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Material Removal Processes

Machining is a manufacturing process in which a sharp cutting tool is used to cut away material
to leave the desired part shape.

The predominant cutting action in machining involves shear deformation of the work material
to form a chip.

As the chip is removed, a new surface is exposed.

Machining is most frequently applied to shape metals.

Click here to watch a video regarding the machining.

Click here to watch a video regarding the shear deformation.

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Material Removal Processes

Machining is important commercially and technologically for several reasons. These are:

1- Variety of work materials.

Machining can be applied to most of work materials.

Virtually all solid metals can be machined.

Plastics and plastic composites can also be cut by machining.

Ceramics pose difficulties because of their high hardness and brittleness; however, most
ceramics can be successfully cut by the abrasive machining processes

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Material Removal Processes

2- Variety of part shapes and geometric features.

Machining can be used to create any regular geometries, such as flat planes, round holes, and
cylinders.

By introducing variations in tool shapes and tool paths, irregular geometries can be created,
such as screw threads and T-slots.

By combining several machining operations in sequence, shapes of almost unlimited complexity

and variety can be produced.

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Material Removal Processes

3- Dimensional accuracy.

Machining can produce dimensions to very close tolerances.

Some machining processes can achieve tolerances of ±0.025 mm, much more accurate than
most other processes.

4- Good surface finishes.

Machining is capable of creating very smooth surface finishes.

Roughness values less than 0.4 microns can be achieved in conventional machining operations.
Some abrasive processes can achieve even better finishes.

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Material Removal Processes

Certain disadvantages are associated with machining and other material removal processes.
These are:

1- Wasteful of material.

Machining is inherently wasteful of material.

The chips generated in a machining operation are wasted material.

Although these chips can usually be recycled, they represent waste in terms of the unit
operation.

2- Time consuming.

A machining operation generally takes more time to shape a given part than alternative shaping
processes such as casting or forging.

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Material Removal Processes

Machining is generally performed after other manufacturing processes such as casting or bulk
deformation.

The other processes create the general shape of the starting work part, and machining provides
the final geometry, dimensions, and finish.

Machining is a group of processes.

The common feature is the use of a cutting tool to form a chip that is removed from the work
part.

To perform the operation, relative motion is required between the tool and work material.

This relative motion is achieved in most machining operations by means of a primary motion,
called the cutting speed (V), and a secondary motion, called the feed (F).

The shape of the tool and its penetration into the work surface, combined with these motions,
produces the desired geometry of the resulting work surface.
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Types of Machining Operations

There are many kinds of
machining operations.

Each of them is capable of

generating a certain part
geometry and surface texture.

It is appropriate to identify and

define the three most common
types: turning, drilling, and
milling.

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Types of Machining Operations

In turning, a cutting tool with a single cutting edge is used to remove material from a rotating
workpiece to generate a cylindrical shape.

The speed motion in turning is provided by the rotating work part, and the feed motion is
achieved by the cutting tool moving slowly in a direction parallel to the axis of rotation of the
workpiece.

Click here to watch a video regarding the turning.

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Types of Machining Operations

Drilling is used to create a round hole. It is accomplished
by a rotating tool that typically has two cutting edges.

The tool is fed in a direction parallel to its axis of rotation

into the work part to form the round hole.

Click here to watch a video regarding the drilling.

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Types of Machining Operations

In milling, a rotating tool with multiple cutting edges is Face milling
fed slowly across the work material to generate a plane
or straight surface.

The direction of the feed motion is perpendicular to the

tool’s axis of rotation.

The speed motion is provided by the rotating milling

cutter.

The two basic forms of milling are peripheral milling Peripheral milling
and face milling.

Click here to watch a video regarding the milling.

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The Cutting Tool

A cutting tool has one or more sharp cutting edges and is made of a material that is harder than
the work material.

The cutting edge serves to separate a chip from the parent work material.

Connected to the cutting edge are two surfaces of the tool: the rake face and the flank.

The rake face, which directs the flow of the newly formed chip, is oriented at a certain angle
called the rake angle α.

The rake angle is measured relative to a plane perpendicular to the work surface.

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The Cutting Tool

The rake angle can be positive or negative.

Positive rake angle

Negative rake angle

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The Cutting Tool

The flank of the tool provides a clearance between the tool and the newly generated work
surface.

The flank face protects the surface from abrasion, which would degrade the finish.

This flank surface is oriented at an angle called the relief angle.

Click here to watch a video regarding the cutting tool geometry.

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The Cutting Tool

There are two basic types of the cutting tools.

These are single-point tools and multiple-cutting-edge tools.

Single-point tool Multiple-cutting-edge tool

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The Cutting Tool

A single-point tool has one cutting edge and is used for operations such as turning.

There is one tool point in the single point cutting tools.

During machining, the point of the tool penetrates below the original work surface of the part.
The point is usually rounded to a certain radius, called the nose radius.

Multiple-cutting-edge tools have more than one cutting edge and usually achieve their motion
relative to the work part by rotating.

Although the shape is quite different from a single-point tool, many elements of tool geometry
are similar.

Click here to watch a video regarding the single-point and multiple-cutting-edge tools.

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Cutting Conditions
Relative motion is required between the tool and
work material to perform a machining operation.

The primary motion is accomplished at a certain

cutting speed v.

Cutting speed is defined as the speed at which the

work moves with respect to the tool (usually
measured in meter per minute).

The tool must be moved laterally across the work.

This is a much slower motion, called the feed f.

Feed is defined as the distance the tool travels

during one revolution of the part.

The depth of cut is the penetration of the cutting

tool below the original work surface.

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Cutting Conditions
The speed, feed, and depth of cut are called the cutting conditions.

The cutting conditions form the three dimensions of the machining process, and for certain
operations and they can be used to calculate the material removal rate for the process.

Material removal rate is the volume of material removed per minute.

Cutting speed in mm/min Feed in mm/rev

Material removal rate in mm3/min Depth of cut in mm

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Cutting Conditions
Typical units used for cutting speed
are mm/min.

Feed in turning is expressed in mm/rev.

Depth of cut is expressed in mm.

In other machining operations, the

cutting conditions may differ.

For example, in a drilling operation,

depth is interpreted as the depth of the
drilled hole.

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Cutting Conditions
Machining operations usually divide into two categories, distinguished by purpose and cutting
conditions.

These are roughing cuts and finishing cuts.

Roughing cuts are used to remove large amounts of material from the starting work part as
rapidly as possible.

In order to produce a shape close to the desired form but leaving some material on the piece for a
subsequent finishing operation.

Roughing operations are performed at high feeds and depths—feeds of 0.4–1.25 mm/rev and
depths of 2.5–20 mm are typical.

Click here to watch a video regarding the roughing cuts.

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Cutting Conditions
Finishing cuts are used to complete the part and achieve the final dimensions, tolerances, and
surface finish.

In production machining jobs, one or more roughing cuts are usually performed on the work,
followed by one or two finishing cuts.

Finishing operations are carried out at low feeds and depths—feeds of 0.125–0.4 mm and depths
of 0.75–2.0 mm are typical. Cutting speeds are lower in roughing than in finishing.

Click here to watch a video regarding the finishing cuts.

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Cutting Conditions
A cutting fluid is often applied to the machining operation to cool and lubricate the cutting tool.

Determining whether a cutting fluid should be used, and, if so, choosing the proper cutting fluid,
is usually included within the scope of cutting conditions.

Given the work material and tooling, the selection of these conditions is very influential in
determining the success of a machining operation.

Click here to watch a video regarding the cutting fluids.

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Machine Tools
Conventional machine tools are usually tended by a human operator, who loads and unloads
the work parts, changes cutting tools, and sets the cutting conditions.

Many modern machine tools are designed to accomplish their operations with a form of
automation called computer numerical control.

A machine tool is used to hold the work part, position the tool relative to the work, and provide
power for the machining process at the speed, feed, and depth that have been set.

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Machining and Part Geometry

Machined parts can be classified as rotational or non-rotational (prismatic).

A rotational work part has a cylindrical or disk-like shape.

The characteristic operation that produces this geometry is one in which a cutting tool removes
material from a rotating work part. Examples include turning and boring.

A non-rotational (prismatic) work part is block-like or plate-like.

This geometry is achieved by linear motions of the work part, combined with rotating or linear
tool motions. Operations in this category include milling, shaping, planing, and sawing.
Prismatic parts
Rotational part

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Cutting Conditions in Turning

The rotational speed in turning is related to the desired cutting speed at the surface of the
cylindrical workpiece by the equation;

Cutting speed in mm/min

Rotational speed in rev/min

Original diameter of the part in mm

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Cutting Conditions in Turning

The turning operation reduces the diameter of the work from its original diameter (Do)
to a final diameter (Df), as determined by the depth of cut (d):

Final diameter Original diameter

Depth of cut

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Cutting Conditions in Turning

The feed in turning is generally expressed in mm/rev.

This feed can be converted to a linear travel rate in mm/min by the formula

Feed rate in mm/min

Spindle speed in rev/min Feed in mm/rev

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Cutting Conditions in Turning

The time to machine from one end of a cylindrical work part to the other is given by

Length of the cylindrical workpart in mm

Machining time in min

Feed rate in mm/min

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Cutting Conditions in Turning

A more direct computation of the machining time is provided by the following equation:

Workpart diameter in mm

Machining time in min Workpart length in mm

Feed in mm/rev Cutting speed in mm/min

*** As a practical matter, a small distance is usually added to the work part length at the beginning
and end of the piece to allow for approach and overtravel of the tool. Thus, the duration of the feed
motion past the work will be longer than Tm.
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Cutting Conditions in Turning

The volumetric rate of material removal can be most conveniently determined by the following
equation:

Material removal rate in mm3/min Depth of cut

Cutting speed in mm/min Feed in mm/rev

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Operations Related to Turning

A variety of other machining

operations can be performed on a
lathe in addition to turning.

Click here to watch a video regarding the operations related to turning.

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Operations Related to Turning

Facing. The tool is fed radially into the
rotating work on one end to create a flat
surface on the end.

Click here to watch a video regarding the facing.

Taper turning. Instead of feeding the tool

parallel to the axis of rotation of the work,
the tool is fed at an angle, thus creating a
tapered cylinder or conical shape.

Click here to watch a video regarding the taper turning.

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Operations Related to Turning

Contour turning. Instead of feeding the tool
along a straight line parallel to the axis of
rotation as in turning, the tool follows a
contour that is other than straight, thus
creating a contoured form in the turned part.

Click here to watch a video regarding the contour turning.

Form turning. In this operation, the tool has a shape

that is imparted to the work by plunging the tool
radially into the work.

Form turning is performed with a specially designed

tool called a form tool.

Click here to watch a video regarding the form turning.

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Operations Related to Turning

Chamfering. The cutting edge of the tool is used to cut
an angle on the corner of the cylinder, forming a
“chamfer.”

Click here to watch a video regarding the chamfering.

Cutoff. The tool is fed radially into the rotating work at

some location along its length to cut off the end of the
part.

This operation is sometimes referred to as parting.

Click here to watch a video regarding the cutoff.

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Operations Related to Turning

Threading. A pointed tool is fed linearly across the
outside surface of the rotating work part in a direction
parallel to the axis of rotation at a large effective feed
rate, thus creating threads in the cylinder.

A threading operation is accomplished using a single-

point tool designed with a geometry that shapes the
thread.

Click here to watch a video regarding the threading.

Boring. A single-point tool is fed linearly, parallel to

the axis of rotation, on the inside diameter of an
existing hole in the part.

Click here to watch a video regarding the boring.

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Operations Related to Turning

Drilling can be performed on a lathe by
feeding the drill into the rotating work along its
axis.

Drilling is accomplished by a drill bit.

Click here to watch a video regarding the drilling

Reaming is used to slightly enlarge a hole, to

provide a better tolerance on its diameter, and
to improve its surface finish.

Reaming is accomplished by a reamer.

Click here to watch a video regarding the reaming

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Operations Related to Turning

Knurling is not a machining operation because it does not involve
cutting of material.

Instead, it is a metal forming operation used to produce a regular

cross-hatched pattern in the work surface.

Knurling is performed by a knurling tool, consisting of two hardened

forming rolls, each mounted between centers.

The forming rolls have the desired knurling pattern on their surfaces.

To perform knurling, the tool is pressed against the rotating work

part with sufficient pressure to impress the pattern onto the work
surface.

Click here to watch a video regarding the knurling

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Reference

Groover, MP., Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing: Materials, Processes, and Systems, Wiley,
2014.

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Thank you for your attention.

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