random turbu-
lence excitation, and the prediction of fretting-wear damage. Simple examples of calculations are
given throughout the handbook.
1.2 Some Typical Component Failures
In heat exchangers, tube failures due to fretting wear may occur at the tube supports or at midspan
if the tubes vibrate with sufficient amplitude to contact each other. Figure 1-1 shows an example of
tube-to-tube fretting wear. It occurred in the U-bend of an early nuclear steam generator with tubes
that were inadequately supported near the outlet in a region of high-velocity two-phase cross flow.
Extensive fretting-wear damage was also observed between tube and tube support, as shown in
Fig. 1-2. Here, the damage was sufficient to cause a hole in the tube resulting in leakage between
tube-side and shell-side. Obviously, this kind of problem must be avoided. An additional support
near the outlet region was an easy solution to this problem.
Figure 1-3 shows extensive tube-to-tube fretting-wear damage in the inlet region of a triple seg-
mental liquid-liquid process heat exchanger. The problem was due to the combination of long tube
spans (1.45 m) and high flow velocities impinging directly on the tubes in the inlet region. Lacing
Fig. 1-1 Tube-to-Tube Fretting Wear in the U-Bend Region of an Early Nuclear Steam Generator
(Pettigrew, 1976).
Fig. 1-2 Tube-to-Support Fretting Wear: Note Hole Through Tube Wall (Pettigrew, 1976).
(b)
(a)
(c)
Fig. 1-3 Fretting Wear in the Inlet Region of a Liquid Process Heat Exchanger: a) Tube-to-Tube Initial
Damage, b) Lacing Strip, and c) Damage at Lacing Strip Location (Pettigrew, 1976).
strips were installed to support the tubes near the inlet. Unfortunately, they were excessively loose.
Fretting wear occurred between the tube and the lacing strips. Tubes wore through, as shown in
Fig. 1-4. Eventually, proper baffle-supports were installed, as shown in Fig. 1-5. No further pro-
blems occurred.
In power condensers, very-high-velocity steam may impinge on the tubes, causing excessive vibra-
tion. Figure 1-6 shows a fatigue failure of a titanium condenser tube. The vibration amplitude was
Fig. 1-4 Fretting Wear Through Tube Wall at a Lacing Strip Location in a Process Heat Exchanger (Pettigrew
et al, 1977).
ORIGINAL BAFFLES
INLET
TUBE
NEW
BAFFLES
TUBESHEET
INLET
LACING
STRIPS
HORIZONTAL
BAFFLE
NEW
BAFFLES
OUTLET
Fig. 1-5 Fretting Wear of Process Heat Exchanger: Repair (Pettigrew and Campagna, 1979 / with permission
of Atomic Energy of Canada Limited).
sufficient for the tubes to contact each other at midspan. In this case, the condenser was operated
with only four of the six tube bundles, resulting in 150% of design flow velocity. Operation at 100%
design flow did not cause any vibration damage.
Figure 1-7 shows tube-to-tube fretting-wear damage in another power condenser. In this case, the
damage was sufficient to wear through the tube wall, causing leakage of sea water into the second-
ary side of a power plant.
An example of fretting-wear damage of a tube located just beyond the baffle cut (window tube)
vibrating against a baffle edge is shown in Fig. 1-8. This tube came from a gas-to-gas heat exchanger,
Fig. 1-6 Fatigue Failure of a Titanium Tube in a Nuclear Power Plant Condenser (Pettigrew et al, 1991).
Fig. 1-7 Tube-to-Tube Fretting Wear in a Power Plant Condenser.
Fig. 1-8 Fretting Wear of a Gas Heat Exchanger Tube at a Baffle Edge Location.
Fig. 1-9 Fretting-Wear Damage on Nuclear Fuel (Hot Cell Examination) (Pettigrew, 1976).
which was inadvertently operated at several times above design flow during a commissioning
operation.
Figure 1-9 is an example of fretting wear of nuclear fuel as seen through an optical magnifier
during “hot cell” examination. The damage occurred at the top of fuel string assemblies in 40%
of the high flow fuel channels of a prototype CANDU-BLW®1 nuclear station. The fuel strings were
inserted in upward-flow vertical fuel channels where they were attached at the bottom and free at
the top. The flow in each channel became two-phase as boiling occurred along the fuel and reached
approximately 16% steam quality near the top. The mass flux was typically 4400 kg/m2 s. The fret-
ting problem was attributed to transverse flow-induced vibration of the fuel strings. Inadvertently,
some of the fuel strings were assembled eccentrically. This caused the strings to be bent and pro-
moted fretting wear. The corrective measures taken were to ensure concentric assembly of the fuel
and increase fuel string flexural rigidity to reduce vibration.
One of the most costly vibration related problems took place in the early 1990s at the Darlington
Nuclear Power Station, where nuclear fuel bundles were seriously damaged by fatigue and fretting
wear (Fig. 1-10). The cost of investigation, repairs and particularly lost production totalled approx-
imately 1 billion dollars Canadian. The problem was caused by acoustic resonance in the inlet head-
ers due to coincidence of the pump pressure pulsation frequency, (30 Hz x 5 vanes = 150 Hz) and
the natural acoustic frequency of the headers. The pressure pulsations were transmitted and ampli-
fied in the fuel channels, subjecting the fuel bundles to significant pressure fluctuations causing
extensive damage. The problem was solved by simply replacing the five-vane pump impellers by
seven-vane impellers, thus eliminating the acoustic resonance.
Sometimes vibration problems develop because of changes in operating conditions. For example,
pressurized water reactor (PWR) fuel failures occurred in the 1990s due to fretting wear between
fuel rods and support grids. The problem was related to longer fuel residence time, which caused
increased clearances between the rods and grids due to creep, and deregulation of fuel
STEAM PIPES
SECONDARY
CIRCUITS
STEAM
GENERATORS
PRESSURIZER PRIMARY PUMPS
PRIMARY PRIMARY
CIRCUIT CIRCUIT
HEADERS HEADERS
CALANDRIA
FUELLING
MACHINE
REACTOR
FUEL
LIGHT WATER STEAM

MODERATOR
LIGHT WATER CONDENSATE PUMP
HEAVY WATER COOLANT
HEAVY WATER MODERATOR
MODERATOR
HEAT EXCHANGER
Fig. 1-10 Schematic Drawing of CANDU-PHW®2 Reactor (Pettigrew, 1978 / with permission of Atomic Energy
of Canada Limited)
procurement. The latter allowed fuels from different suppliers at the same time in the reactor core.
Differences in design caused slight differences in impedance resulting in increased cross flows and,
thus, more flow-induced vibration excitation. Changes in support grid design solved this problem.
Vibration problems are not limited to material damage such as fatigue and fretting wear. For
example, excessive vibration of control absorber guide tubes due to jet impingement could have
caused a serious reactor control problem (see Fig. 1-11a). The problem was avoided by shielding
the guide tube with a protective shroud, as shown in Fig. 1-11b.
Many other vibration problems have been encountered, such as fatigue failures of PWR core bar-
rel tie rods and in-core instrumentation nozzles, excessive acoustic noise due to control valve
(a)
GENTILLY-1
CALANDRIA
ABSORBER
GUIDE TUBE
D2O
D2O
BOOSTER ROD
NOZZLE
(b)
TOP VIEW
CALANDRIA TUBE
PROTECTIVE SHROUD
BOOSTER ROD
OUTLET NOZZLE
GUIDE TUBE
Fig. 1-11 a) Control Absorber Guide Tube Vibration due to Jetting, b) Modification with Protective Shroud
(Pettigrew, 1976 / with permission of Atomic Energy of Canada Limited).
dynamics and mechanical damage resulting from acoustic resonance in gas heat exchangers.
Although most vibration problems have very costly consequences, they are usually solved by simple
design modifications or changes in operating conditions. After the fact, it is easy to see that most
problems could have been avoided by proper understanding of flow-induced vibration phenomena.
1.3 Dynamics of Process System Components 9
Thus, it is important to understand flow-induced vibration and damage mechanisms to prevent

problems at the design stage and assist plant operators in predicting the life of components. It is
hoped that this handbook will help in that direction.
1.3 Dynamics of Process System Components
1.3.1 Multi-Span Heat Exchanger Tubes

From a mechanical dynamics point of view, heat exchanger and steam generator tubes are multi-
span beams clamped at the tubesheet and held at the baffle supports with varying degree of con-
straint (see Fig. 1-12). The degree of constraint depends on support geometry and, particularly, on
tube-to-support clearance. Heat exchanger dynamics is inherently a non-linear phenomenon since
it depends largely on the interaction (impacting and sliding) between a particular tube and its sup-
ports. This non-linearity is particularly important since it governs the evaluation of damping at the
supports and the prediction of fretting-wear damage to the tube.
Such analysis requires time domain non-linear simulation of the tube dynamics in which the
details of sliding-friction, impact, viscous-shear and squeeze-film forces between tube and tube sup-
ports are modelled. Unfortunately, non-linear simulations are difficult and some of the detailed
information is lacking. Furthermore, the required non-linear analysis is not yet in the form of a
practical design tool. Some progress has been made in this area with the development of codes, such
as VIBIC (Fisher et al, 1992), H3DMAP (Sauvé et al, 1987) and EPRI SG FW (Rao et al, 1988) to
predict fretting wear of heat exchanger tubes.
In the future, we believe that all vibration analyses will consider non-linear simulation of the
dynamic interaction between tubes and supports and will include a fretting-wear damage predic-
tion. This kind of analysis is now done by specialists for very critical or very expensive components,
such as nuclear steam generators. Fretting-wear damage prediction is discussed in Chapter 12.
For the time being, quasi-linear vibration analyses are used by the industry for most heat exchan-
gers. Quasi-linear analysis requires the formulation of tube-to-support dynamic interaction forces,
such as damping, in terms of equivalent linear values. We have found this approach to be
reasonable in practice for the prediction of overall tube vibration response and critical velocities
for fluidelastic instability. Such analysis is adequate to eliminate most vibration problems.
However, long-term fretting-wear damage and tube life can only be predicted in an approximate
manner. Tube vibration measurements in real heat exchangers show generally good agreement
between measured and predicted frequencies using the quasi-linear approach.
ϕ (X) SUPPORT
ϕ (XJ)
X1
X2 TUBE TUBESHEET
1 2 J N-1
Fig. 1-12 Multi-Span Heat Exchanger Tube with N Spans and N-1 Clearance Supports.
1.3.2 Other Nuclear and Process Components

Other process and nuclear system components, such as nuclear fuels, reactor internals, and piping
systems, are often multi-span beams with intermediate clearance-type supports (e.g., piping sup-
ports, fuel bearing pads and support grids). Analysis of these components is similar to that of
multi-span heat exchanger tubes.
Notes
1 CANDU-BLW = Canada Deuterium Uranium – Boiling Light-Water is a registered trademark of
Atomic Energy of Canada Limited.
2 CANDU-PHW = Canada Deuterium Uranium – Pressurized Heavy-Water is a registered
trademark of Atomic Energy of Canada Limited.
References
Au-Yang, M.K., 2001, “Flow-Induced Vibration of Power and Process Plant Components: A Practical
Workbook,” ASME Press, New York, NY, USA.
Blevins, R. D., 1990, “Flow-Induced Vibration,” 2nd Edition, Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, New
York, NY, USA.
Chen, S. S, 1987, “Flow-Induced Vibration of Circular Structures,” Hemisphere Publishing Corporation,
New York, NY, USA.
Fisher, N. J., Ing, J. G., Pettigrew, M. J. and Rogers, R. J., 1992, “Tube-to- Support Dynamic Interaction for
a Multispan Steam Generator Tube,” Proceedings of ASME International Symposium on Flow-Induced
Vibration and Noise, Anaheim, California, November 8-13, 2, pp. 301–316.
Kaneko, S., Nakamura, T., Inada, F., Kato, M., Ishihara, K., Nishihara, T., 2014, “Flow-Induced
Vibration,” 2nd Edition, Academic Press, Elsevier, London, UK.
Naudascher, E. and Rockwell, D., 1994, “Flow-Induced Vibration: An Engineering Guide,” A.A. Balkma,
Rotterdam, Netherlands.
Païdoussis, M. P., 1998, “Fluid-Structure Interactions: Slender Structures and Axial Flow,” Vol. 1,
Academic Press, Elsevier, London, UK.
Pettigrew, M. J., 1976, “Flow-Induced Vibration of Nuclear Power Station Components,” 90thAnnual
Congress of the Engineering Institute of Canada, Halifax, NS, Oct. 4-8, (also Atomic Energy of Canada
Report, AECL-5852)
Pettigrew, M. J., and Campagna, A. O., 1979, “ Heat Exchanger Vibration: Comparison Between
Operating Experiences and Vibration Analysis,” Proceedings of the International Conference on
Practical Experiences with Flow-Induced Vibrations, Karlsruhe, Germany, 1979 September, (also
Atomic Energy of Canada Report, AECL-6785).
Pettigrew, M. J., Sylvestre, Y. and Campagna, A. O., 1977, “Flow-Induced Vibration Analysis of Heat
Exchanger and Steam Generator Designs,” 4th International Conference on Structural Mechanics in
Reactor Technology, Paper No. F6/1+, San Francisco, California, Aug. 15-19, (also Atomic Energy of
Canada Report, AECL-5826).
Pettigrew, M. J., Carlucci, L. N., Taylor, C. E. and Fisher, N. J., 1991, “Flow-Induced Vibration and
Related Technologies in Nuclear Components,” Nuclear Engineering and Design, 131, pp. 81–100.
References 11
Rao, M. S. M., Steininger, D. A., and Eisinger, F. L., 1988, “Numerical Simulation of Fluidelastic Vibration
and Wear of Multispan Tubes with Clearances at Supports,” Proceedings of the ASME Symposium on
Flow-Induced Vibration and Noise-1988: Vol. 5, Flow-Induced Vibration in Heat-Transfer Equipment,
pp. 235–250.
Sauvé, R. G. and Teper, W. W., 1987, “Impact Simulation of Process Equipment Tubes and Support
Plates-A Numerical Algorithm”, Journal of Pressure Vessel Technology, 109, pp. 70–79.
13
Flow-Induced Vibration of Nuclear and Process Equipment: An Overview

2.1 Introduction
Failures due to excessive vibration must be avoided in process equipment, preferably at the design
stage. Thus, a comprehensive flow-induced vibration analysis is required before fabrication of proc-
ess equipment, such as shell-and-tube heat exchangers. It must be shown that tube vibration levels
are below allowable levels and that unacceptable resonances and fluidelastic instabilities are
avoided.
The purpose of this chapter is to summarize our design guidelines for flow-induced vibration in
components operating in gas, liquid, and two-phase flows. This overview chapter can be used by the
designer as a guideline for vibration analysis, by the project engineer to get an overall appreciation
of flow-induced vibration concerns, or by the plant operator to understand tube failures. This over-
view pertains to critical regions of shell-and-tube heat exchangers, such as nuclear steam generators
(SG), heat exchangers (HX), coolers, condensers and moisture-separator-reheaters (MSR).
2.1.1 Flow-Induced Vibration Overview

The vibration behavior of process system components is governed by vibration excitation mechan-
isms and by damping mechanisms. Generally, in components such as heat exchangers there
are several significant damping mechanisms: 1) friction damping between tube and tube support,
2) squeeze-film damping at the support, 3) viscous damping between tube and shell-side fluid, and
4) damping due to two-phase flow.
Generally, the flow in heat exchanger tube bundles can be parallel (axial flow) or transverse (cross
flow) to the tube. In nuclear steam generators, the flow is axial for a large portion of the tube bundle.
Vibration excitation forces induced by axial flow are relatively small in heat exchangers. Thus,
vibration excitation mechanisms in axial flow may generally be neglected. The vibration behavior
is clearly governed by cross-flow vibration excitation mechanisms.
Several vibration excitation mechanisms are normally considered in heat exchange components
such as tube bundles in cross flow, namely: 1) fluidelastic instability, 2) periodic wake shedding, 3)
turbulence excitation, and 4) acoustic resonance. Fluidelastic instability is by far the most impor-
tant mechanism and must be avoided in all cases. Periodic-wake-shedding resonance may be of
concern in liquid cross flow where the flow is relatively uniform. It is not normally a problem
at the entrance region of steam generators because the flow is very non-uniform and quite turbulent
(Pettigrew et al, 1973). Turbulence may inhibit periodic wake shedding in tube arrays. Periodic
wake shedding is generally not a problem in two-phase flow except at very low void fractions
Flow-Induced Vibration Handbook for Nuclear and Process Equipment, First Edition.
Michel J. Pettigrew, Colette E. Taylor, and Nigel J. Fisher.
© 2022 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. This Work is a co-publication between ASME Press and John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
14 2 Flow-Induced Vibration of Nuclear and Process Equipment: An Overview
(i.e., εg < 15%) or under unusual conditions, as discussed in Chapter 11. Turbulence excitation may
be important in liquid cross flow. Periodic wake shedding resonance and turbulence excitation are
not usually of concern in gas flow since the fluid density is generally low, thereby resulting in rel-
atively small excitation forces. However, both mechanisms should be considered in some gas heat
exchangers such as MSRs where relatively high fluid densities exist. Acoustic resonance must be
avoided in heat exchangers with shell-side gas flow. However, it is generally not a problem in liquid
and two-phase heat exchangers.
2.1.2 Scope of a Vibration Analysis

A heat exchanger vibration analysis consists of the following steps: 1) flow distribution calculations,
2) dynamic parameter evaluation (i.e., damping, effective tube mass, and dynamic stiffness),
3) formulation of vibration excitation mechanisms, 4) vibration response prediction, and 5) resulting
damage assessment (i.e., comparison against allowables). The requirements applicable to each step
are outlined in this overview. Each step is discussed in more detail in the following chapters of this
handbook.
2.2 Flow Calculations
Flow-induced vibration problems usually occur on a small number of vulnerable tubes in specific
areas of a component (e.g., piping elements, entrance regions and tube-free lanes in heat exchan-
gers, and U-tubes in nuclear steam generators). Thus, a flow analysis is required to obtain the local
flow conditions throughout these heat exchange components. Flow considerations are discussed in
detail in Chapter 3.
2.2.1 Flow Parameter Definition

The end results of a flow analysis are the shell-side cross-flow velocity, Up, and fluid density, ρ,
distributions along critical tubes. For flow-induced vibration analyses, flow velocity is defined in
terms of the pitch velocity:
Up = U ∞ P P − D 2-1
where U∞ is the free stream velocity (i.e., the velocity that would prevail if the tubes were removed),
P is the pitch between the tubes and D is the tube diameter. For finned tubes, the equivalent or
effective diameter, Deff, is used. The pitch velocity is sometimes called the reference gap velocity.
The pitch velocity is a convenient definition since it applies to all bundle configurations.
The situation is somewhat more complex in two-phase flow. Another parameter, steam quality or
void fraction, is required to define the flow conditions. Two-phase mixtures are rarely homogene-
ous or uniform across a flow path. However, it is convenient and simple to use homogeneous two-
phase mixture properties as they are well defined. This is done consistently here for both specifying
vibration guidelines and formulating vibration mechanisms. The homogeneous void fraction, εg, is
defined in terms of the volume flow rates of gas, V g , and liquid, V ℓ as:
Vg
εg = 2-2
Vg + Vℓ
The homogeneous density, ρ, the free stream velocity, U∞, and the free stream mass flux, m ∞ ,
are defined using the homogeneous void fraction:
2.2 Flow Calculations 15
ρ = ρℓ 1 − εg + ρg εg 2-3
ρℓ V ℓ + ρg V g
U∞ = 2-4
ρA
m ∞ = ρU ∞ 2-5
where ρg and ρℓ are the densities of the gas and liquid phase, respectively, and A is the free-stream
flow path area.
For both liquid and two-phase cross flow, the pitch velocity, Up, and the pitch mass flux, mp, are
similarly defined as:
P
Up = U ∞
P−D
P
mp = m ∞ = ρU p 2-6
P−D
2.2.2 Simple Flow Path Approach

For relatively simple components, where the flow paths are reasonably well defined, a flow path
approach may be adequate to calculate flow velocities, as illustrated in Fig. 2-1. In the flow path
TUBE BUNDLE
SEALING STRIP
U3 U1 U2
U2'
A1/2 A2
A3
2
Tube-Free Lanes
Sealing Rod
Q = ∑ AU = A1U1 + A2U2 + A3U3
∆P = ∆P1 = ∆P2 = ∆P3
∆P = ∑ K ρU2/2
∆P = K2 ρU22 K'2ρ(U'2)2 K ρU22

+ +
2 2 2
Tube-Free Around Turn

Lane Sealing Around
Rods Losses, etc.
Fig. 2-1 Flow-Path Approach.

analysis approach, characteristic flow

paths (i.e., through the tube bundle,
between the tube bundle and shell, etc.)
between regions of common pressures are
identified. Flow impedances (i.e., pressure
drop coefficients) are estimated. The flows
within each path are then calculated. The
resulting flow velocity distributions are
then used to estimate vibration excitation
mechanisms and predict vibration
response.
All typical operating conditions must be
considered including the following: 1) as-
designed operating conditions, from zero
to 100% flow, 2) operating conditions with
fouling of the tubes or crudding of the tube
supports, and 3) other possible operating
conditions (e.g., after chemical cleaning,
system testing, etc.).
.882 2.2.3 Comprehensive 3-D

Approach
For complex components such as nuclear
steam generators and power condensers,
a comprehensive three-dimensional ther-
malhydraulic analysis is required. In such
analyses, the component is divided into a
large number of control volumes. The
.318 equations of energy, momentum and conti-
nuity are solved for each control volume.
This is done with numerical methods using
a computer code such as the THIRST code
for steam generators (Pietralik, 1995). The
Feedwater Inlet
numerical grid outlining the control
volumes for the analysis of a typical steam
generator is shown in Fig. 2-2. The grid
.386
must be sufficiently fine to accurately pre-
Fig. 2-2 Thermalhydraulic Analysis: Axial Grid Layout for dict the flow distribution along the tube.
a Typical Steam Generator with Preheater (Distances in Some typical thermalhydraulic analysis
Metres).
results are shown in Fig. 2-3 for the U-bend
region of a steam generator. For flow-
induced vibration analyses, the results
must be in the form of pitch flow velocity and fluid density distributions along a given tube. These
distributions constitute the input to a flow-induced vibration analysis of this particular tube.
Figure 2-4 shows pitch flow velocity and fluid density distributions for an example condenser tube.
Velocity Magnitude in Central Plane, m/s
5 m/s
11.5
11
10.5
Distance from Tubesheet, m
10
9.5
8.5
7.5
7
–1.2 –0.8 –0.4 0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6
Distance from Centre, m
Fig. 2-3 Flow Velocity Vectors in the Central Plane of a Typical Steam Generator U-Bend Region.
Fig. 2-4 Gap Cross-Flow Distribution Along a Typical Condenser Tube.

10 2.2.4 Two-Phase Flow Regime

SPRAY
Some knowledge of flow regime is necessary to
BUBBLY
GAS VELOCITY, Ug
DIMENSIONLESS
1 assess flow-induced vibration in two-phase flow.

Flow regimes are governed by a number of para-
meters, such as surface tension, density of each
0.1
INTERMITTENT phase, viscosity of each phase, geometry of flow
path, mass flux, void fraction and gravity forces.
0.01 Flow regime conditions are usually presented in
terms of dimensionless parameters in the form of
0.01 0.1 1 10 100
a flow regime map. Grant (1975) and Grant and
MARTINELLI PARAMETER, X
Chisholm (1979) used available data to develop
Fig. 2-5 Flow Pattern Map for Two-Phase Flow the flow regime boundaries shown in Fig. 2-5. The
Across Cylinder Arrays Using Flow Pattern axes on the Grant flow regime map are defined in
Boundaries (Grant and Chisholm (1979) and Axes
Parameters from McNaught (1982)). terms of a Martinelli parameter, X, and a dimen-
sionless gas velocity, Ug. The Martinelli parameter
is formulated as follows:
09 04 01
1 − εg ρℓ μℓ
X= 2-7
εg ρg μg
where μℓ and μg are the dynamic viscosity of the liquid and gas phases, respectively. The dimen-
sionless gas velocity is defined as follows:
mpg
Ug = 05 2-8
de gρg ρℓ − ρg
where mpg is the pitch mass flux of the gas phase, de 2(P − D) is the equivalent hydraulic diameter
and g is acceleration due to gravity.
The Grant map of Fig. 2-5 shows three flow regimes: spray, bubbly and intermittent. The terms
spray and bubbly are used loosely here. Perhaps they would be more appropriately defined as “con-
tinuous flow” covering the whole range from true bubbly flow to wall-type flow to spray flow. Inter-
mittent flow is characterized by periods of flooding (mostly liquid) followed by bursts of mostly gas
flow. As discussed by Pettigrew et al (1989a) and Pettigrew and Taylor (1994), this is an undesirable
flow regime from a vibration point-of-view. Thus, intermittent flow should be avoided in two-phase
heat exchange components and, particularly, in the U-bend region of steam generators.
Flow regime is discussed in more detail in Chapter 3.
2.3 Dynamic Parameters
The relevant dynamic parameters for multi-span heat exchanger tubes are mass and damping.
2.3.1 Hydrodynamic Mass

Hydrodynamic mass is the equivalent dynamic mass of external fluid vibrating with the tube. In
liquid flow, the hydrodynamic mass per unit length of a tube confined within a tube bundle
may be expressed by
1.0
TUBE BUNDLES, P/D = 1.47

HYDRODYNAMIC MASS RATIO (mh/ml)
NORMAL TRIANGULAR
0.8 ROTATED TRIANGULAR
NORMAL SQUARE
0.6
THEORY
0.4
0.2
0.0
0 20 40 60 80 100
VOID FRACTION (%)
Fig. 2-6 Hydrodynamic Mass in Two-Phase Cross Flow: Comparison Between Theory and Experiments. (Note
that mℓ is the hydrodynamic mass per unit length in liquid.)
π 2 De D 2 + 1
mh = ρD 2-9
4 De D 2 − 1
where De is the equivalent diameter of the surrounding tubes and the ratio De/D is a measure of
confinement. The effect of confinement is formulated by
De D = 0 96 + 0 5P D P D 2-10
for a tube inside a triangular tube bundle (Rogers et al, 1984). Similarly, for a square tube bundle
(Pettigrew et al, 1989a) confinement may be approximated by
De D = 1 07 + 0 56P D P D 2-11
The hydrodynamic mass of tube bundles subjected to two-phase cross flow may be calculated
with Eq. (2-9) provided that the homogeneous density of the two-phase mixture, ρTP, is used in
the formulation (Pettigrew et al, 1989a). Figure 2-6 compares Eq. (2-9) to experimental data.
The total dynamic mass of the tube per unit length, m, comprises the hydrodynamic mass per unit
length, mh, the tube mass per unit length, mt, and the mass per unit length of the fluid inside the
tube, mi:
m = mh + mt + mi 2-12
See Chapter 4 for more detail on hydrodynamic mass.
2.3.2 Damping
Vibration energy dissipation (damping) is an important parameter in limiting vibration. Damping
in single- and two-phase flows is discussed in detail in Chapters 5 and 6, respectively.
Heat Exchanger Tubes in Gases

As discussed in Pettigrew et al (1986), the dominant damping mechanism in heat exchangers with
gas on the shell-side is friction between tubes and tube supports. The available information on
damping of heat exchanger tubes in gases has been reviewed. This work yielded the following
design recommendation for estimating the friction damping ratio, ζ F, in percent:
05
N −1 L
ζF = 5 2-13
N ℓm
which takes into account the effect of support thickness, L, span length, ℓm, and number of spans, N.
Heat Exchanger Tubes in Liquids

As discussed in Chapter 5, there are three important energy dissipation mechanisms that contribute
to damping of multi-span heat exchanger tubes with liquids on the shell-side. These are viscous
damping between tube and liquid, squeeze-film damping in the clearance between tube and tube
support, and friction damping at the support. Thus, the total tube damping, ζ T, which we define as
the ratio of actual to critical damping in percent, is expressed by
ζ T = ζ V + ζ SF + ζ F 2-14
where, ζ V, ζ SF and ζ F are, respectively, the viscous, squeeze-film and friction damping ratios.
Tube-to-fluid viscous damping is related to the Stokes number, πfD2/2v, and the degree of con-
finement of the heat exchanger tube within the tube bundle or D/De. Rogers et al (1984) developed a
simplified formulation for viscous damping, valid for πfD2/2v > 3300 and D/De < 0.5 which covers
most heat exchangers. Their simplified expression for ζ V(in percent) is
1 2 3
100π ρD2 2v 1 + D De
ζV = 2-15
8 m πfD2 1 − D De 2 2
where v is the kinematic viscosity of the fluid and f is the natural frequency of the tube for the mode
being analysed. Clearly, viscous damping is frequency dependent. Calculated values of damping
using Eq. (2-15) are compared against experimental data in Fig. 2-7. The comparison shows reason-
able agreement.
Squeeze-film damping, ζ SF, and friction damping, ζ F, take place at the supports. Semi-empirical
expressions were developed, based on available experimental data, to formulate friction and
squeeze-film damping as discussed by Pettigrew et al (2011) and in Chapter 5. The available exper-
imental data is outlined in Fig. 2-8. Thus, squeeze-film damping (in percent) may be formulated by
1
N −1 1460 ρD2 L 2
ζ SF = 2-16
N f m ℓm
and friction damping (in percent) by

1 2
N −1 L
ζF = 05 2-17
N ℓm
where (N − 1)/N takes into account the ratio of the number of supports over the number of spans, L
is the support thickness and ℓm is a characteristic tube length. The latter is defined as the average of
the three longest spans when the lowest modes and the longest spans dominate the vibration
response. This is usually the case. When higher modes and shorter spans govern the vibration
KIM et al (1988)
CHEN et al (1976)
10 ROGERS (1985)
MEASURED VISCOUS DAMPING ζV (%)
SKOP et al (1976)
JENDRZEJCZYK (1984)
5.0 WATER
OIL
2.0
1.0
0.5
0.2
0.1
0.1 0.2 0.5 1.0 2.0 5.0 10
CALCULATED VISCOUS DAMPING ζV (%)
Fig. 2-7 Viscous Damping Data for a Cylinder in Unconfined and Confined Liquids: Comparison Between
Theory and Experiment.
SHIN et al (1977) HARTLEN (1974)

7.0 PETTIGREW et al (1985) KOBATE et al (1980)
PETTIGREW et al (1985), HALLE AND WAMBSGANSS (1980)
PETTIGREW et al (1973) NAGPAL et al (1981)
PETTIGREW et al (1985), GORMAN (1982), GORMAN (1983)
ALKIN (1977) COLLISON AND WARNEFORD (1978)
5.0
HEILKER (1978) WAMBSGANSS et al (1981)
ANTUNES et al (1985)
4.0
OVERALL DAMPING RATIO ζ (%)
3.0
2.0
ζα l/f
1.0
–
ζα l/√ f
0.7
0.5
30 40 50 70 100 150 200 300 400 500

FREQUENCY (Hz)
Fig. 2-8 Damping Data for Multi-Span Heat Exchanger Tubes in Water.
500
200
[ζsn – 0.5(L/ℓm)0.5](ρD2/m)–1(L/ℓm)–0.5
Squeeze-Film Damping Parameter,
100
50
20
10
f–1
2
1
20 50 100 200 500
Frequency (Hz)
SHIN et al (1977) NAGPAL et al (1981)

PETTIGREW et al (1984) HALLE AND WAMBSGANSS (1980)
PETTIGREW et al (1984, 1973) GORMAN (1978, 1983)
PETTIGREW et al (1984), Alken (1977) COLLISON AND WARNEFORD (1978)
HEILKER (1978) WAMBGANSS et al (1981)
HARTLEN (1974) ANTUNES et al (1985)
KOBATE et al (1980)
Fig. 2-9 Comparison Between Tube Support Damping Model (Squeeze-Film and Friction) and
Experimental Data.
response, then, the characteristic span length should be based on these shorter spans. This could
happen when there are high flow velocities locally, such as in entrance or exit regions.
Equations (2-16) and (2-17) are combined to determine the squeeze-film damping parameter,
1460/f, and compared against available experimental data in Fig. 2-9. There is large scatter in the
data, which is mostly due to the nature of the problem. Heat exchanger tube damping depends
on parameters that are difficult to control, such as support alignment, tube straightness, relative posi-
tion of tube within the support, and side loads. These parameters are statistical in nature and prob-
ably contribute to much of the scatter. A conservative but realistic criterion for damping is obtained
by taking damping values at roughly the lower decile of the available data, as shown in Fig. 2-8.
Substituting Eqs. (2-15), (2-16) and (2-17) in Eq. (2-14):
3 1 1 1
100π 1 + D De ρD2 2v 2
N −1 1460 ρD2 L 2
L 2
ζT = + +05
8 1 − D De 2 2 m πfD2 N f m ℓm ℓm
2-18
Although somewhat speculative, Eq. (2-18) formulates all important energy dissipation mechan-
isms and fits the data best. Thus, it is our recommendation as a damping criterion for design purposes.
However, if the damping ratio predicted by this equation is less than 0.6%, we recommend taking
a minimum value of 0.6%. As shown in Fig. 2-8, a minimum damping of 0.6% appears reasonable.
In Fig. 2-8, there is no experimental data for frequencies below 25 Hz. Rather than extrapolating
Eq. 2-18 to lower frequencies, we recommend using a maximum total damping of 5%.
Damping in Two-Phase Flow

The subject of heat exchanger tube damping in two-phase flow was reviewed by Pettigrew and Taylor
(1997) as discussed in Chapter 6. The total damping ratio, ζ T, of a multi-span heat exchanger tube in
two-phase flow comprises support damping, ζ S, viscous damping, ζ V, and two-phase damping, ζ TP:
ζ T = ζ S + ζ V + ζ TP 2-19
Depending on the thermalhydraulic conditions (i.e., heat flux, void fraction, flow, etc.), the sup-
ports may be dry or wet. If the supports are dry, which is more likely for high heat flux and very high
void fraction, only friction damping takes place. Support damping in this case is analogous to damp-
ing of heat exchanger tubes in gases, Pettigrew et al (1986). Damping due to friction (and impact) in
dry supports may be expressed by Eq. (2-13). The above situation is unlikely in well-designed recir-
culating steam generators. However, it could exist in some areas of once-through steam generators.
When there is liquid between the tube and the support, support damping includes both squeeze-
film damping, ζ SF, and friction damping, ζ F. This situation is analogous to heat exchanger tubes in
liquids and the support damping may be evaluated with Eqs. (2.18) and (2.19) above:
1
1 2
N −1 1460 ρℓ D2 L 2
L
ζ S = ζ SF + ζF = +05 2-20
N f m ℓm ℓm
Note that in Eq. (2-20), ρℓ is the density of the liquid within the tube support, whereas m is the
total mass per unit length of the tube including the hydrodynamic mass calculated with the two-
phase homogeneous density.
Viscous damping in two-phase mixtures is analogous to viscous damping in single-phase fluids
(Pettigrew and Taylor, 1997). Homogeneous properties of the two-phase mixture are used in its for-
mulation, as follows:
1 2 3
100π ρTP D2 2vTP 1 + D De
ζV = 2-21
8 m πfD2 1 − D De 2 2
where vTP is the equivalent two-phase kinematic viscosity as per McAdams et al (1942):
−1
vTP = vℓ 1 + εg vℓ vg − 1 2-22
Above 40% void fraction, viscous damping is generally small and could be neglected for the
U-bend region of steam generators. However, it is significant for lower void fractions.
There is a two-phase component of damping in addition to viscous damping. As discussed by
Pettigrew and Taylor (1997) and in Chapter 6, two-phase damping is strongly dependent on void
fraction, fluid properties and flow regimes, directly related to confinement and the ratio of hydro-
dynamic mass over tube mass, and weakly related to frequency, mass flux or flow velocity, and tube
bundle configuration. A semi-empirical expression was developed from the available experimental
data to formulate the two-phase component of damping, ζ TP, in percent:
3
ρℓ D 2 1 + D De
ζ TP = 4 0 f εg 2-23
m 2 2
1 − D De
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kitchen in native house
Herat is a dirty town. The small lanes, crooked and narrow which
branch from the main thoroughfares, are roofed and their gloom
offers safe harbourage for the perpetration of every possible offence.
The breadth of the streets is only 12 feet, but in their narrowest parts
even this space is reduced. Pools of stagnant water left by the rains,
piles of refuse thrown from the houses, together with dead cats,
dogs and the excrement of human beings, mingle their effluvia in
these low tunnels. Much of the city has been abandoned and various
travellers, in reporting their experiences, agree that the bazaars are
of a very inferior order. On either side of the streets there are
spacious serais where the merchants have their depôts. The western
face of the city is the least populated, the buildings in this quarter
being a mass of ruins. The houses are constructed usually in the
form of hollow squares. They are commonly of one storey, built of
brick and mud, with very thick walls. The roofs are vaulted and
composed, equally with the walls, of mud; the entrances are low and
winding. These houses are quite incombustible. The larger
establishments have stable and servants’ courts attached to them,
and every courtyard has, in its centre, a well or small reservoir for
the reception of water. All the houses are more or less capable of
resisting men armed with rifles, and a determined garrison might, by
barricading the streets leading to the ramparts and loopholing the
adjacent houses, protract the defence of the place for some time
after the walls had been gained by the enemy. There are several
spacious caravansaries in the town, all of which open upon the street
leading from the Kandahar Gate to the citadel and would serve, in
emergency, for the accommodation of troops. At the time of Connolly
there were:
Houses 4000
Shops 1200
Baths 20
Colleges 6
Caravansaries 17
Although the city has been almost entirely destroyed since his day,
his estimate is of some value for purposes of comparison.
household utensils
The principal building in Herat is the Masjid-i-Jama, which

comprises an area of 800 yards square. It was built at the end of the
fifteenth century, in the reign of Shah Husein by his relative Prince
Shibali. When perfect it was 465 feet long and 275 feet wide; it had
408 cupolas, 130 windows, 444 pillars, 6 entrances and was
adorned in the most magnificent manner with gilding, carving,
precious mosaic and other elaborate and costly embellishments. It
stands in the north-east quarter of the city, about 300 yards from the
east walls.
The palace of Chahar Bagh is situated to the west of the Masjid-i-
Jama and was originally the winter residence of the chiefs of Herat. It
is now the residence of the Governor of the city, but has been
considerably enlarged and improved. A fine garden has been laid out
with flower-beds and a fountain. It is enclosed on either side.
The inhabitants of Herat, who are mostly Shiah Mahommedans,
comprise Afghans, Hazaras, Jamshidis and Tiamanis, with 700
Hindus and some 400 families of Jews. Its population has always
been subject to constant fluctuation. When Christie visited it in 1809
the population stood at 100,000 souls. Connolly considers these
figures too high, reducing them himself to 45,000. According to
Ferrier, again, prior to the siege of 1838 the number of inhabitants
was, at least, 70,000; when the siege was raised these numbers had
dwindled to between 6000 to 7000, a total which, he considered, had
increased in 1845 to 22,000. As under the severe but secure rule of
Jan Mahommed life was safe, it is probable that before the
investment of 1857 it again approached Connolly’s total. Its siege
and capture by Dost Mahommed in 1863 must have once more
reduced its numbers; when Vambéry visited it two months afterwards
he was met by a scene of utter desolation and devastation, from
which, according to the estimate of A. C. Yate[14] in 1885, the city had
never recovered. Citing the previous census, which gave the
population at 1700 families, the latter returned it at 10,000. The
existing number is now a little less than 18,000 people, exclusive of
the garrison, which in peace numbers five regiments of regular
infantry, twenty squadrons of cavalry, one battalion of sappers and
eight batteries.
a caravansary compound
The city has declined considerably from its quondam opulence.

There is scarcely any trade and the houses are deserted. It is,
nevertheless, famous for its fruit and its breed of horses; but the
Heratis have endured too many of “the slings and arrows of
outrageous fortune” to be able to withstand adversity and bad
seasons. Wars and sieges, pestilence and famine have had their
effect; and the scene, which Vambéry described so brightly, is now
sombre and melancholy. No longer is Herat the great central market
between India and Persia. It still receives a certain amount of
merchandise from Kabul, such as shawls, indigo, sugar, chintz,
muslin, bafta, kincob, hides and leather. These are exported to
Meshed, Yezd, Teheran, Baghdad and Kirman, and exchanged for
tea, sugar-candy, china-ware, broadcloth, chintz, silk, copper,
pepper, dates, shawls, numnahs, carpets and all kinds of spices. Silk
is obtainable in the vicinity of Herat, and lambs’ fleeces and sheep-
skins are made up locally into caps and cloaks. There are, too, a
number of native craftsmen who work in silk and metals, leather, iron
and wood; but there are few opportunities for their skill and no
money with which to pay for it. The carpets of Herat, once so famed
for softness and for the brilliance and permanence of their colours,
are no longer in demand. At one time they were made in all sizes,
ranging in price from 10 to 1000 rupees; but their day is gone.
Indeed, in its present impoverished state, the city is eloquent only of
a bygone grandeur. Everything is decayed and decrepit.
religious festival on the perso-afghan border
In relation to future developments in the military position along the

western frontier Herat, the immediate objective of Russia, has been
for many years the pivot of our trans-border policy. Lying within 80
miles of Kushkinski Post, itself only eighteen hours by train from
Merv, it would not be long after the outbreak of hostilities that a
Russian force would be before its walls. The passage of
reinforcements from Merv, in support of such detached or
independent flying column, would be divided between Kushkinski
Post and Tanur Sangi, which, when considered from Merv, the main
depôt of supplies in Trans-Caspia, rank practically as ultimate bases,
with an immediate base at Pendjeh. The position of Herat would be
no worse than Maimana, Balkh, Kunduz and Andkhui, upon which an
equally rapid concentration would be made. At such a time the forts
established at Kala Khum, Chushka Guzar, Kelif and Termes—
where, by order of Kuropatkin, a strong work has been placed to
cover the debouchure opposite Patta Hissar of the road from Takht-
a-pul, the central cantonment of Northern Afghanistan—would be
sufficient to repel attack if the Afghans were rash enough to cross.
Again, between the Oxus and the chain of main bases established
along the Central Asian railway—Askhabad, Merv, Samarkand,
Khokand and Margelan, with Tashkent as the great centre of arterial
distribution—there would be a line of auxiliary depôts, such as
Sharisabz and Hissar and no doubt possessing by the time war
occurred railway communication with the Central Asian system on
the one hand and the Oxus on the other, to serve as intermediate
bases of supply to the ultimate frontier and fighting zone.
In the situation along the extreme eastern frontier, the
Badakshan-Wakhan region, the same preponderating strength and
advantage of position would be detected in the Russian dispositions.
The existence of the several elevated areas composing the Pamirs
and acting as a containing rampart to the Russian left flank renders
the Russian sphere between Kala Khum and Langar Kisht
sufficiently impervious to serious attack. As a precaution against
sporadic forays from the Afghan posts on the opposite bank a
number of permanent forts, usually included within the Pamir military
district, would be available.
On the right bank, between the upper waters of the Oxus and
Charog, there is the post of Langar Kisht where the Russians
maintain one company of thirty men with a maxim gun. Charog itself,
which is opposite Kala Bar Panja, is the principal post of the
Russians in the region of the Pamirs. Here the strength of the
garrison varies according to the season of the year. During the winter
months the muster is fifty Cossacks with four officers and a maxim
detachment. Two maxims and a single mountain gun have been
mounted on the ramparts covering the river. Charog is connected
with Fort Murghabi by a road along the Alichur Pamir and the banks
of the Ghund Daria; built of clay, wood and stone, it possesses
earthworks of an enduring character. Additional accommodation is in
course of construction, as it is intended to establish quarters there
for one battalion of troops. The winter strength of the Russian force
in the Pamirs is 500 men; this will be raised to 1000 men so soon as
the requisite barracks have been erected at Charog and Fort
Murghabi. The probable disposition of the force will put 300 men into
each of the three forts at Tashkurgan, Charog and Murghabi, the
remaining 100 being detailed by companies to the smaller posts of
Langar Kisht, Aktash and Kizil Rabat. At Kala Wanj there was an
establishment of 300 levies from the native army of the Amir of
Bokhara, a further detachment from the same establishment and
similar in strength, being in garrison at Kala Wamar. At Kala-Khum,
occupied by 1000 men, there was one native regiment. Along the
reach of the Middle Oxus the same arrangement held good, native
troops being distributed among all ferry and customs posts,
constituting a useful supplement to the Russian troops in the riverine
areas. Hitherto the employment of the Bokharan levies for garrison
and frontier duty in Darwaz, Shignan and Roshan has been quite a
feature of the Russian disposition along the Oxus. Drilled by Russian
instructors and armed with modern weapons these territorial troops
are regarded by the Russians as the equal of the Afghan soldiery. In
war, they would be expected to relieve the regular forces of a
multitude of fatigues and thus leave the energies and numbers of the
Russian command unimpaired by that slow process of attrition by
which, in the main, the fighting strength of an army becomes so
quickly exhausted. Quite lately these posts have been taken over by
the regular forces, the native troops being withdrawn for service in
the Khanate. It has been always unlikely that, in the event of
hostilities, the Russians would permit levies to take the field against
the Afghan forces.
Photo, Olufsen
afghan post at kala panja
On the left bank of the stream the Afghan authorities maintain

posts at Kala Panja, which is opposite Langar Kisht, Kala Bar Panja,
which confronts Charog, and Ishkashim. No works of special
importance have been constructed to observe Kala Wamar and Kala
Wanj, the work at Kala Bar Panja being the central Afghan position
on the Upper Oxus. As a fort it compares not unfavourably with the
Russian one at Charog; in point of size it is larger than the original
Russian structure there. It is in the form of a square; the walls,
constructed of clay and stone, are 200 yards in length, about 12
inches thick and 15 to 20 feet in height. It has capacity for about
1000 men and, along one wall, provision for a small force of cavalry.
Possession of these works did not quite equalise the situation and
within the last few months many changes have taken place in the
Eastern, Northern and Western commands, the raising of 20,000
recruits having been sanctioned by the Amir for the Eastern and
Western divisions at the request of the commanding officers.
Leading chiefs bringing 1000 men to the colours were to receive the
rank of regimental commanders; those who raised 100 men would
become company officers. It was further promised that the pay of
these new regiments would be issued monthly. The strengthening
process has been also applied to the Home or Central command,
10,000 men having been raised in the Shinwari district and sworn in
by the Governor of Jelalabad; while enlistment among the Sufi tribal
levies has been started for the Kabul garrison. Further, the
Governors of Maimana and Faizabad were instructed to entrench
their cities, to throw up the necessary watch towers and to place all
approaches in a condition of defence. Two new forts were located on
the Oxus at Kala Panja and Ishkashim in Wakhan, a third at Boharac
and a fourth at Faizabad.
These fresh works possess nominal accommodation for 1000
men, although there is ample space for double or even treble this
number. Built in the form of a square, the walls are 6 feet thick at the
top and 18 feet at the base. Artillery emplacements have been
prepared in the watch towers at each corner and a shooting-gallery
runs round the defences a few feet below their parapet. Quarters
have been placed along three walls, each wall taking twenty houses,
the fourth wall holding the stable, transport and commissariat
arrangements. Pathan regiments from Faizabad were detailed to
these positions and also to the support of the Badakshan-Wakhan
border; new regiments, fashioned from the reinforcements which had
been despatched to Faizabad, taking their place. The normal
strength of the Eastern command is represented by seven regiments
of Pathan infantry, four squadrons of cavalry and five batteries.
Similarly there has been much activity in the Northern command,
the Governor of Afghan Turkestan, Sirdar Ghulam Ali Khan a son of
Abdur Rahman, having completed his development of the scheme of
defences at Dehdadi which the late Amir created. That stronghold
has now been incorporated with Takht-a-Pul, which lies between
Mazar-i-Sharif and Balkh and where an important fortified
cantonment has been established, possessing a permanent strength
of several thousand men. Habib Ullah has full confidence in his
brother Ghulam Ali Khan and, in view of the delays which occur in
the passage of supplies from the Kabul arsenals to the Herat and
Turkestan garrisons, the Amir has sanctioned a proposal to construct
in Herat and Takht-a-Pul, small-arms ordnance works, tanning-yards
and boot factories, so that these two important commands may be
independent of Kabul for these elemental accessories to their
efficiency. Powers of control over these projects have been invested
in Ghulam Ali Khan, who has appointed an assistant to the Herat
branch of the undertaking.
a water-seller.
[11] “England and Russia in the East.” Rawlinson.
[12]This study of Anglo-Afghan relations is continued in Chapters
xvi. and xvii.
[13] “The Indian Borderland.” Colonel Sir T. H. Holdich.
[14] “England and Russia.” A. C. Yate, 1886.
CHAPTER VIII
KANDAHAR
The road from Herat to Kandahar lies through districts rich in supplies. From Herat
there are two great roads, a northern and southern, the latter passing through
Sabzawar, Farah and Girishk to Kandahar, in which district it crosses the
Zamindawar country, peopled in the main by the Duranis as far as the fords on the
Helmund.
Sabzawar, which is 280 miles from Kandahar, is situated almost midway between
Herat and Farah—90 miles from Herat and 71 miles from Farah. It stands 3550 feet
above sea-level on the left bank of the Harud river, in an elbow of the stream and at
the foot of the outlying spurs of the main ranges. Beyond and partly surrounding it
there is a wide open plain, some 4 miles in circumference, well irrigated from the
waters of the Harud river and, as a consequence, highly productive. The Sabzawar
district contains the most fertile areas in the Herat province, a benevolent attention
upon the part of Nature that renders the region of service as an intermediate base
of supplies. No force, indeed, could resist the temptation of staying at such a point
to refresh both man and beast, and to re-assemble its transport. The position is
readily protected and the defensive value of the heights, which lie 2 miles distant to
the south of the town, could be supplemented by the flooding of the lowlands from
numerous water-courses which intersect the plain. The town draws its water from
the Harud river, but certain of the villages are dependent upon canals. Several ruins
impart an air of desolation to the plain, yet a pleasing sense of cultivation exists
around the town itself, arising from the sparkle of running water and the freshness
of green trees.
In recent years Sabzawar has outgrown its original dimensions, and the fort, a
square structure with walls 200 yards to 250 yards in length, seven circular bastions
on each front and one gate in the south face, has been abandoned. Its walls are in
ruins and the interior is uninhabited, save for a small colony of Shikarpuri Hindus.
Outside the wall is a ditch, now dry and partially filled with refuse. In the centre of
this forlorn scene there is the Governor’s residence, permitting a pleasant view of
green trees and fresh-looking grass, cool and even healthy. The town proper,
although such a dignified description is inaccurate as the great majority of the
population live in villages beyond the walls, is well-to-do, thriving and the centre of a
busy trade. Between Nasratabad and itself trade is peculiarly active, the hides,
wool, goatskins and dried fruits forwarded from Seistan to Turkestan making it a
point of call. Piece goods, sugar and iron-ware are imported in return. The export
trade of the town has an annual value of 1,500,000 rupees Indian, and the revenue
of the district is 33,000 tomans in cash, and 4000 kharwars in grain. The trade is
controlled by Russian Armenian merchants who, resident in its vicinity, travel
between Seistan and the surrounding region, pushing articles of Russian
manufacture. Their activity in this respect has created an important demand for
such goods, which quite oust the few signs of Indian trade that the place at one time
revealed.
Sabzawar, the town, is enclosed within a high wall, pierced by four gates—the
Irak gate on the west, the Nishapur gate on the east, the Herat gate on the north
and the Farah gate on the south. The bazaar, in which are nearly 800 shops,
stretches between the eastern and western gates across the town. Its breadth is
possibly half a mile and the circumference of the town is a little under 2½ miles. The
town is only a gathering place for the district which supports a number of villages
and, together with the enveloping pasturage and a wide belt of cultivation, is
inhabited by Nurzai Duranis. Each village is a small fort in itself and is surrounded
by a high mud wall erected for purposes of security. In size these forts are about 60
yards square; in all there may be some 5000 households in the district, which may
be apportioned into 4500 in the villages, 400 in the town, 100 in the fort, with a
combined population of 12,000 souls.
typical street scene
Before reaching Farah it is necessary to cross the Farah Rud. This river, rising in
the Taimani country, flows past Farah and Lash into the Hamun at its north-west
angle, after a southerly course 200 miles in length. Its volume varies with the
seasons. The water is usually clear and not quite drinkable for, after the main
stream has been exhausted by the fields, the pools which remain in its deeper parts
quickly become stagnant. In the spring it is a wide, deep river, always with sufficient
water for irrigation in its course: even when nearly dry water is to be found by
digging a foot into the river-bed. In the summer it is crossed on inflated skins or rafts
of wood and reeds. The banks of the Farah Rud are covered with a jungle growth of
tamarisk and mimosa. At the point where it is crossed by the north road from Herat
to Kandahar it is fordable, although the bed is very irregular, with alternate rapids
and deep pools. The ford is 1000 feet in breadth, but the channel in the dry season
contracts to 50 yards, with a depth of 2½ feet. During the flood season caravans are
apt to be detained for many weeks. At Farah the banks are 400 yards apart, with a
stream in the dry season of 150 yards in breadth and 2 feet of water. At this point it
is both clear and rapid.
Farah, 2460 feet above sea-level, lies 170 miles south of Herat, 71 miles from
Sabzawar on the south Kandahar road, 150 miles from Girishk and 225 miles from
Kandahar. It is a square, walled town; lying north and south and standing well out in
the plain it has a diameter of one mile and is in ruins. The wall by which it is
surrounded is strongly reminiscent of Herat and comprises an enormous
embankment of earth, mixed with chopped straw. A covered way entirely surrounds
it on the outside, and its original height was between 35 and 40 feet. Towers rested
on the ramparts at one time but, deserted by its inhabitants and neglected by the
garrison which is its sole population, it has fallen altogether from its high estate. The
town has two gates, that of Herat in the centre of the north face and that of
Kandahar exactly opposite on the south side, the citadel occupying the north angle
of the wall. Farah is no longer a city. Desolate, ruined and abandoned, its position
still is of extreme importance, as it commands the Herat and Kandahar road and the
northern entrance into Seistan. But the water in the fort is bad and the place is
unhealthy. A general bonfire of the remains should complete the wreck which time
has so nearly accomplished. Nowadays it does not contain more than fifty houses,
yet it could easily hold several thousand. Those still standing are concealed by the
ruins; and scattered jets of smoke, rising from heaps of débris, are the only
indications of actual life. Formerly a bazaar crossed the town from the Kandahar
Gate to the Herat Gate; but the few shops which remain are now congregated near
the Herat Gate, the sole industry of the people being the manufacture of gunpowder
from saltpetre. This is collected from the numerous water-pits which go to make up
the general character of the scene within the walls.
Between Farah and Kandahar there is the Bakwa plain, which is associated in
the minds of the Afghans with a tradition that identifies it with the scene of some
future battle between the Russian and British forces. The plain is a dead level
stretch without trees or growth of any kind to vary its monotony and it is to its
western end that the scene of the prophecy refers. The usual version of the story
mentions as a concluding detail that, after the fight, no less than 12,000 riderless
horses will be found wandering over it.[15] The Afghans attach considerable belief to
this prophecy which, according to Colonel Yate who went to the pains of unearthing
its origin, may be attributed to a native of Kuchan, Shah Ni’-Amat Ulla Wani of
Kirman, who died in the year 1400 at the age of ninety-seven, having attained
considerable reputation as an author, philosopher and sage.
From Farah to Girishk, situated on the Helmund river, is a distance of 150 miles.
This river, which rises at Fazindaz in the western slopes of the Paghman mountains,
flows with a course generally south-west for over 600 miles, ultimately falling into
the Seistan lake. The first point about which any reliable information exists is at
Gardan Diwar, about 40 miles from its source. It here runs along the north side of
the Urt plateau at an elevation of 11,500 feet, about 12 yards wide, less than a foot
in depth in winter and with a brisk current; it is joined by a tributary the Ab-i-Siah,
coming from the southern slopes of the Haji Khak pass. In the summer this upper
portion of the Helmund is a favourite resort of the pastoral tribes of the Eastern
area. Thence it passes through a deep valley, hugging the south side of the Koh-i-
Baba for 35 miles to Ghaoch Khol, its banks fringed with rose bushes and osiers. At
this point it is crossed by a bridge, unites with a rivulet from the north and with the
Ab-Dilawar from the south-west. From this to Diwal Khol, about 25 miles further, it
pursues the same westerly direction which it has had from its source. A few miles
beyond this point the stream gives a bold sweep to the south for 80 miles, as far as
Chakmakchak. Here it is crossed by the road going west towards Herat and
receives a considerable feeder from the north. The river then turns slightly to the
south-west and keeps this direction for about 120 miles as far as Sakhir, where
roads from Bamian, Maidan and Girishk meet. From Sakhir to Girishk, a distance of
perhaps 150 miles, its course is more south and 25 miles below Sakhir it is joined
from the east by the Tezin stream. At Garmab, 50 miles below this again, it is met
by the Khudrud, where it is crossed 60 miles above Girishk. At this point the banks
of the Helmund are 1000 yards apart; the right bank low and sandy and the left
bank high and rocky. Sometimes when the volume of the river has diminished the
breadth of the Helmund at Girishk itself is reduced to 300 yards; the stream flowing
smoothly with a mean depth at the ford of 3 feet. In mid-June, again, it is barely
passable by infantry; but 3 miles up stream, where the river divides into three
branches and the southern Herat-Kandahar road crosses, there is a ferry, in
addition to several good fords. Here the depth is less than 4 feet and the breadth
across each arm varies between 70 and 150 yards. About 45 miles below Girishk
and just below Kala-i-Bist, is an island formed by the river. It is joined on the left by
its great tributary the Argand-ab, from which point its width varies between 300 and
400 yards, with an average depth of 1½ to 2 fathoms. Thence to Benadar Kalan, a
distance of 70 miles, its direction is south and from this it turns west for 120 miles.
At Pul-alak, 100 miles distant, it is usually 400 yards wide, very deep and flowing in
a broad stretch of water as far as Traku. Here, its progress arrested by some sand
hills, it takes a sudden turn to the north-west and runs for 45 miles in that direction;
finally it divides into the three branches, Rod-i-Seistan, Rod-i-Purian, and the Nad
Ali. Since 1895 the Rod-i-Purian has been the main channel, displacing the Nad Ali
course. The river, even in the dry season, is never without a plentiful supply of
water.
crossing the helmund river
Its volume is:

2,000 cubic feet per second at low water.
50,000-60,000 ” ” ” ordinary flood.
600,000-700,000 ” ” ” abnormal flood.
The fords are:

Gardan Diwar (ford) 40 miles from source.
Ghaoch Khol (bridge) 75 ”
Diwal Khol 100 ”
Chakmakchak 180 ”
Garmab 390 ”
Three miles above Girishk (ford) 450 ”
Girishk (ford and ferry) 450 ”
Shamalan (ford) 500 ”
Karnashin 550 ”
Kal-i-Sabz (ford) 570 ”
Deshu (ford) 590 ”
Pul-alak (ford) 650 ”
Traku (ferry) 680 ”
Deshtak (ferry) 740 ”
The fort of Girishk stands on the right bank of the Helmund about 1½ miles from
the stream, upon the high road between Kandahar and Herat. Its position seems to
have been determined by the neighbourhood of the fords across the Helmund; also
by the vicinity of the ferry, which, when the river is not fordable, is usually
established at a narrow part of the stream below the fort. From the far side of the
river Girishk appears to have more strength and to be in better order than
inspection proves to be the case. Upon two sides and part of the third there is a
ditch, which contains water but is formidable neither in width nor in depth. On the
north and north-eastern aspects, where the wall is situated upon the high bank of
the river, it is not continued.
Girishk, as also Farah, comes within the jurisdiction of the officials of Kandahar
province and a small garrison is detailed from Kandahar itself. Two squadrons of
cavalry and one battery of field guns usually comprise the regular establishment, to
which is added a certain militia strength. The soldiers camp outside the walls; the
fort itself, which is only 700 feet in length and 250 feet in breadth, being the
residence of the Governor of Pusht-i-Rud, the name by which the district goes. In
no sense can the building be regarded as possessing any military value. The walls
are weak and exposed from their parapet to their foundations. Moreover, there is
cover close up to them on all sides except the northern where a ravine, which would
afford an enemy protection, is enfiladed from the north-west tower. The setting of
the fort is quite picturesque. In the low-river lands on the south side there are
charming gardens, but their walls and trees are too likely to afford cover to troops to
be other than a danger. In the fort itself are two gateways; one of which, a small
one, has been blocked up. The main one is at the southern extremity. There are
four corner towers and the water-supply is reliable and drawn from the river. But,
equally with Farah and Sabzawar, the fortifications of Girishk need not be the
subject of any detailed consideration here. Standing on the main route from Herat to
Kandahar, controlling the fords across the Helmund and commanding the road to
Seistan from which it is only 190 miles distant, the richness of the surrounding
region makes its early possession essential to any force operating from the Indo-
Afghan border. Villages are numerous and every one is a thriving centre. The
pasturage is both fattening and abundant, while the agricultural capacity of the
Zamindawar lands is well known. During the last operations in Afghanistan
4,000,000 lbs. weight of grain were collected from the Girishk district by the British
force that was then in occupation, a return which makes it the most important of any
of the bases which might be established on the Perso-Afghan border.
Girishk is 75 miles from Kandahar; mid-way between there is Maiwand,
mournfully signalised by one of those inglorious reverses which British arms have
experienced in Afghanistan—in this instance the defeat of General Burrows at the
hands of Ayub Khan in 1880. Their incidence, unfortunately, has given rise to very
exaggerated ideas upon the practical utility of the Afghan rabble and its powers of
resistance at the present day. Kandahar, the scene of one brilliant episode when the
victorious Roberts relieved an ominous situation, has been the centre of many ill-
fated risings and mis-shapen schemes, yet of all none more so than that injudicious
and most pretentious plan of uniting Quetta with Kushkinski Post by a trans-Afghan
railway viâ Kandahar and Herat. No practical end can be served by such a line and,
indeed upon the broadest grounds, there is absolutely nothing which can justify its
construction. The policy of this country should be mistrustful of Russia always and
our attitude should be actively suspicious. In Asia, High or Near, she is our
inveterate opponent and the one element of danger which never can be removed
from our path. We can neither believe in nor rely upon her bond, while her
diplomatic morality no less than her most solemnly pledged word is instinctive with
treachery. Whatever may be desirable for purposes of State at this moment, at least
we should be mindful of our experiences at her hands and we should allow those
lessons of past history to serve to-day as an active spur to our hostility. That she
would stoop to any pretext, however infamous, to secure her ends is proven by the
unctuous assurances which she tendered the Cabinet of the day in this country in
respect of her campaigns in Central Asia. If this reminder be insufficient, let us
reflect upon the manner in which she has excused to us, through long years, her
nefarious designs against our interests in Persia and Manchuria. Therefore,
remembering these things, it is necessary to repeat the warning to keep Russia at a
distance.
constructing the quetta-nushki line
If Kandahar were to be concerned with any railway at all it should be through an

extension from New Chaman. Without such provision our defensive strategy in
Southern Afghanistan must needs recoil upon itself. Indeed, no practical value
whatever attaches to our power of offence on the Afghan-Baluch border unless it
contains the means of counteracting Russia’s schemes of aggression on the
Afghan-Perso border. At present our position in Southern Afghanistan is en l’air; but
our interests demand that it should be brought to earth and linked up with the steel
rails of the military system of strategic lines on the Indian frontier. Just now the
position of Russia in Persia is in the making, yet the challenge to our situation in
Southern Afghanistan is none the less apparent. It will become quite definite when
she occupies Seistan. Russia has the advantage of us in the Middle East in the
matter of railway construction and she will build first where she is in no manner
liable to be disturbed. If, in the interval, we do not measure our activity by her own,
we shall find that we have delayed the extension of the rails to Kandahar until she
herself is prepared to abide by the result of a single issue—the projection of the
metals to Herat.
It would seem that the present moment were sufficiently propitious for the
Government of India to press such an undertaking upon the Amir. At the time of the
Dane Mission great attention was paid by the Afghans of Kandahar to the subject of
railways between India and Afghanistan. The late Governor, Sirdar Ahmed Khan,
now retired in disgrace, receiving orders to ascertain public feeling on a proposal to
extend the Indian railway system to Kandahar and to inquire whether the people
would object if the request of the British Government were conceded, read out the
Amir’s instructions at a special Durbar where all shades of local opinion were
represented. The question was debated by the nobles and the people at great
length. In the end the view was returned that, while the railway itself would be
beneficial, it would facilitate pretexts for dangerous aggressions and the conquest of
the country. At a later occasion the Amir sought the opinions of the principal officers
of the army who, not only unanimously in favour of the introduction of such a
system of communication, warmly advocated its further projection to Herat. The
provision of a railway between India and Kandahar, quite a different affair to a trans-
Afghan system, would indubitably facilitate commerce, since the scheme would
have to go hand in hand with a radical revision of the prohibitory tariffs now imposed
along the Afghan border. The moral effect throughout the Kandahar region, too,
would be no less significant than that originally caused upon the frontier by the
railway to New Chaman, for without that extension from Quetta the proceeds of the
Kandahar fruit-gardens would never reach the Indian markets.
Kandahar, which is 125 miles from Quetta and only 65 miles from the railhead at
New Chaman, is the last place where an army advancing from Herat towards the
Indus would halt. It also affords access to the Ghazni and Kabul roads through the
Tarnak valley, and its proximity to the deserts of Baluchistan on the south renders at
least one of its flanks safe from being turned. It is very accessible from Persia in the
west and from India in the east, while it has changed hands so frequently during the
period of its history—Persians, Uzbegs, Afghans and in recent times the English—
that a further change is certainly to be anticipated. Kandahar is situated between
the Argand and Tarnak rivers on a level plain covered with cultivation and well
populated to the south and west; on the north-west a low ridge rises to the height of
1000 feet. The shape of the city is an irregular parallelogram, the length being from
north to south with a circuit of 3 miles, 1006 yards. It is surrounded by a ditch, 24
feet wide and 10 feet deep, and by a wall which is 20½ feet thick at the bottom, 14½
feet thick at the top and 27 feet in height. This wall is made of mud hardened by
exposure to the sun and without revetment of stone or brick. The length of the
western face is 1967 yards, of the eastern 1810 yards, of the southern 1345 yards
and of the northern 1164 yards. There are four main gates, through which run the
principal streets and two minor gates. The Bar Durani and Kabul are on the eastern
face, the Shikarpur on the southern face, the Herat and the Top Khana on the
western face and the Idgah on the northern face. The Bar Durani and the Top
Khana are the minor gates.
The gateways are defended by six double bastions and the angles are protected
by four large circular towers. The curtains between the bastions have fifty-four small
bastions distributed along the faces. From the Herat gate a street runs to the Kabul
gate through the city; commencing from the Shikarpur gate and crossing it at right
angles near the centre, another leads to the citadel, which is square-built with walls
260 yards in length.
plan of kandahar
The citadel is situated to the north of the city and south of it is the Top Khana.
West of this is the tomb of Ahmed Shah Durani, an octagonal structure, overlaid
with coloured porcelain bricks and surmounted by a gilded dome, surrounded by
small minarets. It towers above all the adjacent buildings and its dome attracts
attention to the city from a distance. The pavement of the tomb is carpeted and an
embroidered cloak is thrown over the sarcophagus. The sepulchre itself, composed
of a coarse stone from the mountains near Kandahar, is inlaid with wreaths of
flowers in coloured marble. Twelve lesser tombs, which are those of the children of
Ahmed Shah, are ranged near the resting-place of the father. The interior walls are
painted in designs similar to those which adorn the exterior, but the execution is

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Flow-Induced Vibration Handbook for

Nuclear and Process Equipment Michel

Mechanics of Flow-Induced Sound and Vibration Volume 2_

Process Equipment and Plant Design: Principles and

Chemical and Process Plant Commissioning Handbook. A

Human Factors Handbook for Process Plant Operations:

Plant Flow Measurement and Control Handbook 1st Edition

Polymers for vibration damping applications B. C.

The Palgrave International Handbook of Football and

Mechanical and Electrical Equipment for Buildings 12th

Fabrication of Process Equipment

Michel J. Pettigrew, Colette E. Taylor, Nigel J. Fisher

This Work is a co-publication between ASME Press

Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data applied for:

Cover Design: Wiley

Set in 9.5/12.5pt STIX Two Text by Straive, Pondicherry, India

1 Introduction and Typical Vibration Problems 1

2 Flow-Induced Vibration of Nuclear and Process Equipment: An Overview 13

2.5 Vibration Response Prediction 36

4 Hydrodynamic Mass, Natural Frequencies and Mode Shapes 87

4.2.1 Single-Phase Flow 89

5 Damping of Cylindrical Structures in Single-Phase Fluids 119

6 Damping of Cylindrical Structures in Two-Phase Flow 155

7 Fluidelastic Instability of Tube Bundles in Single-Phase Flow 183

7.7 Parametric Dependence Study 198

8 Fluidelastic Instability of Tube Bundles in Two-Phase Flow 219

8.9 In-Plane (In-Flow) Fluidelastic Instability 255

9 Random Turbulence Excitation in Single-Phase Flow 271

10 Random Turbulence Excitation Forces Due to Two-Phase Flow 291

10.4 Scaling Factor for Frequency 296

11 Periodic Wake Shedding and Acoustic Resonance 329

11.4 Conclusions and Recommendations 366

12 Assessment of Fretting-Wear Damage in Nuclear and Process Equipment 373

13 Fretting-Wear Damage Coefficients 397

13.4.5 Effect of Temperature 412

Component Analysis 433

Subject Index 463

Liberat N. Carlucci John M. Pietralik

Introduction and Typical Vibration Problems

1.2 Some Typical Component Failures

Fig. 1-7 Tube-to-Tube Fretting Wear in a Power Plant Condenser.

LIGHT WATER STEAM

Thus, it is important to understand flow-induced vibration and damage mechanisms to prevent

1.3 Dynamics of Process System Components

1.3.1 Multi-Span Heat Exchanger Tubes

1.3.2 Other Nuclear and Process Components

Flow-Induced Vibration of Nuclear and Process Equipment: An Overview

2.1.1 Flow-Induced Vibration Overview

2.1.2 Scope of a Vibration Analysis

2.2 Flow Calculations

2.2.1 Flow Parameter Definition

2.2.2 Simple Flow Path Approach

Q = ∑ AU = A1U1 + A2U2 + A3U3

∆P = ∆P1 = ∆P2 = ∆P3

∆P = K2 ρU22 K'2ρ(U'2)2 K ρU22

Tube-Free Around Turn

Fig. 2-1 Flow-Path Approach.

analysis approach, characteristic flow