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REFLECTIONS ON MYANMAR
Myanmar is known for its engaging history, rich cultural heritage, and diverse
ethnic communities. Its tumultuous political past has been discussed by academics
and policymakers for decades; however, the land of the Shwedagon cannot only
be defined by conflict and contestation. Myanmar is complex and multi-layered
with innumerable issues shaping its identity and manifold interpretations creating
its distinctiveness. A deeper comprehension of its past glory with thoughtful
deliberation on its socio-economic challenges helps to understand the country
better. This book fills this gap by focusing on four broad themes––reminiscence,
restoration, re-evaluation, and resurrection. It studies interconnected issues ranging
from nostalgia and belonging to Myanmar’s contribution to art and heritage
(through its museums, cinema, folk traditions); from the problems of landlessness,
resource dispossession, and climate change to the experience of marginalized
groups. The author weaves these themes into a common narrative of discovering
Myanmar through a holistic lens.The book aims to explore the country through its
history, culture, communities, and challenges.
A unique contribution, the book highlights the myriad facets of Myanmar
by contemplating on its inherent strengths and visible weaknesses. It would be
indispensable for scholars and researchers of Southeast Asian studies, Asian studies,
area studies, Myanmar studies, political studies, cultural studies, and sociology.
Reshmi Banerjee
Designed cover image: © Getty Images
First published 2023
by Routledge
4 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
and by Routledge
605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informal business
© 2023 Reshmi Banerjee
The right of Reshmi Banerjee to be identified as author of this work has been asserted in
accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised
in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or
hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information
storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks,
and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Banerjee, Reshmi, 1962– author.
Title: Reflections on Myanmar : identity, heritage, aspirations /
Reshmi Banerjee.
Description: Oxon ; New York : Informa Law from Routledge, 2023. |
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2022043987 (print) | LCCN 2022043988 (ebook) |
ISBN 9781032319681 (hardback) | ISBN 9781032328874 (paperback) |
ISBN 9781003317180 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Burma–Civilization. | Burma–History. |
Burma–Social life and customs.
Classification: LCC DS527.9 .B36 2023 (print) |
LCC DS527.9 (ebook) | DDC 959.1–dc23/eng/20220926
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022043987
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022043988
ISBN: 978-1-032-31968-1 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-1-032-32887-4 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-003-31718-0 (ebk)
DOI: 10.4324/9781003317180
Typeset in Bembo
by Newgen Publishing UK
CONTENTS
Preface vii
Acknowledgements ix
List of Abbreviations x
Introduction 1
SECTION 1
Reminiscence 13
SECTION 2
Restoration 49
8 Museums Matter 64
SECTION 3
Re-evaluation 91
SECTION 4
Resurrection 135
Conclusion 171
Bibliography 173
Glossary 208
Index 211
PREFACE
book is a collection of eight blog pieces (parts of which have been published in Tea
Circle before) along with 12 new short essays.
I hope the chapters in the book will strike a chord with the readers as the
concerns covered will seem familiar even though they might seem geographically
far from a distant land. The book aims to give a sneak peek into the land of the
Shwedagon which has witnessed tumultuous times in history and continues to
face unpredictable weather. The main objective is to generate interest in a country
which is not only known for its beautiful pagodas and stunning sunsets but also
for conflict and contestation. The aim is to recognise the manifold narratives
existing within Myanmar by connecting them through history, culture, communi-
ties, and challenges. The book is divided into four sections (reminiscence, restoration,
re-evaluation, and resurrection), with each section showcasing a different facet of the
country –pertaining to both the historical and the contemporary. I hope that it
will take the readers on a journey which they find intriguing, thought provoking,
and enjoyable.
Disclaimer: The facts and figures stated in the book are based on secondary
literature/sources, the accuracy of which have not been verified by the author/
publisher. Both the terms ‘Burma’ and ‘Myanmar’ have been applied for observing/
describing/discussing the country, depending on the context. The book is not
intended to hurt the sentiments of any person, community/g roup, or organisation
(governmental and non-governmental) of Myanmar. The complexities involved
and the fast-changing dynamics of various concerns covered cannot be captured
in one book. The book therefore provides a glimpse into each topic while being
mindful of the fact that each issue covered can constitute a book in itself. The time
period covered in this book is from pre-colonial times to 2020.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The book was conceived during the COVID-19 pandemic of 2020 which wreaked
havoc into our lives. I used this time for reflection and writing. I would like to
specially thank the founders of Tea Circle (Dr. Matthew Walton and Ms. Courtney
Wittekind) for their support. My years of association (January 2016 to February
2020) with the blog forum Tea Circle (An Oxford Forum for New Perspectives on
Burma/Myanmar) has been a great learning experience, especially in my attempts
to understand the country deeply. I have also been supported well in this academic
journey by my publisher Routledge. My sincere gratitude to the entire team.
A big thank you to my parents and my husband. All three of them patiently
tackled my ever-changing moods and innumerable queries with their everlasting
affection and constant positivity. Finally, the inspiration for this book comes from
the beautiful country of Myanmar: a land which continues to amaze me with its
rich diversity and unique socio-cultural terrain.
Dr. Reshmi Banerjee
1 August 2022
ABBREVIATIONS
DOI: 10.4324/9781003317180-1
2 Introduction
The treaty ofYandaboo in 1826 which was signed after the end of the first Anglo-
Burmese war was instrumental in protecting the economic interests of the British
in this region by pushing the Burmese out of Assam, Cachar, Jyntia, Mannipoore,
and the provinces of Arakan. The treaty also resulted in indigenous communities
getting divided across borders like the Nagas, Kukis, Mizos, and Manipuri Meitei’s
who found themselves not only in the Northeastern region of India but also in
Sagaing, Kachin, and Chin Divisions of Myanmar. Artificial markers were imposed
on common ethnic ties. The profound impact of the British rule and the decisions
made (mainly to exploit the region) without paying heed to the repercussions on
trade, economy, and society had a long-lasting adverse fall out. Impersonalisation
of authority increased with existing relationships getting disrupted. The notion of
ethnicity got entrenched with the divide created between indigenous and migrant
labour: between hill and valley people. Old customary practices were sidelined
and ignored with revenue collection being the main priority. The marginalisation
of indigenous groups, rising indebtedness, and agrarian distress combined with an
overall environment of distrust sowed the seeds for future disagreements.2
Myanmar during the British colonial period faced drastic changes and perennial
challenges which any subjugated colonised province could have faced ranging from
a significant portion of the money collected in Burma getting transferred to India,
heavy taxation, decline in community solidarity, limited access to land for farmers
(non-agriculturalists gaining more power and land), and finally unemployment pla-
guing the populace.3
Scholars working on the position of women in Burma like T.T. Nwe (2003),
J. Mills (2000), and C. Ikeya (2005/2006) have commented on their role in society.
Burmese women were portrayed by colonial officers and the Christian missionaries
as more liberated and apparently enjoying their freedom as there was no prevalence
of sati or purdah as seen in the Hindus and Muslims, respectively. Even though
ambivalence remained regarding their position in society (they were subordinated
in Burmese rituals and their clothing had to be washed separately), they could
inherit property and take on multiple responsibilities and work as traders in local
shops or support their husbands in the farms. But the concept of hpon (central to
the notion of male superiority) was prevalent and continues even today.4
The fragile relations between communities (especially between the Indians and
the Burmese), the anti-Indian riots in the late 1930s, and the racial divisions over-
lapping the economic divisions (the Burmese worked in the traditional economy,
whereas the Indians and the Chinese worked in the colonial export one) all created
social tensions which were responsible for menacing friction with the passage of
time. The Second World War and the collapse of the administration as the Japanese
onslaught ravaged through the country can never be forgotten. It brought forth the
deeply racial nature of colonial rule (escape routes were segregated for the Indians
and the British), and there was utter mismanagement in protecting the people of
the land.
Ranvijay Singh has observed that the exodus from Burma bears a phantasmal
similarity to the present day (millions of migrant workers walking in India to reach
Introduction 3
State Law and Order Restoration Council (SLORC). Many changes occurred
from the late 1980s: Foreign Investment Law was enacted and Foreign Investments
Commission was established, foreign direct investment was introduced in construc-
tion, tourism, and mining sectors, ceasefire agreements were signed (between 1989
and 1997), and banks specialising on agriculture emerged.12
Throughout the decades leading to 2020, there have been innumerable reports
(domestic and international) along with books/articles which have discussed and
analysed the challenges faced by the country. It was observed over the years that
villagers continued to face large-scale deforestation, land confiscation, disposses-
sion of their common property resources, large-scale mining (leading to pollution
reaching the rivers) and logging, construction of big dams –all of which not only
changed the natural landscape but also the daily living and livelihoods of people.
This was not an unfamiliar story though as these developments were seen across the
border in Northeast India too: thus, the narrative was quite similar. Laur Kiik who
has studied mining in Hpakant in the Kachin area has noted the rise in social and
health problems with increase in drug addiction and HIV/AIDS infections. Mono-
crop plantations have arisen on acres of farmland, with even animals not being
spared as their parts have been traded, including those of endangered species.13
Many people have been forced to leave their villages in search of work, with
women left behind. Myanmar has thus witnessed feminisation of both agricul-
ture and poverty. The ethnic minority areas (Chin, Kachin, Karen, and Shan) have
continued to witness more destruction over the decades as they also happen to
be resource-r ich regions. The relationship between limited resources and ethnic
conflict is well known: with the devastation and disappearance of the former
leading to aggravation of the latter. The conflict over land is one of the defining
conflicts in Myanmar which is changing its discourse (of the State as well as of
civil society).
Tin Maung Maung Than has argued that large- scale development projects
like hydroelectric power production and foreign labour influx in both timber
and mining concessions have led to conflicts which are localised in nature. These
conflicts have arisen from injustices caused, as Than argues, over “displacement of
affected populations and disenfranchised communities”.14 Kerstin Duell has fur-
ther argued that the country’s ethnic struggles should not be perceived as conflict
over resources only, with Duell stating four reasons: a) ethno-political violence
within the country dates back to pre-independence period and is not just related to
current grievances; b) the ethnic nationality movements are varied in their histories
and identities; c) regional conflict seems to continue from the Cold War times; and
finally, d) it is very difficult for one stakeholder to provide solution to the deep-
seated humanitarian and social crisis which has built up over many decades.15
Ceasefire in the ethnic minority regions (border zones) sadly seems to have
apparently provided a more stable environment whereby the rate and scope of
resource exploitation has increased with vested interests creating profitable
networks. Kevin Woods has observed that various groups were making profits
not only from areas controlled by the respective ceasefire group but also in some
Introduction 5
cases in government-controlled areas. Timber was also being taxed by the ceasefire
groups as it crossed the border.16
According to Woods, land-based business deals have replaced the guns with this
indirect control over population (populace was shifted depending on convenience/
vested interests) through commercial networks occurring which he calls the “com-
mercialization of counter-insurgency”. But both foreign businesses and domestic
investors have been met with resistance too as was witnessed in the Myitsone
Dam case in the Kachin state which in turn led to the project/construction being
stopped.17
Rising number of refugees (including jatropha refugees) on both the western
and eastern borders of Myanmar is a constant reminder of the challenges faced
within the country. Chins have moved into Mizoram in Northeast India, whereas
on the Thai side, several refugee camps housing the Karens portray a gruelling life.
Christina Fink while mentioning the jatropha refugees has stated the helplessness
of people as they have been apparently forced to grow jatropha instead of food
crops, with many having no right to choose their crops of production. Even the
ethnic militias have compelled the people to provide for them, thus adding to the
burden.18
The impact of laws in Myanmar has not been adequately felt, with ambiguity in
them leading to sometimes problems in efficient implementation.The term used ‘in
the interest of the state’ has often been apparently misused to take over land. Socio-
economic assessment, environmental impact assessment, public participation, public
disclosure, right way of calculating compensation, and inclusion of all stakeholders
in the decision-making processes –all could have been done better in Myanmar.
The two land laws passed in 2012 (Farmland Law and the Vacant, Fallow and Virgin
Lands Management Law) have in a way led to “legalized land grab” (according to
Kevin Woods).19
In 1997, the SLORC was abolished and reconstituted as the State Peace and
Development Council (SPDC). This council was dissolved in March 2011 and
replaced by the new government under President Thein Sein (elections were held
in 2010 which the National League for Democracy/NLD boycotted and the
Union Solidarity and Development Party won a majority). This was the first step
in the transition to a semi-civilian government in which former senior military
officers, including top officials from the SPDC, managed the new constitutional
government. Although some were unhappy, especially those who had expected a
more rigorous change, things did start getting better with Myanmar able to retrieve
some of its standing in the eyes of the international community. Not only was
the NLD welcomed into the formal political arrangement, but the Association of
Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) was chaired by Myanmar in 2014 for the first
time. In mid-2013, the World Economic Forum also put on a grand investment
summit before Myanmar hosted the Southeast Asian games. These were seen as not
only opportunities to showcase the exuberance of Myanmar society but also were a
precursor to the 2015 general elections in which NLD was victorious. It held 60%
of seats in the National Assembly and also performed well in the elections to the
6 Introduction
State and Regional legislatures, with the exception of Rakhine and Shan States.
NLD’s Htin Kyaw became the President.20 Later President Win Myint took over as
president from 2018 (remained till February 2021).
In spite of the halting transition taking place within the country, Myanmar
continued to face challenges which slowed its pace towards the path to democracy.
The disturbing signs were pointed out by Justine Chambers and Gerard McCarthy.
In 2017–2018, the financing for health, education, and welfare combined could
have been more than what was being dedicated to other departments. Poverty
and household debt remained problematic while the condition of civil liberties
especially of religious minorities and activists faced challenges. The humanitarian
crisis accompanied by increasing violence in the Rakhine State was a constant
reminder that order (both political and security) was desperately needed in this
border state. The much-needed talks on political autonomy and federalism/power-
sharing mechanisms were hitting repeated roadblocks with the country’s special
economic zones exposing the complexities involved in handling natural resources
on one hand with legacies of firm rule on the other.21
Feelings of suspicion existing between every official authority and the Ethnic
Armed Organisations (EAOs) over the years has continued to run deep which,
according to Giuseppe Gabusi, can impact the possibilities of a truce or a genuine
political dialogue. Lack of legitimate institutions can lead to severe socio-economic
tensions leading to new conflicts. Unfulfilled expectations over a period of time
can create a divide between the beneficiaries and the losers of an investment. It
can also create divisions within a community as over-dependency on extractive
industries can be fragmentary. Therefore, the need is for social consensus, with
horizontal cooperation required among different stakeholders along with vertical
coordination.22
Myanmar in recent years has seen renewed conflict (Northern alliance clashing
in 2017) which has been a case of worry. China continues to exercise influence
over ethnic minorities in the Wa and Kokang region. The Constitution of 2008
had important veto powers provided for the military with the administration
of border areas and other key ministries under their firm control.23 The ethnic-
ally dominant Bamar ethnic group is about two-thirds of the population, but the
ethnic homelands cover more than half of the country’s territory with rich nat-
ural resources like timber, jade, and minerals. The border areas will continue to see
clashes as these areas lie between big Asian giants who will try to strategically con-
trol these frontiers, leaving people more vulnerable.24
Clashes between the Buddhists and the Muslims in recent years have left the
country reeling under a series of riots with sectarian clashes witnessed in the
Rakhine State (June and October 2012), Lashio (May 2013), and Mandalay (July
2014). The role of the Buddhist nationalist 969 movement has been debated.25
This hostile relationship between religious groups makes the fragile situation on
the ground even more volatile; the poorest are the worst affected whose pov-
erty combined with ethno-religious identity makes them extremely vulnerable.
Although ethnic groups have their own institutional framework/ organisations
Introduction 7
taking care of the community’s education and health needs, the lack of adequate
support, including finances, at times makes the going tough for them.
Although Myanmar has not performed well in the World Press Freedom Index
with journalists facing problems in reporting, some change did occur from 2010
onwards. Myanmar Egress started delivering political training to young activists
and ethnic media, including social media which gained strength over the years
(Kantarawaddy Times, Voice of Danu Facebook Page, Tai TV Online), yet the application
of the Telecommunication Law, especially its section 66 (d), does make one wonder
whether real change is taking place or not.26
Marie Lall while commenting on the reform process observed that the ‘wronged
could protest’, with organisations like Myanmar Egress putting the voices of
ordinary people at the centre stage of the transformation narrative without neces-
sarily choosing the path of confrontation.27 The government at that time did listen
to varied opinions and different points of view which was in turn reflected in col-
laborative efforts (building of bridges and roads, 800,000 ID cards distributed in
remote regions, and residents being able to travel freely).28
Myanmar has attempted many interventions which have included those under-
taken by international/domestic organisations and civil society groups/actors. Issues
of land registration, agriculture, nutrition, micro-finance, community development,
ecology, and wildlife have been taken up seriously. Women’s groups, youth and
environmental groups, and cross-border relief have all been operating. Organisations
like the Livelihood and Food Safety Trust (LIFT), World Food Programme (WFP),
United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), UK’s Department for International
Development (DFID), JICA (Japanese International Cooperation Agency),
Australia’s AusAid, The Gender Equality Network, the Karen and Kachin Women’s
Association, Legal Assistance Centres (LACs), and Myanmar Peace Support Initiative
(MPSI) are only some amongst the innumerable organisations that have supported
the country.
Farmers Field Schools (over 600 of them were set up in both upland and low-
land areas) and the Regeneration Initiative (2009 to 2014) were two programmes
started by Metta Development Foundation with the aim of helping communities
build their capacities. In the Farmer Field Schools, focus was on educating the
farmers along with strengthening the health and nutritional standards through kit-
chen gardens. Even monks asked people to attend these schools as evident in the
PaO region of the southern Shan state.29
In the Regeneration Initiative, stress was given on PAR (Participatory Action
Research) model, with sectors like agriculture and forestry, education, health, emer-
gency and development, and livelihood being involved. Metta also initiated Raza
Thitsa (Multiplying Accountability in Local Initiatives) which laid emphasis on two
goals: a) developing civil society’s contribution to reducing poverty; b) achieving
Myanmar’s Millennium Development Goals.30
Organisations like LIOH (Land in our Hands), KESAN (Karen Environment
and Social Action Network), and Dawei Farmers Network have made significant
contributions in getting people together to fight for causes and spreading awareness
8 Introduction
about various concerns.Yet, the country is still struggling with multiple challenges
like that of refugees and Internally Displaced People (IDP), overlapping land deals
leading to conflict (between the government and the local authorities), borderlands
contaminated with landmines killing people, besides apparent corruption and inad-
equate structures of governance causing stumbling blocks to progress.
Daw Aung San Suu Kyi’s silent approach and her party NLD’s failure to stop the
violence in Rakhine State over the years has been met with severe international
criticism and disappointed many. Myanmar’s elections in November 2020 and the
current phase that the country is going through is a reflection of deep-seated com-
plexities which mark the country.
second section titled Restoration aims at highlighting the country’s cultural and art-
istic eminence. It is an insight into the artistic legacy and the cultural grandeur that
the country possesses.The third section Re-evaluation examines the socio-economic
challenges faced. It captures the difficulties that have plagued the country, from
climate change to food insecurity; from environmental problems to land conflicts.
The final section titled Resurrection looks at marginalised areas and groups within
society which require sustainable policy support. The chapters of the book pro-
vide a glimpse into assorted topics with the purpose of giving the readers a holistic
sketch of the country.
All the four themes are woven into a common narrative of discovering Myanmar
through its identity, history, culture, communities, challenges, and vulnerability. The
objective of the book is to recognise and acknowledge the manifold narratives
and diverse accounts that exist within Myanmar. Each chapter adds to our know-
ledge, hopefully reminding us that a country can never be limited/restricted to
one description: its definition is constantly being created and re-created with each
interpretation/representation adding to its identity and distinctiveness.
The book also brings forth the fact that each theme (with its chapters) has
experienced the over encompassing effect of instability and uncertainty which has
left deep footprints in how people, institutions, and mindsets have operated over
the years. It will make readers aware that political instability, non-inclusive decision-
making, economic underdevelopment, and social fractures tend to impact almost
every field. Thus, aspirations for better representation, equality, fairness, and trans-
parency are relevant: a thought which the book reiterates throughout its narrative.
The period covered in this book is from pre-colonial times to 2020. The book
does not cover the current political situation, including the political change and the
socio-economic developments which have occurred in Myanmar post February
2021.31
Notes
1 Bhattacharya, Rakhee (2015), Northeastern India and Its Neighbours –Negotiating Security and
Development, New Delhi: Routledge, pp. 86–88.
2 Banerjee, Reshmi (2018), Land Conflicts Across Frontiers –Contested Spaces in Myanmar &
North East India, Chennai: Notion Press, pp. 54–55.
3 Ibid., pp. 66–67.
4 Nwe, Ikeya and Mills as cited in Banerjee, Reshmi (2018), “Women in the Land of Jade
-Issues and Interventions” in Hazarika, Sanjoy and Banerjee, Reshmi (eds), Gender, Poverty
and Livelihood in the Eastern Himalayas, Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge, pp. 165–167.
5 Singh, Ranvijay (2020), “The Indian Exodus from Burma during WW II Bears Eerie
Similarity to Migrant Flight during Lockdown”, Scroll. in, 18 July, https://scroll.in/article/
967459/the-indian-exodus-from-burma-in-1941-is-a-forgotten-piece-of-world-war-ii-
history (accessed 17 September 2020).
6 Nagpal, Akshita (2018), “A Passage to India”, Livemint, 30 March, https://livemint.
com/Leisure/xML2jA8QB9m439OVECwQAL/A-passage-to-India.html (accessed 25
September 2020).
10 Introduction
Reminiscence
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
– Igen és ő lezuhant. De mondd csak, miért meséled ezt nekem?
– Azt hittem… nem… nem tudom.
– Nos?
– De hiszen majd meggyógyul hamarosan. Akkor megint minden
jó lesz.
– Hát persze.
Szünet.
Mintha kigunyolt volna. Hirtelen elmosolyodott:
– Te nagyon különös ember vagy! Megteszed ezt a hosszu utat
és ezután itten üldögélsz.
– Óh, már megszoktam. Lefekvésig itt töltöm az időt.
– Nem félsz?
Tréfálkozása visszaadta önbizalmamat és bátorságot öntött
belém. Szilárd talajt éreztem a lábam alatt.
– Szeretném megtanulni a félelmet.
– A félelmet? Ugylátszik, te is olvastad azt a mesét.
– Igen, meglehet, hogy olvastam valamelyik könyvben.
Megint szünet.
– Miért nem akarsz beállni hozzánk?
– Nem nekem való – feleltem –, most összeálltam valakivel és
együtt nekiindulunk a nagyvilágnak.
– Hová mentek?
– Azt még nem tudom. Keletre vagy nyugatra. Csak ugy
vándorolunk.
Szünet.
– Kár… – mondta végre halkan. – Azt hiszem, hogy nem jól
teszed… Mit is mondtál az elébb, hogy van Erik? Azért jöttem, hogy
megkérdezzem.
– Beteg és bizony nagyon rossz bőrben van szegény feje, de…
– A doktor azt hiszi, hogy fölgyógyul?
– Igen, legalább nem mondta az ellenkezőjét.
– Jó éjszakát!
Istenem, ha fiatal, gazdag, szép, hires és bölcs volnék… Ott
megy Erzsébet!…
Mikor a temetőből kifordultam, megtaláltam az ökölalaku
pipámhoz szükséges körömszeget. Zsebrevágtam. Egyideig még
álldogáltam, néztem jobbra meg balra, hallgatóztam…, de semmi
sem mozdult. Senki sem kiáltotta: „Az az enyém!“
XII.