SALALE UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AND NATURAL RESOURCES

DEPARTMENT OF AGRIBUSINESS AND VALUE CHAIN MANAGEMENT
REVIEW ON IMPACT OF SOIL EROSION ON AGRICULTURAL
PRODUCTIVITY IN THE HIGHLANDS OF ETHIOPIA SUBMITTED TO THE
DEPARTMENT OF AGRIBUSINESS AND VALUE CHAIN MANAGEMENT

PREPERED BY: - MASTEWAL ASMARE

ID NO: _ 1163/14-RU

ADVISOR: _BEKALU.W(Mr.)

MAY, 2024

FICHE, ETHIOPIA
 TABLE OF CONTAINTS

ABBREVIATIONS/ACRONYMS....................................................................................................................iii
ABSTRACT...................................................................................................................................................iv
1. INTRODUCTION.......................................................................................................................................1
1.1 Background of The Seminar..................................................................................................................1
1.2 Objective...............................................................................................................................................2
1.2.1 General objective................................................................................................................................2
1.2.2 Specific objective.................................................................................................................................2
2. LITRATURE REVIEW.................................................................................................................................3
2.1 Concept of Soil Erosion.........................................................................................................................3
2.2. Causes of Soil Erosion..........................................................................................................................3
2.2.1. Natural causes of soil erosion............................................................................................................4
2.2.2 Human cause of soil erosion..............................................................................................................5
2.3 Soil Erosion Effect on Agricultural Productivity in Ethiopian highlands...............................................5
2.3.1 Nutrient loss.........................................................................................................................................6
2.3.2 Loss of water availability....................................................................................................................6
2.3.3 Sedimentation of aquatic ecosystem..................................................................................................7
2.4. Possible Ways to Reduce Soil Erosion Impact.....................................................................................7
2.4.1 Use terrace farming............................................................................................................................7
2.4.2 Practice contougr farming.................................................................................................................7
2.4.3 Improved tillage..................................................................................................................................7
2.4.4 Avoid soil compaction.........................................................................................................................8
2.4.5 Conservation farming.........................................................................................................................8
2.4.6 Empirical review................................................................................................................................9
3. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMODATION................................................................................................10
3.1. Conclusion..........................................................................................................................................10
3.2. Recommondation..............................................................................................................................11
4.REFERENCE.............................................................................................................................................12

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 ABBREVIATIONS/ACRONYMS

MOA------------------------------ Ministry of Agricultural

FAO------------------------------- Food Association Organization
EHRS------------------------------ Ethiopian Highland Reclamation Study
GMLD------------------------------------- Global Mechanization Land Degradation

FI----------------------------------------- Food Insecurity

NGP-------------------------------------- Natural Geographical Phenomenon

WW-------------------------------------- World Wide

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 ABSTRACT
Soil erosion is a world-wide challenge for sustainability of agriculture especially in the highland
areas. Soil erosion is influencing the environmental quality and agricultural productivity of the
land. The rates of soil erosion that exceed the generation of new topsoil are a dynamic process
which leads to decline in the soil productivity, low agricultural yield and income. most of
respondent also confirmed that over cultivation, cultivation of steep slopes, deforestation, over
grazing, unreliable soil management practices and poor agricultural technique are the main
causes for the prevalence of soil erosion in the study areas. the surveyed households are food
insecure due to lose of agricultural productivity of soil erosion. The balance between soil-
forming and depleting processes is of utmost importance for attaining long-term sustainability in
any production system. The general objective of this seminar paper is to review effects of soil
erosion on agricultural productivity in Ethiopian highlands. It recommend that combating the
severity of the soil degradation problem applying various soil management practices should be
critical consider.

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 1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of The Seminar

Soil erosion is one of series problem and degradation all over the world. It is the hazard of
traditional associated with agriculture in highland and sub arid areas to affect the soil
productivity and agriculture (Morgan, 1995). Soil erosion is one of the problems in our country.
Since it removes soil rich nutrient, increase natural hazard, sedimentation in river and other water
bodies and cause for flood and water bodies’ quality problem, reduce the final result of land
productivity (Doran, 1980). Soil erosion is a natural geological phenomenon resulting from the
removal of soil particles by water or wind (Gitas et al., 2009). Soil erosion is worldwide
environmental problem that threatens the lives of most smallholder farmers (Dai et al., 2015;
Erkossa et al., 2015; Gessesse et al., 2015; Ochoa−Cueva et al., 2015; Taguas et al., 2015;
Prosdocimi et al., 2016).This natural process can be accelerated by human activities creating soil
loss that exceeds the soil formation rate in a given area. Human activities that change land use
from a comparatively higher form of permanent vegetation cover, to a state of lesser vegetation
cover, have increased soil erosion (Cebecaue and Hofierka, 2008). Several studies in Ethiopia
have revealed that soil erosion has become an alarming problem (Wagayehu and Drake, 2003;
Admasu, 2005; Bewket and Tefera, 2009; Haile and Fetene, 2012) and it is the major factor
affecting the sustainability of agricultural production. The leading factors causing erosion
include: increased population pressure resulting in forest/woodland clearance for wood and small
holding agriculture; traditional agricultural practices and declining land productivity (Lautze et
al., 2003).The cost of loss of soil and essential nutrients due to unsustainable management in
Ethiopia is estimated to be about $139 million annually (Bojo et al., 1995; Suttclife, 1993; Berry,
2009). Berry (2009) stressed that this cost is about 3-4% of the agricultural GDP but where 85%
of the rapidly growing population depends on agriculture; even this small percentage is critical.
(Dreschel and Gyiejle, 1999) estimated a range of losses through soil degradation using nutrients
studies in areas of high and low nutrient loss. The total loss per hectare in areas of low soil
nutrient loss is about 400 birr (46$) and 4,736 birr ($544) per hectare in areas of High soil
nutrient loss or about 10-12% of the agricultural GDP (Sonneveld, 2002).

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1.2 Objective
1.2.1 General objective
The main objective of this seminar is to review effects of soil erosion on agricultural productivity
in Ethiopian highlands.
1.2.2 Specific objective
To review cause of soil erosion

To assess the effect of soil erosion on agricultural productivity in Ethiopian highlands

To identify possible ways to reduce soil erosion

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 2. LITRATURE REVIEW

2.1 Concept of Soil Erosion

Soil is the basic natural resource for sustenance of life on the planet. The use of this resource
should not cause its degradation or destruction because the existence of humankind depends on
the continued productivity of the soil, but the problem is that an over exploitation of resources
without due attention to the management aspects. According to Hurni (1993) over 90% of all
human food and livestock feed is produced on land, on soils of varying quality and extent.
Hence, our well-being is highly dependent on the potential of soils throughout the world and the
way we manage them. Soil erosion is the removal of the top soil and particles from the surface
which includes removal of including inorganic minerals and organic matter (Geremaw S,
2005).Soil erosion is a natural geological phenomenon resulting from the removal of soil
particles by water or wind (Gitas et al., 2009). This natural process can be accelerated by human
activities creating soil loss that exceeds the soil formation rate in a given area. Human activities
that change land use from a comparatively higher form of permanent vegetation cover, to a state
of lesser vegetation cover, have increased soil erosion (Cebecauer and Hofierka, 2008). Soil
erosion is not a new phenomenon, it has been a problem ever since human beings started
cultivating the land; in other words, soil erosion is as old as human history (De Roo, 1993). It has
been and is a particular problem associated with exploitative types of agriculture on steep slopes
and undulating landscapes. However, the critical problem in all cases is that processes of soil
erosion usually undermine the soil resource and remain unobserved until the last stage. This is
because erosion is noticed when crop production starts to decline and this usually happens at a
very critical phase of soil erosion. Soil erosion has a great effect on the economies of developing
countries to which Ethiopia is not an exception. Agriculture, which is the basis of Ethiopian
economy, is dominated by subsistence production and widespread poverty (MOA, 2001).

2.2. Causes of Soil Erosion

Soil erosion is one of the biggest global environmental hazards causing severe land degradation.
Population explosion, deforestation, unsustainable agricultural cultivation, and overgrazing are

3
among the main factors causing soil erosion hazards (FAO, 2020; Reusing et al., 2000). Soil
erosion is more acute in highland areas where rainfall is more intense and soils are highly
erodible due to the relatively shallow depth and low structural stability of the soil (Eaton, 1996).
Through its effect on soil fertility and productivity, soil erosion is often associated with heavy
loss in agricultural productivity (Morgan, 2005). Ethiopia is one of those countries whose soil
erosion and their effect on the land are almost disastrous and occurrence drought and famine
cause related to soil erosion (Atakiltie, 2010). The major cause of soil erosion is deforestation
and removal of natural vegetation due to overgrazing 29%, 24% is caused by improper
management of the agricultural land and 4% is the result of over exploitation of the natural
vegetation (Morgan, 2011).

2.2.1. Natural causes of soil erosion

Natural Causes of soil erosion are occurred without the human influence. These are:

A. Soil structure

Soil structure influences on the soil which it can be eroded. Soils with medium to fine texture,
low organic matter content and weak structural development is most easily eroded (Bajra, 1992).
Typically, these soils have low water infiltration rates and therefore subjected to high rates of
Water erosion and soil particles are easily displaced by wind energy.

B. Topography

Topography is the influence of length and steepness of slope. The greater the steepness of the
slope, even if other conditions being equal, the greater erosion partly because more water is
likely to run off but also because of increased velocity of water erosion of the inclined area , the
greater concentration of the flooding water (Lattan, 2016).

C. Rainfall

Rain fall is the amount of precipitation usually measured by the depth in inches. An increase in
mean annul precipitation was linked to changes in the soil properties with indicators of soil
degradation increasing with lower levels of rain fail. The status of the soil was better in wet areas
and worse in drier areas. A high annual precipitation received in a number of gentle rains may
cause little erosion. Whereas a lower yearly rain falls descending in a few torrential down pours

4
result in severe damage. The seasonal distribution of the rain fall is also critical in determining
soil erosion losses. In any climate, heavy precipitation occurring at time of year which the soil is
bare is likely to cause soil erosion (Eaton, 2012).

2.2.2 Human cause of soil erosion

Human cause of soil erosion are causes that induced by different human activities

A. Deforestation

Deforestation causes increased erosion rates due to exposure of mineral soil by removing the
humus and litter layers from the soil surface, removing vegetation cover that binds soil together
and causing heavy soil compaction from logging equipment (Sands, Roger, 2012)

B. Population pressure

Population pressure in many semiarid highland regions has degraded plant cover and
impoverished soil in organic material, nutrients, and fine particles. Sterile areas which are
nonproductive, but give rise to considerable runoff, then causes gully problem on good arable
land further downstream (Roose, 2017)

C.Improper agricultural practice

Unsustainable agricultural practices are the single greatest contributor to the global increases in
erosion rates. The tillages of agricultural lands which breaks up soil into finer particle, is one of
the primary factors. The problem has been exacerbated in modern time, due to mechanized
agricultural equipment that allows for deep plowing, which severely increases the amount of soil
that available for transport by water erosion (Labb.D.A, 2009).Tillage also increases wind
erosion rate by dehydrating the soil and breaking it up into smaller particles that can be picked
up by the wind (Nir.Dov, 2009).

2.3 Soil Erosion Effect on Agricultural Productivity in Ethiopian highlands

According to FAO’s (2011) prediction, if soil losses continue unchecked in Africa, the potential
rain-fed crop production will decline by about 15% in the next two decades. In Ethiopia, soil
erosion, its severity being pronounced in the highland areas of the country, has long been a

5
serious problem in Ethiopia; often associated with widespread ecological and socio-economic
damage (Abate, 2011). It has been estimated that out of the estimated 60 million hectare of
agriculturally productive land, about 27 million hectare are significantly eroded, 14 million
hectare are seriously eroded and 2 million hectare have reached the point of no return, with an
estimated total loss of 2 billion cubic meters of top soil per annum (Fikru, 2019), Soil erosion
affects about 50% of the agricultural area and 88% of the total population of Ethiopia
(Sonneveld, 1999). Soil erosion by water and its associated effects are recognized as severe
threats to the national economy of Ethiopia and, since 85% of the country’s population depend
on agriculture for their livelihoods, Physical soil and nutrient losses inevitably lead to food
insecurity Hurni, Sutcliffe and Tamene, as quoted by Brehanu et al., (2009) poor land use
practices, improper management systems, and A lack of appropriate soil conservation measures
has played a major role in land degradation in Ethiopia Setegn et al., (2009). The major problem
caused by soil erosion in Ethiopia is the quantity of soil removed each year and detrimental
effects on the region and the population. From studies carried out so far, there is evidence that
the problem is seriously affecting areas and populations that rely on land cultivation for their
livelihoods. The degradation and loss of soil resulting from soil erosion in Ethiopian highlands is
estimated at about 200 tons per hectare per year (Tides and Getahun, 2009).Soil erosion impacts
are the main causes and consequences of nutrient loss, soil compaction, reduced land values, loss
biodiversity, food insecurity and ecological detraction (Eruing, 1982). Soil erosion creates sever
limitation to sustainable agricultural land use as it reduces on farm soil productivity and causes
food insecurity (Taddese, 2001). Therefore some of the major soil erosion impacts are discussed
below:

2.3.1 Nutrient loss

When nutrient resources are so depleted by erosion, plant growth is stunted and overall
productivity declined (Lan and Steward, 2017). Nutrient deficient soil produces 15-30% lower
crop yield than untraded soils (Olson, 2018). To offset the nutrient losses erosion inflicts on crop
production, large quantities of fertilizer are often applied (Troeh, 1991).
2.3.2 Loss of water availability

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The amount of rain off significantly increases with less water entering to the soil and lasso’s
water available to support the growing vegetation. In contrast to un-eroded soil moderately
eroded soil absorbs from 10-30mm less water per hectare per year from rain fall. This represents
a decrease of 7-44% in the amount of water available for vegetation growth (Wendt et al.,
1986).When soil availability for agricultural system is reduced from 20-40% in the soil, plants
biomass productivity is reduced from 10-25% depending on total rain fall, soil type, slope and
other factors (Evans et al., 2015).

2.3.3 Sedimentation of aquatic ecosystem

Soil erosion especially from agricultural activity is considered to be the leading global causes of
water pollution, due to the effects of excess sediments flowing into the world's water ways. The
sediments themselves act as pollutants as well as being carriers for other pollutants such us
attached pesticides molecule or heavy metals (Dacunha. L, 1991).The biodiversity of aquatic
plants algae life if reduced and invertebrates are also unable to survive and reduced. While the
sedimentation event itself might be relatively short lived, the ecological distraction caused by the
mass distraction often persists long into the future (Graham, 2019).

2.4. Possible Ways to Reduce Soil Erosion Impact

Practice no till farming. With no till farming, crops are allowed to remain rather than being
plowed under at the end of the season. This practice keeps soils anchored in place rather than
having bare ground exposed to wind and water. (Morgan, 2005).

2.4.1 Use terrace farming

This type of farming uses the topography of the land to slow water flow through a series of
terraces. This manipulation of the water flow prevents it from gathering speed and washing soil
away from farmlands (Sertu, 2015).

2.4.2 Practice contougr farming

Contour farming replicates the effects of terrace farming, but on a smaller scale. Rather than
planting crops in straight vertical rows, crops are planted following the contour of the landscape.
Crops planted up and down hillsides create pathways for water to flow. Crops planted parallel to
the land slow the flow of water that prevents soil erosion (Morgan, 2019).

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2.4.3 Improved tillage
All buildings should have gutters or pipes that can drain water effectively out of your garden and
into water collection systems. Without adequate drainage, heavy rain could potentially wash
away a whole layer of top soil. Areas with heavy water runoff may require installing an
underground perforated drainage pipe (Sertu, 2010).

2.4.4 Avoid soil compaction

Foot and vehicle traffic compresses soil, making it less porous and more vulnerable to water
runoff. Take steps to minimize this effect: Establish permanent walkways with paving stones,
stepping stones, or cleared paths. Encourage people to stay on the walkways. Do not walk over
wet soil, which compacts more easily. Create a concrete driveway instead of driving over bare
ground. Add compost, rotted manure, or other organic matter to encourage earthworms that
aerate soil (Morgan, 2005).

2.4.5 Conservation farming

Like conservation tillage, this title covers many different farming techniques. It includes any
farming practice which improves yield, or reliability, or decreases the inputs of lab our or
fertilizer, or anything else leading towards improved land husbandry, which we have defined as
the foundation of good soil conservation. But the semi-arid areas are changing rapidly, and the
traditional patterns may be no longer relevant. As Jones (1985) says "while tradition may
incorporate the wisdom of centuries of practical experience, the abandonment of bush fallowing
or migration onto different types of soil or into more arid areas (Sertu, 2010).

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2.4.6 Empirical review
Soil erosion is acritical global land degradation phenomenon affecting human being humans’
basic sources of livelihood are from the land (p.u.et al-2017). soil erosion affects between 25-30
percent of the total land under cultivation in India (chopra-2016). in Africa over 70 percent of the
national land surface are impact vary levels and types of soil erosion (Thiomblano and Tourino-
soto,2010). according to (Aberha,2008) the implication of soil erosion extends beyond the
removal of valuable soil nutrients from topsoil. Soil erosion is a natural geographical
phenomenon resulting from the removal of soil particles by water (Gitas.et,2009). (Dheschel and
Gyieil-2009)estimation arrange of losses through soil degradation using nutrients studies in area
of high and low nutrient loss. It removals soil rich nutrients the cause of food and water bodies
quality problem reduce the final result of land productivity (Doran-2012). Soil erosion is the
removal of the top soil andparticles from the surface which include removal of including
inorganic mineral and organic matter (Geremaws-2016). The sediments themselves act as
pollutants as well as being carrier for other pollutants such as attached pesticide molecule or
heavy metals (Dacunha,l-2013). soil erosion can cause the gradual detachment of particles of top
soil which are transport agents of denudation, such as water, wind and subsequently deposited in
low basin area(p.u.etal,2017).according laboratory analysis, the soil
of the study area is characterized by moderately acidic, low category of om and organic carbon
content, low proportion of available phosphorus and very low to low range of total nitrogen, and
also confirmed that over cultivation, cultivation of steep slopes, deforestation, over grazing,
unreliable soil management practices and poor agricultural techniques are main cause of soil
erosion study area.

9
 3. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMODATION

3.1. Conclusion
Soil erosion is the removal of soil particles by the action of water and wind agents. Soil erosion
impacts are the impact of soil that reduces agricultural productivity due to the loss of soil nutrient
and soil productivity. The major causes of soil erosion in the study area are population pressure,
deforestation, urbanization, overgrazing, topography, rainfall and others. The effect of soil
erosion on agricultural productivity is loss of soil nutrient, reduction of crop product and increase
food insecurity. Consequence and effect of soil erosion on agricultural productivity has a
significant effect on crop production. The loss of soil and soil nutrient depletion decrease
agricultural product and it brings a serious agricultural problem on both human and animal. In
addition to this soil erosion hazard leads to increase problem of water resource and other
resource problems. The indicator of soil erosion on agricultural farm includes when runoff
creates, the soil transported by runoff, reduction of crop product and other. The solution of soil
erosion hazard includes; construction of physical soil and water conservation measures, like soil
bund, terrace, stone bund, funajue and other biological measures are recommended to reduce soil
erosion. The perceived main causes of soil erosion in the study area are over cultivation,
cultivation of steep slopes, poor agricultural practices and deforestation. It is also found that,
topographic nature of the surface, slope gradient of the area, drainage feature of rivers and land
use land cover conditions are found to be the potentially facilitating causes for occurrence of soil
erosion in the study area. The main consequences of soil erosion in the study area are decline in
land productivity, change in type of crops grown and reduces farm plot size by declining land
productivity. It is also analyzed that soil erosion has impacts on land productivity, yields of crop
and soil quality or nutrient loss in the soil. It is confirmed that productivity of crops per hectare
per year for selected dominantly producing crops in the study area is decreasing in past five years

10
3.2. Recommondation
The severe soil erosion in the study area directly accelerated soil degradation and declines the
productivity of land in the area. Thus, combating the soil erosion problem by applying a wide
range of soil management practices and creating skillful awareness to farmers of the area should
be recommended. In addition, there should be need of formulating appropriate plan and
strategies for creating awareness among farmers of the area to avoid the problem of deforestation
and implementation of reforestation program. The soil laboratory test result reveals that the soil
of study area is characterized by moderately acidic, low category of OM content, very low to low
range of available phosphorous and very low to low range of total nitrogen. Therefore, concerned
stakeholders should improve the acidity nature of

soil by adding carbonate minerals and enhancing organic matter content of soil by developing
and applying composts and organic decompositions. The prevalence of drought due to shortage
of rainfall and an increase of temperature in recent decades result with decline of production and
loss of formerly available root crops like sweat potato, yam and EnSite. Therefore, the impact of
climatic variability on crop production and loss of crop species should be assessed by researchers
in the study area.

soil erosion is one of the problems in our country; it removes soil rich nutrient, increase hazard,
sedimentation in river and other water bod’s quality problem reduce final result of land
productivity. soil erosion natural geographical phenomenon resulting from the removal of soil
practical by water or wind. The impacts of soil erosion on agricultural productivity in the
highland of Ethiopia can be mitigated ;sustainable land use practices and improved livelihoods
for farmers; some are promote conservation agricultural practices such as minimal tillage, crop
rotation , cover cropping to reduce soil disturbance and improve soil structure and other methods
maintain vegetative cover through practices like agroforestry, grass strips, and cover cropping to
protect the soil from erosion, and education and awareness; conduct training program and
awareness campaigns for farmers on sustainable land management practices to reduce erosion
and improve soil hleath.

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