Exergy as a useful tool for the

performance assessment of aircraft gas

turbine engines: A key review Yasin
Sohret
Visit to download the full and correct content document:
https://ebookmass.com/product/exergy-as-a-useful-tool-for-the-performance-assessm
ent-of-aircraft-gas-turbine-engines-a-key-review-yasin-sohret/
More products digital (pdf, epub, mobi) instant
download maybe you interests ...

Standard Aircraft Engines Handbook Ronald Sterkenburg

https://ebookmass.com/product/standard-aircraft-engines-handbook-
ronald-sterkenburg/

Gas-Turbine Power Generation 1st Edition Breeze

https://ebookmass.com/product/gas-turbine-power-generation-1st-
edition-breeze/

Carbon Capture Technologies for Gas-Turbine-Based Power

Plants Hamidreza Gohari Darabkhani

https://ebookmass.com/product/carbon-capture-technologies-for-
gas-turbine-based-power-plants-hamidreza-gohari-darabkhani/

Carbon Capture Technologies for Gas-Turbine-Based Power

Plants Hamidreza Gohari Darabkhani

https://ebookmass.com/product/carbon-capture-technologies-for-
gas-turbine-based-power-plants-hamidreza-gohari-darabkhani-2/
The Definitive Guide to the OSCE: The Objective
Structured Clinical Examination as a performance
assessment 1st Edition Ronald M. Harden

https://ebookmass.com/product/the-definitive-guide-to-the-osce-
the-objective-structured-clinical-examination-as-a-performance-
assessment-1st-edition-ronald-m-harden/

Territorial Self-Government as a Conflict Management

Tool 1st ed. Edition Dawn Walsh

https://ebookmass.com/product/territorial-self-government-as-a-
conflict-management-tool-1st-ed-edition-dawn-walsh/

Brains as Engines of Association: An Operating

Principle for Nervous Systems Dale Purves

https://ebookmass.com/product/brains-as-engines-of-association-
an-operating-principle-for-nervous-systems-dale-purves/

Statistics: A Tool for Social Research 10th Edition,

(Ebook PDF)

https://ebookmass.com/product/statistics-a-tool-for-social-
research-10th-edition-ebook-pdf/

(eTextbook PDF) for Applied Social Research: A Tool for

the Human Services 9th Edition

https://ebookmass.com/product/etextbook-pdf-for-applied-social-
research-a-tool-for-the-human-services-9th-edition/
 Progress in Aerospace Sciences ∎ (∎∎∎∎) ∎∎∎–∎∎∎

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Progress in Aerospace Sciences

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/paerosci

Exergy as a useful tool for the performance assessment of aircraft gas

turbine engines: A key review
Yasin Şöhret a,n, Selcuk Ekici b, Önder Altuntaş b, Arif Hepbasli c, T. Hikmet Karakoç b
a
Aircraft Technology Program, Keciborlu Vocational School, Suleyman Demirel University, TR-32700 Keciborlu, Isparta, Turkey
b
Department of Airframe and Powerplant Maintenance, Faculty of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Anadolu University, TR-26470, Eskisehir, Turkey
c
Department of Energy Systems Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Yasar University, TR-35100 Bornova, Izmir, Turkey

art ic l e i nf o a b s t r a c t

Article history: It is known that aircraft gas turbine engines operate according to thermodynamic principles. Exergy is
Received 25 October 2015 considered a very useful tool for assessing machines working on the basis of thermodynamics. In the
Received in revised form current study, exergy-based assessment methodologies are initially explained in detail. A literature
11 March 2016
overview is then presented. According to the literature overview, turbofans may be described as the most
Accepted 11 March 2016
investigated type of aircraft gas turbine engines. The combustion chamber is found to be the most ir-
reversible component, and the gas turbine component needs less exergetic improvement compared to all
Keywords: other components of an aircraft gas turbine engine. Finally, the need for analyses of exergy, exergo-
Exergy economic, exergo-environmental and exergo-sustainability for aircraft gas turbine engines is empha-
Thermodynamic analysis
sized. A lack of agreement on exergy analysis paradigms and assumptions is noted by the authors. Exergy
Aircraft
analyses of aircraft gas turbine engines, fed with conventional fuel as well as alternative fuel using ad-
Gas turbine engine
Review vanced exergy analysis methodology to understand the interaction among components, are suggested to
those interested in thermal engineering, aerospace engineering and environmental sciences.
& 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2. Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.1. A brief history of aircraft gas turbine engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.2. Classification of aircraft gas turbine engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.3. Thermodynamic fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.3.1. Mass and energy balance relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.3.2. Exergetic relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.3.3. Exergo-economic relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.3.4. Exergo-environmental relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.3.5. Exergo-sustainability relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3. Literature overview on exergy-based assessment studies of aircraft gas turbine engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3.1. Exergetic assessment studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3.2. Exergo-economic assessment studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3.3. Exergo-environmental assessment studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3.4. Exergo-sustainability assessment studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
4. Results and discussion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
5. Concluding remarks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

n
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: ysohret@gmail.com (Y. Şöhret).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.paerosci.2016.03.001
0376-0421/& 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Please cite this article as: Y. Şöhret, et al., Exergy as a useful tool for the performance assessment of aircraft gas turbine engines: A key
review, Progress in Aerospace Sciences (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.paerosci.2016.03.001i
2 Y. Şöhret et al. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences ∎ (∎∎∎∎) ∎∎∎–∎∎∎

Nomenclature in Inlet
k kth Component
Yk̇ kth component related environmental impact rate L Loss
(mPts h
1) out Outlet
Zk̇ kth component cost (US$ h
1) P Exergetic product
Ḃ Environmental impact rate (mPts h
1)
Ė Exergy rate (kW) Superscripts
Q̇ Heat flow rate (kW)
R̄ Universal gas constant (kJ kmol
1 K
1) ph Physical
Ẇ Work rate or power (kW) ch Chemical
cp Constant pressure specific heat capacity (kJ kg
1 K
1) k Kinetic
ē Molar specific exergy (kJ kmol
1) p Potential
fed Exergy destruction factor
ṁ Mass flow rate (kg s
1) Greek Letters
reef Environmental effect factor
rre Recoverable exergy rate
Θ Exergetic sustainability index
rwe Waste exergy ratio
ε Exergy efficiency
e Specific exergy (kJ kg
1)

Acronyms
Subscripts

AC Air compressor
0 Ambient condition
CC Combustion chamber
1,2,3… Station number
DF Ducted fan
a Air
GT Gas turbine
D Destruction
LHV Lower heating value
exh Exhaust
NZ Exhaust nozzle
F Exergetic fuel
PT Power turbine
f Fuel
g Gas

1. Introduction
In accordance with the lexical meaning of thermodynamics, it can
be described as efforts to convert heat into power. Thermodynamics is
a science, which also deals with the utilization of energy resources
effectively and efficiently. However, developments in the 21st century
and the rise of energy demand made utilizing energy efficiently more
and more important. For this reason, people interested in thermal
engineering are concerned with this issue.
Two natural laws provide the basis of thermodynamics. These
fundamental laws are well-known as the first and second law of
thermodynamics. The first law of thermodynamics deliberates energy
conservation and asserts that energy can change form, though the
amount of the total energy is always constant in the course of a
thermal process. An evaluation of any thermal system or process in
the framework of the first law provides insight into how energy is
consumed or morphed into another form. It is easy to see this in our
daily lives with power plants, which generate electricity from various
energy sources, air conditioners and even the human body [1–3].
In the late 1950s, the Slovenian scientist Zoran Rant defined the
term exergy as ‘technical working capacity’. After years of discussion,
Gibbs stated exergy to be S in a certain state SA is the maximum
theoretical useful work obtained if S is brought into thermodynamic
equilibrium with the environment by means of ideal processes in
which the system interacts only with this environment’. After the
1970s, the definition of the term exergy improved, and the well-
known exergy definition emerged. Within modern thermodynamics,
the definition of exergy is accepted as being the maximum shaft work
that can be done by the composite of a system and in a specified
reference environment that is assumed to be infinite, in equilibrium,
and ultimately enclosing all other systems. Following the 1980s, the
studies of Szargut [4] and Kotas [5] led to progress in thermal en-
gineering. Later, exergy-based thermodynamic assessment of various
thermal processes and systems attracted intensive attention [6]. Bejan
[7], Cengel [8] and Dincer [9] had a great influence on the evolution of
thermodynamics and the term exergy. Studies performed post 1990
show how to benefit from the term exergy for evaluation of thermal
processes and systems.
Exergy assessment is no longer only a method to understand en-
ergy utilization quality. It is also a useful tool to analyse and optimize
thermal systems with regard to economics, environmental and sus-
tainability issues. The exergo-environmental assessment method at-
tracts attention when common environmental issues (e.g. ozone de-
pletion, global warming) gain importance based on the strong bond
between energy consumption and ecology. However, air pollutants
come into existence as a result of energy generation, transformation
and transportation processes. Likewise, sustainable development and
sustainable energy technology related to environmental issues are
great concerns. However, it is essential to deplete energy sources ef-
ficiently for sustainability and a reduction of the impact on the en-
vironment thermal processes. It is obvious that thermal systems with
higher exergy efficiency affect the environment less and contribute
more to sustainable development [9–11].
Considering the working principles of aircraft gas turbine engines
is sufficient to comprehend the significance of an exergy-based ap-
proach. The working fluid of a system carries exergy as well as energy.
In any type of aircraft gas turbine engine, exergy is destroyed or en-
tropy is generated throughout the power-generation process, as with
other thermal systems. Thus, exergy analysis and optimization are
required for aircraft gas turbine engines. In addition, exergy analysis
forms a basis for environmental and economic improvement and for
the optimization of aircraft gas turbine engines as mentioned above
[12–19].
The current paper is intended to show the state of the art and
emphasize the necessity of exergy-based analyses for aircraft gas
turbine engines. From this point of view, previous accessible

Please cite this article as: Y. Şöhret, et al., Exergy as a useful tool for the performance assessment of aircraft gas turbine engines: A key
review, Progress in Aerospace Sciences (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.paerosci.2016.03.001i
 Y. Şöhret et al. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences ∎ (∎∎∎∎) ∎∎∎–∎∎∎
studies are reviewed. The authors’ intention is to explain accep-
table assessment methodologies with reference to the literature.
2. Background
The explanation of essential knowledge about aircraft gas tur-
bine engines and the required basic principles of thermodynamics
for the assessment of aircraft gas turbine engines are made in this
section.
2.1. A brief history of aircraft gas turbine engines
Basic heat engines, invented by the Egyptians and Greeks, are the
basis of modern engines. However, in the 19th century, the idea of
impulse and reacting air tubes is a milestone in gas turbine engine
development. The first patent for a simple system similar to modern
gas turbines was issued in England, in 1791. This design, namely a
separate reciprocating compressor, produces air through a fuel fired
basic combustor. The combustion gases are used to energize an im-
pulse wheel by way of a nozzle. Unfortunately, any generated power is
insufficient to drive both compressor and the wheel. Thus, the design
could not be realized. However, sketches of the design inspired the
design of modern gas turbine engines. Eventually, the first successful
working gas turbine engine was built in 1903, comprising a three
cylinder multistage reciprocating compressor, a combustion chamber
and an impulse turbine. Air supplied by the compressor was burnt
with liquid fuel in the combustion chamber. Combustion gases were
cooled by water injection and then fed to the impulse turbine. This
device was the first working prototype gas turbine engine in history
[20,21].
In 1905, the German scientist Hans Holzwarth began studies on
gas turbine engines and developed a device called an explosion tur-
bine. This design is accepted as the first modern gas turbine engine by
many. Further research focusing on efficiency improvement was
conducted in the following years. In the 1930s, a research group
achieved an efficient gas turbine engine for aircraft jet propulsion. The
first flight of an airplane powered by this design took place on 15th
May 1941. Later, research on axial-flow compressor development was
conducted to achieve higher pressures, flow rates and greater effi-
ciency. At about the same time, progress in Germany resulted in a
successful working aircraft gas turbine engine. This operational air-
craft gas turbine engine consisted of a single centrifugal compressor, a
combustor and a radial-flow turbine. This was the first operational
aircraft gas turbine engine which was flight tested on 27th August,
1939. Later, an improved version of the engine, namely the HeS 8A,
made its first flight in 1941. These advances in Germany led to the
Jumo 004 engine in 1942. Later, propellers driving gas turbine engines
Fig. 1. Classification of aircraft gas turbine engines [23].
Please cite this article as: Y. Şöhret, et al., Exergy as a useful tool for the performance assessment of aircraft gas turbine engines: A key
review, Progress in Aerospace Sciences (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.paerosci.2016.03.001i
3
(turboprops) and modern jet engines (turbojets) were developed.
Related to the progress in turbomachinery technology and material
science, advanced aircraft gas turbine engines (turbofans) for large
aircraft have been developed in recent decades [20–22].
2.2. Classification of aircraft gas turbine engines
In aerospace technology, the main function of an engine is to
provide the required power for the aerial vehicle and the thrust to
move. As shown in Fig. 1, aerospace engines are classified into two
main categories; air breathing and non-air breathing engines. Non-air
breathing engines are also known as rocket engines. However, air
breathing engines have two main sub classes; jet propulsion engines
and reciprocating engines. Gas turbine engines are the best known
class of jet propulsion engines, in addition to scramjets, ramjets,
pulsejets, turbo ramjets and turbo rockets. An explanation of gas
turbine engine types, which are discussed in the present paper with
an exergy approach, is given in Ref. [23].
Turbojet, turboprop, turboshaft, turbofan, propfan and ad-
vanced ducted fan engines are all gas turbine engine types de-
veloped over the years. Turbojet engines are the early type of gas
turbine engine, which were used to produce thrust for aircraft in
the 1940s. This type of gas turbine engine consists of an air inlet,
an air compressor, a combustion chamber, a gas turbine and an
exhaust nozzle. Turbojet engines can be categorised as one and
two spool engines. In a one spool turbojet engine, air flow is ab-
sorbed into an air inlet and passes through an air compressor after
flow regulation. Next, the air reaches high pressure and gets
warmer during the compression process. Pressurized air reacts
with fuel within the combustion chamber. As a result of this
chemical reaction, a large amount of heat is released. Combustion
gases at high temperature go through the gas turbine and enable
the generation of power to supply the air compressor and other
accessories. Exhaust gases leaving the gas turbine reach high ve-
locity while passing through the exhaust nozzle. Exhaust gases at
high velocity can produce thrust and aerial vehicles can move
thanks to the thrust. As a result of advances in technology, after-
burner turbojet engines emerged and it is possible to react exhaust
gases with fuel to increase thrust generation [21,22].
Turboprop engines are a combination of turbojet engines and
propeller. Here, unlike the turbojet engine, the gas turbine com-
ponent of the engine supplies power to the propeller by way of a
gearbox, in addition to the air compressor and accessories. The
propeller is a rotating part and it compresses air before intake and
enables the engine to absorb more air mass flow rate. As a result of
the pre-compression, high density air runs through the air com-
pressor. Additionally, propeller plays a vital role for thrust gen-
eration because of low contribution of the core exhaust gas to the
4 Y. Şöhret et al. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences ∎ (∎∎∎∎) ∎∎∎–∎∎∎

thrust on the basis of low exhaust speed. It is a fact that, most of capacity of the air under constant pressure can be found by [25–
the energy carried out by the core engine passing through the gas 27]:
turbine component is utilized to drive the shaft. Turboprop en-
383. 719 9. 45378 2 5. 49031
gines are classified depending on the turbine driving the propeller. cp, a=1. 04841 − T+ T −
106 107 1010
In the first class, the propeller is driven by a turbine which also
7. 92981 4
provides power to the air compressor. In another class of the T 3+ T
1014 (3)
turboprop engine, an additional turbine, named the power turbine
(free turbine) runs the propeller. Turboshaft engines work ac-
cording to the principle of turboprops. The main difference be- 2.3.2. Exergetic relations
tween a turboshaft engine and a turboprop engine is that tur- The constituents of the exergy are well defined in Refs.
boshafts are used to operate helicopters. The primary purpose of [4,10,29,30]. However, the following approach to divide exergy
turboshaft engines is to power a shaft driven propeller, not to into four elements is well-accepted in the literature [26–29]:
generate thrust, but they do generate a small proportion of thrust
e=e ph +e ch +e k +e p (4)
[21,22].
Turbofan engines are the most advanced type of gas turbine en- Here, the specific physical exergy of a perfect gas can be ex-
gines used on aerial vehicles, especially on commercial aircraft. Tur- pressed as [9,27,28]:
bofan engines may have one or two spools similar to the turbojet and
⎛ T P⎞
turboprop. However, before the intake of the core engine, an air fan is e ph=cp ( T −T0 )−T0 ⎜ cp ln −R ln ⎟
mounted. This fan rotates at high speed and compresses air flow like a ⎝ T0 P0 ⎠ (5)
compressor. Different to from other types of gas turbine engines, the
The chemical exergy expression varies depending on the
air flow is separated in two ways. The primary air passes through the
working fluid. In order of gas mixtures (air, gas and so on) and
core engine while the secondary air passes through the fan nozzle and
liquid fuel, the chemical exergy is formulated as follows [9,28]:
mixes with stack gases in the exhaust nozzle of the engine. The
ch ch
generated thrust of a turbofan engine is mostly provided by secondary ̅ = ∑ xi ei̅ +RT
emix ̅ 0 ∑ xi ln xi (6)
air. Turbofan engines can be classified in many groups. This classifi-
cation can be found in many texts [23,24]. ⎡ h o s
e ch
fuel =LHV ⎢ 1. 0401 + 0. 1728 +0. 0432 +0. 2169
⎣ c c c
2.3. Thermodynamic fundamentals
⎛ h ⎞⎤
⎜ 1 − 2. 0628 ⎟ ⎥
For an assessment of an aircraft gas turbine engine, using main ⎝ c ⎠⎦ (7)
terms within the scope of thermodynamics, it is important to make an
In Eq. (7); h, c , o and s represent the fuel ingredients of hy-
association with energy conservation, exergy and entropy balance.
drogen, carbon, oxygen and sulfur atomic fractions.
Hence, primary thermodynamic terms are presented in addition to
A literature survey shows that many researchers neglect the
exergy-based methodology under the following subheadings for bet-
changes in kinetic and potential energies and exergies. For this
ter understanding.
reason, the kinetic and potential elements of exergy are not
2.3.1. Mass and energy balance relations mentioned in the present study.
In accordance with the first law of thermodynamics, mass and From the view point of thermodynamic laws, the exergy bal-
energy balance equations for any component of an aircraft gas ance equation for a steady-state system, such as air compressors,
turbine engine, as well as the overall engine, under consideration combustion chambers and turbines may be stated as [9,28]:
of steady-state conditions, are expressed as [5–9]: ̇ −Eout
Ein ̇ −EḊ −EL̇ =0 (8.a)
∑ ṁ in= ∑ ṁ out (1)
EḞ −EṖ −EḊ −EL̇ =0 (8.b)

Q̇ −Ẇ + ∑ ṁ in ⎡⎣ hin + Vin

( 2
/2 +gzin ⎤⎦− ∑ ṁ out ⎡⎣ hout + Vout
) (2
/2 +gz out ⎤⎦
) Eqs. (8.a) and (8.b) are a representation of exergy balance ac-
=0
In Eqs. (1) and (2), ṁ , Q̇ and Ẇ denote mass flow rate, net rate
of work and heat transfer rate respectively. In light of these gov-
erning equations, mass balance and energy conversion statements
are summarized in Table 1 for each component of the gas turbine
engine. To conduct the first law analysis of aircraft gas turbine
engine components, according to the table, the specific heat
cording to in–out and fuel-product paradigms of exergy analysis
(2)
respectively. In the accessible literature, both of these approaches
are used. Here, in and out subscripts denote the inlet and outlet
sections of the system, whereas fuel means exergetic fuel, which is
supplied to the system for energy provision. Similarly, the product
represents the exergetic product, and being gained from the sys-
tem. On the other hand, the fuel-product approach is preferred by
authors to avoid confusion of the nomenclature in the next steps

Table 1
First law statements for aircraft gas turbine engine components [25].

Component Mass balancea Energy conversiona

DF ṁ in=ṁ out ,1+ṁ out ,2 Ẇ DF =ṁ out ,1cp, out ,1Tout ,1+ṁ out ,2 cp, out ,2 Tout,2−ṁ in cp, in Tin
AC ṁ in=ṁ out =ṁ a Ẇ AC =ṁ a (cp, a, out Tout −cp, a, in Tin )
CC ṁ g =ṁ a +ṁ f ṁ a cp, a, out Ta, out +ṁ f ηc LHV = ṁ g cp, g Tg
GT ṁ in=ṁ out =ṁ g Ẇ GT =ṁ g (cp, g , in Tin−cp, g , out Tout )

a
in and out subscripts denote inlet and outlet section of each component unique and
separately.

Please cite this article as: Y. Şöhret, et al., Exergy as a useful tool for the performance assessment of aircraft gas turbine engines: A key
review, Progress in Aerospace Sciences (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.paerosci.2016.03.001i
 Y. Şöhret et al. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences ∎ (∎∎∎∎) ∎∎∎–∎∎∎ 5

Table 2 BḊ , k=bF , k EḊ , k (16)

Exergetic fuel and product terms of aircraft gas turbine engine components [28].
The following equation states the environmental impact bal-
Component Fuel Product
ance for the overall gas turbine or one of its components [40]:
DF Ẇ DF ̇ −Ein
Eout ̇ Nout Nin
AC Ẇ AC ̇ −Ein
Eout ̇ ∑ ̇ , k +Yk̇ = ∑ Bin
Bout ̇ ,k
CC Eḟ ̇ −Ein
Eout ̇ out in (17)
GT Eiṅ −Eout
̇ ̇
WGT In Eq. (17), the right hand of the equation is the total en-
vironmental impact associated with input streams, whereas the
left hand side is the entire environmental impact associated with
of the analysis. However, the fuel-product approach is commonly-
output streams [40].
used for economic and environmental analysis of aircraft gas tur-
bine engines on the basis of exergy [28].
2.3.5. Exergo-sustainability relations
If heat transfer from the engine components through the am-
The defined measures to evaluate sustainability with the aid of
bient environment is disregarded as in former studies, the exergy
exergy are the waste exergy ratio, the recoverable exergy rate, the
balance equation is derived from Eqs. (8.b)–(28):
exergy destruction factor, the environmental effect factor and the
EḞ −EṖ −EḊ =0 (9) exergetic sustainability index [40,41]. The waste exergy ratio can
be found by dividing the total waste exergy stream by the total
The exergetic fuel and product terms of the aircraft gas turbine inlet exergy stream [41,42]:
engine components are given in Table 2 according to the inlet and
outlet sections of each component. ∑ EL̇ + ∑ EḊ
rwe=
∑ Eiṅ (18)
2.3.3. Exergo-economic relations
The recoverable exergy rate is the exergy amount recovered
Exergo-economic evaluation methodology is a combination of
from the system [41,42]:
exergy analysis and economic aspect analysis. Numerous methods can
be found in the literature for this: exergy economic approach (EEA); ̇
Eexh
rre=
thermoeconomic functional analysis (TFA); first exergoeconomic ap- ̇
∑ Ein (19)
proach (FEA); engineering functional analysis (EFA); exergetic cost
theory (ECT); last-in first-out approach (LIFOA); structural analysis The exergy destruction factor means the reduction of the sys-
tem's positive effect on exergetic sustainability. The positive im-
approach (SAA); specific exergy costing (SPECO); exergy cost energy
pact of the system is the supply of more desired exergy output and
mass analysis (EXCEM); and modified productive structure analysis
a decrease in the exergy destruction and minimization of the
(MOPSA) [30–39]. However, the SPECO approach is commonly used
waste exergy output. The exergy destruction factor is zero in actual
and well-accepted in the accessible literature.
cases and it is found by dividing the exergy destruction rate by the
As explained in Refs. [28,37], according to the SPECO method,
total inlet exergy stream [41,42]:
cost balance equations are written for each component of the
system, according to the following statements: ∑ EḊ
fed =
̇
∑ Ein (20)
ĊP, k=ĊF , k+Zk̇ (10)
The environmental effect factor is expressed by the following
cP, k E ̇P, k=cF , k EḞ , k+Zk̇ (11) Eq. (19) [41,42]:
rwe
The exergo-economic evaluation of the system is based on the reef =
ε (21)
relative cost difference and exergoeconomic factor. These criteria
are expressed respectively as follows [28,37]: The exergetic sustainability index varies from 0 to 1 and can be
written as follows [41,42]:
cP, k − cF , k
r=
cF , k (12) 1
Θ=
reef (22)
Zk̇
fk =
Zk̇ + CḊ , k (13)
3. Literature overview on exergy-based assessment studies of
aircraft gas turbine engines
2.3.4. Exergo-environmental relations
The exergo-environmental analysis comprises exergy analysis
In this section of the paper, previously performed accessible
and life cycle assessment (LCA). Exergo-environmental analysis is
studies are classified according to exergy and exergy-based as-
comprised of three steps. Firstly, an exergy analysis of the system
sessment methodologies. The authors endeavor to present the
components is conducted. Next, a life cycle assessment of the
state of the art as far as possible.
examined component and the overall system is performed. At the
last step, the environmental impact of each component is revealed,
3.1. Exergetic assessment studies
with the aid of the following measures, according to the fuel-
product analogy [40]: Aircraft gas turbine engines have been investigated with the
BḞ , k=bF , k EḞ , k (14) aid of exergy terms by many researchers. The earliest accessible
study in this framework was conducted by Roth and Mavris [43]
Thermodynamic losses in an aircraft gas turbine engine are ana-
BṖ , k=bP, k EṖ , k (15)
lysed in this paper. According to assumptions of an 85%

Please cite this article as: Y. Şöhret, et al., Exergy as a useful tool for the performance assessment of aircraft gas turbine engines: A key
review, Progress in Aerospace Sciences (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.paerosci.2016.03.001i
6 Y. Şöhret et al. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences ∎ (∎∎∎∎) ∎∎∎–∎∎∎
compressor isentropic efficiency, a 90% turbine isentropic effi-
ciency, and a 5% pressure loss in the combustor, various perfor-
mance parameters of the J-79 turbojet engine are presented. Ex-
ergy parameters of the engine are determined for sea level con-
ditions and 6.09 km (20000 ft.) altitude.
In Ref. [44] the exergy performance variation of a turbojet en-
gine is examined for the altitude range from 0 km to 15 km. The
authors conclude that the decrease of real engine efficiency is
proportional to an increase in altitude. Riggins [45] developed an
exergetic approach to assess the performance sustainability of jet
engines in his paper. As a result, he was able to present losses
through irreversibility. The importance of the flow exergy for en-
gine design and optimization processes is underlined.
Karakoc et al. [46] discuss the exergy parameters of a turbofan
engine fed with hydrogen as fuel. Hydrogen utilization, instead of
kerosene for equivalent engine power, has great impact on fuel
consumption. In addition, by decreasing the specific fuel con-
sumption rate by 39.2%, the highest exergy destruction was found
to be 45.6 MW in the combustor. In another study [47], a kerosene
fed turbofan engine with afterburner was investigated ex-
ergetically at sea level and an altitude of 11 km. An exergy analysis
was performed based on the engine components (fan, air com-
pressor, combustor, turbine and afterburner). It was shown that
the highest exergy destruction occurred in the afterburner under
both operating conditions. Contrary to other studies, exergy effi-
ciency was calculated using two different approaches. A variation
of exergy efficiency, depending on the approach is emphasized by
the authors. The highest exergy efficiency was found to be 88.5%
for the turbine component of the engine at sea level conditions.
Additionally, it is asserted that exergy efficiency is inversely pro-
portional with altitude as a result of a decrease in temperature.
An exergy analysis of the J69-T25A turbojet engine, using ex-
perimental data obtained from the Turkish Air Force Maintenance
Center was presented in Ref. [48]. External irreversible losses of
aircraft gas turbine engines, because of the thermodynamic equi-
librium of exhaust gases with the environment, are discussed by
Struchtrup and Elfring [49]. The impact of bypass ratio on exergy
destruction in the exhaust stream are presented in this paper. As a
concluding comment of the study, the use of high bypass turbofan
engines in aircraft is recommended whereas exergy efficiency of
the overall engine is found to be 34.84%.
A CF6-80 turbofan engine was evaluated exergetically in an-
other paper [50]. In contrast to other studies, the impact of the
engine components' isentropic efficiency variation on exergy de-
struction and exergy efficiency was examined. The greatest exergy
destruction was determined to be in the fan exhaust component.
Additionally, based upon the rise in the isentropic efficiency of the
components, exergy efficiency of the components and overall en-
gine increased according to the paper. Tona et al. [51] present the
exergy parameters of a turbofan engine. The major exergy para-
meters of each component were calculated for the take-off, climb,
cruise, descent, holding and landing phases of a flight. Also, the
influence of an anti-icing system on the exergy performance of the
engine was examined.
Aydin et al. [52] put forth an exergy evaluation of a CT7-9C tur-
boprop/turboshaft engine under various operating conditions and
engine loads. The authors propound the main parameters (e.g. exergy
destruction rate, exergy efficiency, improvement potential and fuel
depletion rate) of the engine components in the paper. Turan [25]
presents the impact of design parameters on a small turbojet engine
exergetically based on theoretical cycle data, and the variation of ex-
ergy parameters for several air pressure ratios and turbine inlet
temperatures. It is emphasized that the exergy efficiency of the
compressor is proportional with the air pressure ratio and is in-
dependent from the turbine inlet temperature. In addition, a higher
air pressure ratio had a positive impact on the combustor exerge-
Please cite this article as: Y. Şöhret, et al., Exergy as a useful tool for the performance assessment of aircraft gas turbine engines: A key
review, Progress in Aerospace Sciences (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.paerosci.2016.03.001i
tically. Additionally, Turan discusses the requirement of thermo-
dynamic optimization for operating conditions with high turbine inlet
temperature in a case study.
In Ref. [53] altitude impact on the exergy performance of a
turbofan engine was investigated. Specific exergy based metho-
dology was preferred by the researcher and the achievement of
higher exergy efficiency at low altitudes was deduced as a result of
the study. Ehyaei et al. [54] performed an exergy analysis of a
turbojet engine with afterburner. The examined engine was con-
sidered at two different altitudes and two different inlet velocities.
Differently from former studies, the kinetic energy and exergy of
the working fluids were taken into account. As a concluding
comment of the paper, it was stated that the exergy efficiency of
the engine components decreased as the air inlet velocity was
lowered.
An exergy assessment of a turboprop engine is presented at var-
ious loads in Ref. [55]. The maximum energy and exergy efficiencies of
the turboprop engine were found to be 30.7% and 29.2%, respectively.
The authors emphasize that the optimum functional load conditions
of the engine are observed at higher loads. Balli and Hepbasli [23]
analyse a T56 turboprop engine exergetically in their paper. The en-
gine was evaluated at four different loads and under two different
environmental conditions. The authors emphasize an increase in fuel
mass flow for more engine shaft power. Furthermore, kinetic energy
and exergy rates had an impact only on efficiencies and improvement
potential.
The local exergy destruction in the air inlet and fan components of
a CF6-50 engine was studied using a computational fluid dynamics
approach by Hassan [56]. This approach sets the study apart from
others with entropy generation in the components calculated as-
suming flow area with regard to viscosity. The author concludes that
the exergy destruction in the air inlet could be negligible.
The exergy performance of a JT8D turbofan engine at take-off
mode is revealed in Ref. [57]. The thrust specific fuel consumption,
fuel depletion rate, productivity lack and the improvement po-
tential of the engine components are all evaluated. Balli [58] dis-
cusses the impact of the afterburner on a J85-CAN-15 turbojet
engine exergetically. According to the paper, the energy and ex-
ergy efficiency of the engine decreases while the afterburner is
activated.
In another paper, accessed in the literature, energy and exergy
approaches of thermodynamics were used to develop a genetic
algorithm for design optimization of a turbofan engine [59]. The
algorithm aims to determine the optimum values of various design
parameters of the turbofan engine with the aid of exergy. Bakla-
cioglu et al. [60] assess the exergy efficiency of turboprop engine
components and develop a hybrid code with the aid of genetic
algorithms and artificial neural networks to reveal component
performances from the view point of exergy.
Ref. [61] deals with the exergy analysis of a turboprop engine
under take-off conditions. At the end of that study, the exergy
efficiency of the entire engine was found to be 26.74%. Ekici et al.
[62] evaluate the sustainability of a turboprop engine fueled with a
conventional aviation and methanol mixture. Within this frame-
work, an exergy analysis was conducted by the authors. It is
concluded that the first and second law efficiencies of the engine
increase in respect to the ratio of the methanol rise in the fuel
mixture.
In another text [60], advanced exergy analysis of a gas turbine
is presented as a new methodology for performance evaluation.
While performing the methodology, the exergy analysis of the
engine was conducted as a first step. Sohret et al. [64] examine a
turbofan engine of a UAV during a typical flight mission. Here, the
impact of a number of measures such as flight altitude and var-
iation of ambient conditions, flight Mach number on exergy
parameters of the engine are revealed.
 Y. Şöhret et al. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences ∎ (∎∎∎∎) ∎∎∎–∎∎∎ 7

3.2. Exergo-economic assessment studies
Economic analysis and optimization studies of aircraft gas turbine
engines with the aid of exergy are rare in the accessible literature. Due
to secrecy within the aviation industry, it is difficult to obtain any
economic aspects of aircraft gas turbine engines. However, an exergo-
economic evaluation of a J69-T25A engine was introduced in 2008
[48]. In this paper, the authors derive exergy and exergo-economic
cost balance equations for each component of the engine. Cost balance
equations are used to find cost formation. Turgut et al. [65] present a
new parameter to define thrust cost rate, while calculating the cost of
exergy destruction, the relative cost difference and the exergo-eco-
nomic factor for a turbofan engine. For the examined engine, the cost
rate of thrust was found to be 304.35 $/hkN and 138.96 $/hkN for hot
and cold thrust respectively. In another paper, Tona et al. [51] put
forward the economical aspects of a turbofan engine using exergy
assessment methodology. The authors mostly aimed to illustrate an
exergy analysis of an aircraft gas turbine engine, but the presented
methodology is considered to be a benchmark for future studies. In
2012, Aydin et al. [24] revealed an exergo-economic analysis of a
modern turboprop engine used for a medium-range twin-engine
transport plane. Authors investigated the main components of the
engine (the compressor, the combustor, the gas generator, the power
turbine and the exhaust) in order to calculate exergy parameters along
with exergo-economic parameters. Another turboprop engine was
examined by Balli and Hepbasli [66] using exergy-based methodolo-
gies. The environmental damage cost rates of the engine were cal-
culated to be 423.94 $/h at a 75% load, 576.97 $/h at a 100% load,
634.93 $/h at military operating conditions and 665.85 $/h at take-off
operating conditions. The total cost rate consisted of the sum of the
fuel costs, the capital investment costs, the operating and main-
tenance costs, and the cost of the environmental damage. The total
cost rates of the engine were determined to be 1702.59 $/h at a 75%
load, 2100.26 $/h at a 100% load, 2220.42 $/h at military operating
conditions and 2284.50 $/h at take-off operating conditions.
3.3. Exergo-environmental assessment studies
Studies on the environmental assessment of aircraft gas turbine
engines within the framework of exergy are scarce in the litera-
ture. Research into the accessible literature reveals a lack of ex-
ergo-environmental analyses of aircraft gas turbine engines. One
study conducted by Atilgan et al. [67] presents an investigation of
a turboprop engine that is in service on regional aircraft. It is
shown in this paper that the air compressor, combustion chamber,
gas turbine, power turbine and exhaust nozzle create 9%, 69%, 13%,
7%, and 2% of total environmental impact, respectively. The au-
thors recommend improvement of the compressor and gas turbine
components of the engine, primarily in respect of the environ-
mental impact. The authors also recommend exergo-environ-
mental methodology as a useful tool to estimate the environ-
mental impact indicators of aircraft and engines.
3.4. Exergo-sustainability assessment studies
In the accessible literature, studies regarding the exergo-sustain-
ability analysis of aircraft gas turbine engines have been conducted by
numerous researchers. In one of these, exergy-based sustainability
indicators (exergy efficiency, waste exergy ratio, exergy destruction
ratio, and environmental effect factors and exergetic sustainability
index) of a turboprop engine for eight flight phases were introduced.
Exergy efficiency, waste exergy ratio and the exergetic sustainability
index of a turboprop aircraft engine were found to be in the range of
0.274–0.290, 0.726–0.708 and 0.380–0.410 respectively [68]. The sus-
tainability of a PW6000 turbofan engine was assessed with an exergy-
based approach in another paper [69]. For this purpose, detailed

Table 3
A summary of exergy-based aircraft gas turbine engine studies examined.

Ref Year Engine/Component Type Fuel type Energy Exergy Economics Environmental Sustainability

[43] 2001 Turbojet N/A þ þ

[44] 2001 Turbojet Methane (CH4) þ þ
[45] 2003 Turbojet/Scramjet Hydrogen þ þ
[46] 2007 Turbofan Hydrogen þ þ
[47] 2007 Turbofan Hydrogen þ þ
[48] 2008 Turbojet Jet-A1 (C12H23) þ þ þ
[49] 2008 Turbofan N/A þ þ
[65] 2009 Turbofan Kerosene þ þ þ
[50] 2009 Turbofan Jet-A1 (C12H23) þ þ
[51] 2010 Turbofan Jet-A1 (C12H23) þ þ þ
[52] 2012 Turboshaft/Turboprop Jet-A1 (C12H23) þ þ
[53] 2012 Turbofan JP-8 (C12H23) þ þ
[26] 2012 Turboprop Jet-A1 (C12H23) þ þ þ
[27] 2012 Turbojet JP-8 (C12H23) þ þ
[25] 2013 Turboprop JP-8 (C12H23) þ þ
[54] 2013 Turbojet Jet-A1 (C12H23) þ þ
[55] 2013 Turboprop JP-8 (C12H23) þ
[56] 2013 Intake Fan N/A þ
[67] 2013 Turboprop Jet-A1 þ þ þ þ
[68] 2013 Turboprop Jet-A1 (C12H23) þ þ þ
[66] 2014 Turboprop JP-8 þ þ þ
[69] 2014 Turbofan Jet-A1 (C12H23) þ þ þ
[57] 2014 Turbofan Jet-A1 þ þ
[58] 2014 Turbojet JP-8 (C12H23) þ þ
[59] 2014 Turbofan Kerosene (C12H23.5) þ þ
[60] 2015 Turboprop JP-8 (C12H23) þ þ
[63] 2015 Turbofan Kerosene (C11H21) þ þ
[64] 2015 Turbofan Kerosene (C11H21) þ þ
[70] 2015 Turbofan Jet-A1 (C12H23) þ þ þ
[71] 2015 Turbofan Jet-A1 (C12H23) þ þ þ
[61] N/A Turboprop Jet-A (C11H23) þ þ
[62] N/A Turboprop Kerosene (C12H26)/Methanol (CH3OH) þ þ þ
[72] N/A Turbofan Hydrogen (H2) þ þ þ

Please cite this article as: Y. Şöhret, et al., Exergy as a useful tool for the performance assessment of aircraft gas turbine engines: A key
review, Progress in Aerospace Sciences (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.paerosci.2016.03.001i
8 Y. Şöhret et al. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences ∎ (∎∎∎∎) ∎∎∎–∎∎∎

exergy analyses were implemented to identify the exergy efficiency, useful tool for the performance evaluation of energy systems.
waste exergy ratio, exergy destruction factor, environmental effect From the emergence of the methodology, the popularity and ex-
factor and exergo-sustainability index as sustainability indicators. tensive use of exergy for this purpose has been steadily increasing.
These sustainability parameters were found to be 9.7%, 70.3%, 59.4%, According to the present literature review, using exergy for the
2.367 and 0.423 for the engine under maximum take-off flight con- performance evaluation of aircraft gas turbines began in 2001. In
ditions, respectively. A third exergy aided sustainability assessment the last three years, exergy analysis has been extensively used for
study was conducted for a turbofan engine on the basis of test cell the performance evaluation of different aircraft gas turbine engine
data [70]. As a result of the study, the exergy efficiency, waste exergy types.
ratio, exergy destruction factor, recoverable exergy rate, environ- It is a well-known fact that there are many types of conven-
mental effect factor and exergetic sustainability index of the engine tional aviation fuels, such as JP-8, Jet-A, Jet-A1 and so on [23–
were found to be 0.315, 0.685, 0.408, 0, 2.174 and 0.460 respectively. In 25,48,50–55,57–60,63–71]. However, the chemical formula of the
these early papers, the relationship among design parameters of the fuel injected into combustion chambers is C12H23, but the naming
gas turbine engine and the environmental impact and sustainable of the fuel varies as summarized in Table 3. One underlying reason
development were highlighted by the authors. In another piece of for this is the number of papers by different authors. Each author's
research [71], exergy was presented as useful in assessing the sus- reference for the chemical composition of fuel differs from that of
tainability of a high bypass turbofan engine. Within this framework, other authors. Another point to note from the summary tables is a
sustainability indicators of the evaluated engine were discussed in preference for hydrogen, methanol and methane, rather than
detail. Similarly Kaya et al. [72] used exergy to introduce sustainability
conventional aviation fuels, for instance, JP-8, Jet-A and Jet-A1
parameters of a turbofan engine fed by hydrogen. Contrary to earlier
[44–47,62]. Opting for alternative fuels or a mixture of alternative
papers, the heating of the fuel provided to the examined engine by
fuel and conventional fuel, any exergy analysis of aircraft gas tur-
exhaust gases was simulated.
bine engines can be seen as a milestone. With respect to advances
in alternative fuel production technology, it is predicted that al-
ternative fuels will become more popular in aircraft gas turbine
4. Results and discussion
engine exergy analyses in the future. Thus, the impact of alter-
native fuels on the performance of aircraft gas turbine engines will
In the present study, the current situation of exergy-based appli-
be discussed more extensively [62].
cations to aircraft gas turbine engines is introduced. In Table 3, former
Another point of note in the compiled literature is that four dif-
studies are summarized from this perspective. According to this table,
ferent air composition assumptions were used in earlier studies.
the number of studies conducted on an exergo-economic evaluation
of aircraft gas turbine engines is six whereas only two of the com-
Table 5
pletely exergy-based methodology papers deal with environmental Characteristic values of examined engines in the framework of pure exergy analysis
impact of aircraft gas turbine engines. On the other hand, exergo- studies.
sustainability assessments of aircraft gas turbine engines have been
Ref. Year AFR SFC (kg/kWh) TSFC (g/kNs)
discussed in only five papers.
Most of the papers related with aircraft gas turbine engine [25] 2013 56.49 0.385/0.337 N/A
exergy analysis present a state of the art for performance evalua- 45.15 0.353/0.316 N/A
tion. In 31% of the papers in the accessible literature, turboprop 42.96 0.342/0.307 N/A
engines were examined with 22% focusing on turbojet engines and 47.88 0.332/0.299 N/A
[26] 2012 43.50 N/A N/A
47% focusing on turbofan engines. As mentioned earlier, exergy is a [27] 2012 N/A N/A 63.76–63.86
[43] 2001 67.56 N/A 20.97
Table 4 68.02 N/A 27.61
Air composition assumption made by researchers in pure exergy analysis studies. [44] 2001 N/A N/A N/A
[46] 2007 N/A N/A N/A
Ref. Year N2 (%) O2 (%) CO2 (%) H2O (g) (%) P0 (kPa) T0 (K) [47] 2007 N/A N/A N/A
[48] 2008 56.00 N/A N/A
[25] 2013 77.48 20.59 0.03 1.90 93.60 298.15 [50] 2009 N/A N/A 10.03–17.55
[26] 2012 77.48 20.59 0.03 1.90 93.00 279.00 [51] 2010 N/A N/A N/A
[27] 2012 77.48 20.59 0.03 1.90 30.73 229.50 [52] 2012 54.4 N/A N/A
[43] 2001 N/A N/A N/A N/A 101.32 288.33 50.9 N/A N/A
[44] 2001 79.67 18.77 0.03 1.53 101.32 288.00 46.2 N/A N/A
[46] 2007 77.48 20.59 0.03 1.90 101.32 306.50 43.9 N/A N/A
[47] 2007 77.48 20.59 0.03 1.90 101.32 298.00 42.3 N/A N/A
[48] 2008 74.48 20.59 0.03 1.90 101.32 289.26 41.1 N/A N/A
[50] 2009 77.48 20.59 0.03 1.90 101.32 306.50 [53] 2012 N/A N/A N/A
[51] 2010 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A [54] 2013 N/A N/A N/A
[52] 2012 77.48 20.59 0.03 1.90 92.40 281.00 [55] 2013 N/A 0.3824 N/A
[53] 2012 77.48 20.59 0.03 1.90 ISA values N/A 0.3220 N/A
[54] 2013 77.48 20.59 0.03 1.90 101.32 298.1 N/A 0.2875 N/A
77.48 20.59 0.03 1.90 101.32 298.1 N/A 0.2780 N/A
77.48 20.59 0.03 1.90 23.40 220.15 N/A 0.2731 N/A
77.48 20.59 0.03 1.90 23.40 220.15 N/A 0.2704 N/A
[55] 2013 77.48 20.59 0.03 1.90 92.40 281.00 [57] 2014 64.0 N/A N/A
[57] 2014 N/A N/A N/A N/A 101.35 288.15 [58] 2014 50.0 0.266 25.82
[58] 2014 77.48 20.59 0.03 1.90 101.32 298.15 N/A 0.348 48.22
[59] 2014 77.48 20.59 0.03 1.90 N/A N/A [59] 2014 N/A N/A N/A
[60] 2015 77.48 20.59 0.03 1.90 N/A N/A [60] 2015 N/A N/A N/A
[61] N/A 79.00 21.00 0.00 0.00 101.32 298.15 [61] N/A N/A N/A N/A
[62] N/A 79.00 21.00 0.00 0.00 101.32 298.15 [62] N/A 48.96–49.81 N/A N/A
[63] 2015 75.67 20.35 0.03 3.03 101.35 288.15 [63] 2015 N/A N/A N/A
[64] 2015 75.67 20.35 0.03 3.03 8.0–104.0 230.0–290.0 [64] 2015 N/A N/A N/A

Please cite this article as: Y. Şöhret, et al., Exergy as a useful tool for the performance assessment of aircraft gas turbine engines: A key
review, Progress in Aerospace Sciences (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.paerosci.2016.03.001i
 Y. Şöhret et al. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences ∎ (∎∎∎∎) ∎∎∎–∎∎∎ 9

Commonly-used air composition in exergy analysis refers to a book by
Bejan et al. [27]. According to this assumption, air is comprised of
77.48% nitrogen, 20.59% oxygen, 0.03% carbon dioxide, and 1.90%
water vapor. The summary presented in Table 4 reveals that all air
composition assumptions are theoretical. However, experimental data
of the measured air composition would improve the quality of the
future studies. In former studies, an agreed air composition was pre-
ferred despite disagreement concerning theoretical ambient (dead
state) conditions. In other words, ambient pressure was assumed to be
101.32 kPa, similar to theoretical conditions, whereas ambient tem-
perature varied according to researchers’ theoretical assumptions. For
this reason, studies conducted recently have used two approaches:
ambient condition variations dependent on altitude, and flight phase
(Mach number) variable ambient conditions. Within this scope, in-
ternational standard atmosphere (ISA) tables are used to obtain the-
oretical ambient conditions.
Table 5 summarizes air to fuel ratio (AFR), specific fuel con-
sumption (SFC) and thrust specific fuel consumption (TSFC) values
of the examined engines in the accessible literature. According to
the table, the AFR of the engines varies from 40 to 70, with an
approximate average of 51. In the papers reviewed in the current
study, specific fuel consumption is preferred to thrust specific fuel
consumption by researchers. The average value of the specific fuel
consumption is found to be 0.31 for previously examined gas
turbine engines.
In Table 6, the exergy efficiency calculation results of previous
studies are summarized. If air compressor exergy efficiency values
are focused on, it averages at 88.42%. Variation of air compressor
exergy efficiency occurs for a number of reasons. These underlying
reasons are: variability of isentropic and adiabatic efficiency as-
sumptions; ambient conditions; mass flow rate; air composition;
compressor load; pressure ratio; ducted fan performance (if it is

Table 6
Exergy efficiency values obtained as a result of pure exergy analysis studies.

Ref Year Paradigm Exergy efficiency (%)

DF AC CC GT PT NZ Overall

[25] 2013 in–out N/A 87.42 66.04 99.54 N/A 98.75 23.8
[26] 2012 in–out N/A 90.60 79.90 96.20 95.20 98.10 30.0
[27] 2012 fuel-product N/A 82.87 55.83 87.48 N/A 85.31 N/A
N/A 84.16 57.29 87.53 N/A 86.60 N/A
N/A 85.03 58.57 87.69 N/A 88.03 N/A
N/A 85.68 59.72 87.91 N/A 88.54 N/A
[43] 2001 in–out N/A 95.8 69.2 97.8 N/A 99.5 N/A
N/A 96.4 73.4 98.1 N/A 99.2 N/A
[44] 2001 fuel-product N/A 0.01 0.00 0.01 N/A 0.17 N/A
N/A 0.00 0.00 0.01 N/A 0.15 N/A
[46] 2007 in–out 89.79 95.84 72.09 98.25–97.56 N/A N/A 87.41
fuel-product 90.13 95.16 72.31 97.01–97.27 N/A N/A 85.41
[47] 2007 fuel-product 80.60 70.40 66.70 88.50 N/A N/A 66.10
86.90 94.30 65.80 66.90 N/A N/A 54.20
in–out 81.60 93.30 70.40 93.90 N/A N/A 71.10
74.00 85.50 63.50 90.10 N/A N/A 59.80
[48] 2008 in–out N/A 81.33 55.13 96.05 N/A 88.41 34.84
[50] 2009 fuel-product 94.11 83.41–95.17 80.72 96.69–96.91 N/A N/A N/A
[51] 2010 N/A Results are not clearly given.
[52] 2012 in–out N/A 85 76 92.3 93.3 N/A N/A
N/A 84.4 79.2 94.5 93.8 N/A N/A
N/A 84.2 81.1 97.4 90.3 N/A N/A
N/A 84.1 81.7 97.0 91.1 N/A N/A
N/A 84.1 82 96.7 91.8 N/A N/A
N/A 83.8 82.1 97.1 91.7 N/A N/A
[53] 2012 fuel-product 89.0 80.0 73.0 88.0–81.0 N/A 75.0 48.91
N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A 48.92
N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A 49.30
N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A 49.67
N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A 50.01
N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A 50.34
[54] 2013 in–out N/A 96.7 80.40 92.3 N/A 93.7 N/A
N/A 97.5 48.00 80.80 N/A 93.3 25.60
N/A 95.70–97.0 84.5 63.6 N/A 90.5–94.8 50.70
N/A 97.0 56.3 48.6 N/A 96.40 25.00
[55] 2013 in–out N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A 20.60
N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A 24.20
N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A 27.5
N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A 28.4
N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A 28.9
N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A 29.2
[57] 2014 in–out N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
[58] 2014 in–out N/A 83.33 60.40 98.67 N/A 97.08 29.81
N/A 83.33 60.40 98.67 N/A 67.21 22.77
[59] 2014 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
[60] 2015 in–out N/A 83.8–85.0 76–82.14 92.3–92.8 90.18–94.67 N/A N/A
[63] 2015 fuel-product N/A 89.0–86.0 60.6 98.6 N/A N/A 3.13
[61] N/A in–out N/A 86.95 82.16 97.86 85.52 N/A 26.74
[62] N/A in–out N/A 89.14 75.06–75.45 98.51–98.52 94.19–94.20 N/A 30.23–30.46
[64] 2015 fuel-product 79.39–95.93 94.79–95.46 58.24–64.88 98.53–98.09–90.97–92.15 N/A N/A N/A

Please cite this article as: Y. Şöhret, et al., Exergy as a useful tool for the performance assessment of aircraft gas turbine engines: A key
review, Progress in Aerospace Sciences (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.paerosci.2016.03.001i
10 Y. Şöhret et al. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences ∎ (∎∎∎∎) ∎∎∎–∎∎∎

considered); calculation approach of specific heat capacity under
constant pressure and ratios of bleed and cooling air mass flows
drained from the compressor inter stages. Depending on these
factors, exergy efficiency of air compressors varies from 80% to 90%
approximately. The variation in exergy efficiency of combustion
chambers is shown in Table 6. Adiabatic operating conditions,
combustion chamber inlet air conditions (temperature, pressure
and mass flow rate), fuel mass flow rate, physical phase (liquid or
gas) of the fuel, fuel chemical composition (especially oxygen in-
cluding), lower heating value of fuel, air composition, and the
approach to calculate specific heat capacity assumptions play a
vital role in variations of exergy analysis results of the combustion
chamber. As stated in numerous previous studies, the exergy ef-
ficiency of the combustion chamber is lowest compared to all
other gas turbine components, because of the irreversibility of the
combustion process. The main reasons for irreversibility of the
combustion process are discussed in detail by many researchers
[73–75]. According to Table 6, the exergy efficiency of combustion
chambers is on average 69.36% and varies generally from 60% to
70%. The gas turbine component is a turbomachine as well as the
air compressor and exergy efficiency is dependent on some of the
design parameters of the turbine and assumed data. These include
isentropic and adiabatic efficiencies, combustion gas conditions
(temperature, pressure and mass flow rate), composition of com-
bustion gas mixture, expansion ratio assumptions effect on turbine
exergy efficiency variety, in addition to the specific heat capacity
calculation approach and cooling air flow rate. As indicated in
Table 6, the turbine components of the examined gas turbine
engines are the most efficient components, with an average value
of 98%, compared to all other components.
In the current paper, two paradigms are presented for exergy
analysis. Using the in–out or the fuel-product paradigm affects the
exergy efficiency values found, as it is clearly comprehended from the
Table 6. The preferred paradigm in the analysis has a significant in-
fluence on the exergy efficiency of each component and the overall
engine. Exergy efficiency is named universal efficiency for the in–out
paradigm, whereas a functional efficiency term is used for the fuel-
product paradigm. Additionally, the in–out paradigm is mostly pre-
ferred by researchers dealing with aircraft gas turbine engine exergy
analysis. Table 7
In the present paper, the sum of the exergy destruction rates and
the exergy loss rates are referred to as exergy consumption rate ac-
cording to the definition in Ref. [27]. Most researchers neglect exergy
losses and only regard exergy destruction in the previous studies
based on adiabatic condition assumptions, neglecting friction loss
within the components. As a result, the exergy consumption rate
equals the exergy destruction rate. Up until now, the highest exergy
consumption rate was found to be at the combustion chamber among
all other components by researchers examining aircraft gas turbine
engines with the aid of the exergy. Chemical processes, high heat loss
rate, heat transfer across large temperature differences between
working fluid (air) and fuel can be stated as the main reasons for high
exergy consumption rates within the combustion chamber. According
to the comparison of components, the relative irreversibility of the
combustion chambers is shown to vary between 60% and 90% in re-
viewed papers. Conversely, the gas turbine component has the lowest
exergy consumption rate among all other gas turbine engine
components.

Table 7
Exergy consumption rates found at the end of pure exergy analysis studies.

Ref Year Paradigm Exergy consumption rate [EḊ + EL̇ ] (kW)

DF AC CC GT PT NZ

[25] 2013 in–out N/A 618.83 4846.29 149.21 N/A 37.44

N/A 618.83 5853.53 111.30 N/A 45.97
N/A 618.83 6095.29 81.73 N/A 48.55
N/A 618.83 6234.13 39.80 N/A 49.18
[26] 2012 in–out N/A 205.00 1308.00 197.00 139.00 27.00
[27] 2012 fuel-product N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
[43] 2001 in–out N/A 25.58a 180.10a 13.72a N/A 3.25a
N/A 22.09a 162.35a 11.86a N/A 4.65a
[44] 2001 fuel-product N/A 24.20 323.60 4.20 N/A 19.30
N/A 18.20 284.60 2.70 N/A 19.70
[46] 2007 in–out 3870 2860 45670 2100–1300 N/A 55790
fuel-product 3870 2860 45170 2100–1300 N/A 55290
[47] 2007 fuel-product 2520 9970 25930 6090 N/A N/A
780 1070 10680 1840 N/A N/A
[48] 2008 in–out N/A 292.76 3691.06 179.32 N/A 317.43
[50] 2009 fuel-product 2190 2850 3154 2060 N/A N/A
[51] 2010 N/A Results are not clearly given.
[52] 2012 in–out N/A 198 940 233 101 N/A
N/A 262 981 204 119 N/A
N/A 325 1084 119.9 253.8 N/A
N/A 358 1164 154 257 N/A
N/A 373 1204 179 249 N/A
N/A 396 1254 166 270 N/A
a
[53] 2012 fuel-product 4.35 6.70a 38.43a 6.90a–11.39a N/A 11.24a
[54] 2013 in–out N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
[55] 2014 in–out N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
[58] 2014 in–out N/A 915.12 7701.46 76.36 N/A 182.72
N/A 915.12 7701.46 76.36 N/A 10800.79
[59] 2014 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
[60] 2015 in–out N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
[61] N/A in–out N/A 337.12 1461.87 69.74 269.22 N/A
[62] N/A in–out N/A 265.61 1995.35–2039.22 39.80–40.20 105.06–105.26 N/A
[63] 2015 fuel-product N/A 1709–2818 46777 543 N/A N/A
[64] 2015 fuel-product 27.48–557.58 28.64–445.13 1269.74–14492.39 6.84–146.47–33.61–578.28 N/A N/A

a
Values are specific exergy amount.

Please cite this article as: Y. Şöhret, et al., Exergy as a useful tool for the performance assessment of aircraft gas turbine engines: A key
review, Progress in Aerospace Sciences (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.paerosci.2016.03.001i
 Y. Şöhret et al. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences ∎ (∎∎∎∎) ∎∎∎–∎∎∎ 11

Table 8
Measures calculated in exergo-economic analysis studies.

Ref. Engine type Method component cost (US$ h
1) Fuel exergy cost (US$ Maximum exergoeconomic fac- Maximum relative cost dif-
GW
1) tor (%) ference (%)
AC CC GT Exhaust Total

[26] Turboprop SPECO 96.25 38.81 153.69 21.73 310.48 25.20 N/A N/A
[48] Turbojet SPECO 98.02 37.70 124.41 11.31 282.75 13.42 N/A N/A
[51] Turbofan SPECO N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
[65] Turbofan N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A 31.10 37.81
[66] Turboprop N/A 101.41 40.56 95.32 16.23 304.23 25.20 91.87 53.85

Table 9
Calculated sustainability indicators in exergo-sustainability analysis research.

Ref. Year Exergy efficiency Waste exergy Recoverable exergy Exergy destruction Environmental effect Exergetic sustainability
(%) ratio rate factor factor index

[62] N/A 30.23–30.46 0.69–0.70 0.00 0.40 2.29–2.31 0.43

[69] 2014 29.70 0.70 0.00 0.59 2.36 0.42
[70] 2015 31.5 0.68 0.00 0.40 2.17 0.46
[71] 2015 29.60 0.20 0.00 0.50 0.67 1.48
[72] N/A Results are given in figures.

According to a literature study, the specific exergy costing
(SPECO) methodology is the most commonly-used method in ex-
ergoeconomic analysis of aircraft gas turbine engines. The total
costs of the engine and its components, which consists of hourly
levelised capital investment costs (US$ h
1) and hourly operating
and maintenance costs (US$ h
1), are given for previously con-
ducted studies in Table 8. The turbine and compressor components
of an engine have the highest cost rates compared to other engine
components. The average total cost of an engine varies from
282.75 US$ h
1 to 310.48 US$ h
1 according to previous studies.
Fuel exergy cost is directly affected by the total number of hours of
engine operation. While the fuel exergy cost was fixed for the
turbofan engine at 25.20 US$ GW
1 (for 700 h per year), it was
calculated at 13.43 US$ GW
1 for turboprop engines (for 250 h per
year).
Two important exergoeconomic parameters, the relative cost
difference and the exergoeconomic factor, were calculated in Refs.
[65,66]. Turgut et al. [65] calculated the relative cost difference
and exergoeconomic factor as 37.81% at low pressure compressor
and 31.10% low pressure turbine, separately. Balli and Hepbasli [66]
found the values for the relative cost difference and ex-
ergoeconomic factor as 53.85% for the combustion chamber and
91.87% for the gas turbine component at take-off.
According to a literature survey, only one study discussing the
environmental assessment of aircraft gas turbine engines from the
viewpoint of exergy was found. In this study [67], an investigation
of a turboprop engine was conducted. It was found as a result of
this research that the air compressor, combustion chamber, gas
turbine, power turbine and exhaust nozzle create 9%, 69%, 13%, 7%,
and 2% of the total environmental impact, respectively. It was
concluded that the improvement requirement of the compressor
and gas turbine components of the engine are important regarding
environmental impact.
As mentioned earlier, six indicators (exergy efficiency, waste
exergy ratio, recoverable exergy rate, exergy destruction factor,
environmental effect factor and exergetic sustainability index) are
used to reveal the exergy-based sustainability of an energy system.
Table 9 presents these indicators for the evaluated aircraft gas
turbine engines. Exergy efficiency calculation approaches were
mentioned at the beginning of this section. The value of the waste
exergy ratio, as the second indicator, is approximately 70%, ac-
cording to the reviewed studies. This indicates that a large amount
of exergy rate provided to the system is wasted. The recoverable
exergy rate is zero for all aircraft gas turbine engines. The reason of
that situation is exhausting the combustion gases from the nozzle
into the atmosphere. Therefore, emitted gases are not recoverable
for aircraft gas turbine engines. Another sustainability indicator is
the exergy destruction factor. The exergy rates of the emitted
combustion gases and losses are disregarded while calculating the
exergy destruction factor. The value of the exergy destruction
factor was calculated for aircraft gas turbine engines in the range
of 0.40 and 0.60. The environmental effect factor is an indicator of
the environmental damage of an energy system. This indicator
varies from 0.67 to 2.36 for aircraft gas turbine engines. Two dif-
ferent paradigms and efficiency definition differences can be sta-
ted to be the underlying causes of this wide range. The exergetic
sustainability index of aircraft gas turbine engines is in the range
from 0.43 to 1.48. According to Table 8, it mostly clusters to a range
of 0.43–0.46.
5. Concluding remarks
In the present study, an overview of the exergy-based analysis
of aircraft gas turbine engines is made. Some concluding remarks,
drawn from the results of the present study, may be listed as
follows:
 Exergy-based evaluation studies related to aircraft gas turbine
engines mostly discuss the turbofan engines with 47% while
22% deal with turbojet engines.
 The number of papers covering the exergy analysis of aircraft
gas turbine engines has risen in the last three years, and this
methodology is essential for aircraft gas turbine engine perfor-
mance evaluation.
 A definition of exergy efficiency and calculation methodology
(in-out or fuel-product) are presented with a literature result
comparison.
 The effects of parameters and assumptions made (component
design parameters, fuel specifications, ambient condition and so
on) regarding the exergy analysis results are discussed in detail.
 Examination of the aircraft gas turbine engine using experi-
mental data with the aid of exergy is emphasized as necessary.
 Exergy-based analysis methodology is revealed to be a useful tool

Please cite this article as: Y. Şöhret, et al., Exergy as a useful tool for the performance assessment of aircraft gas turbine engines: A key
review, Progress in Aerospace Sciences (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.paerosci.2016.03.001i
12 Y. Şöhret et al. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences ∎ (∎∎∎∎) ∎∎∎–∎∎∎
for economic, environmental and sustainability assessments, in
addition to performance evaluation for aircraft gas turbine engines.
With respect to the literature overview, the authors suggest
further research into the following topics to create awareness and
contribute to the literature in the future:
 Agreement on the exergy analysis paradigms and assumptions.
 Discussion of the environmental impact assessment of aircraft
gas turbine engines from the perspective of exergy.
 Investigation of aircraft gas turbine engines, fed with conven-
tional fuel and alternative fuel mixtures, within the framework
of theoretical and experiments.
 Investigation of aircraft gas turbine engines with aid of exergy
under different flight conditions (different altitude and Mach
numbers) both theoretically and using experimental data.
 Assessment of aircraft gas turbine engines for different pur-
poses (commercial aircraft, regional aircraft, military aircraft
and UAV and so on) using exergy-based methodology.
 Use of advanced exergy analysis to understand the relation among
the components, avoiding possibility of exergy consumptions.
Acknowledgments
The support provided by Anadolu, Suleyman Demirel and Yasar
Universities in Turkey is gratefully acknowledged. The authors also
appreciate the helpful and constructive comments of the valuable
reviewers.
References
[1] J.H. Keenan, Availability and irreversibility in thermodynamics, Br. J. Appl.
Phys. 2 (1951) 183–192.
[2] I. Dincer, Y.A. Cengel, Energy entropy and exergy concepts and their roles in
thermal engineering, Entropy 3 (2001) 116–149.
[3] Y.A. Cengel, B. Wood, I. Dincer, Is bigger thermodynamically better? Exergy Int.
J. 2 (2002) 62–68.
[4] J. Szargut, D. Morris, F. Steward, Energy Analysis of Thermal Chemical, and
Metallurgical, Processes, Hemisphere Publishing, New York, NY, 1988.
[5] T.J. Kotas, The Exergy Method of Thermal Plant Analysis, Anchor Brendon Ltd.,
London, 1985.
[6] E. Sciubba, G. Wall, A brief commented history of exergy from the beginnings
to 2004, Int. J. Thermodyn. 10 (2007) 1–26.
[7] A. Bejan, Advanced Engineering Thermodynamics, 3rd Ed., Wiley & Sons,
United States, 2006.
[8] Y.A. Cengel, M. Boles, Thermodynamics, McGraw-Hill, New York, 2002.
[9] I. Dıncer, M.A. Rosen, Exergy: Energy, Environment and Sustainable Devel-
opment, Elsevier Ltd, Amsterdam, 2007.
[10] J.C. Romero, P. Linares, Exergy as a global energy sustainability indicator. A
review of the state of the art, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 33 (2014) 427–442.
[11] A. Bejan, Entropy generation minimization, exergy analysis, and the con-
structal law, Arabian J. Sci. Eng. 38 (2) (2013) 329–340.
[12] A. Bejan, D.L. Siems, The need for exergy analysis and thermodynamic opti-
mization in aircraft development, Exergy Int. J. 1 (2001) 14–24.
[13] J.V. Vargas, A. Bejan, D.L. Siems, Integrative thermodynamic optimization of
the crossflow heat exchanger for an aircraft environmental control system, J.
Heat Transf. 123 (4) (2001) 760–769.
[14] M.A. Rosen, J. Etele, Aerospace systems and exergy analysis: applications and
methodology development needs, Int. J. Exergy 1 (2004) 411–425.
[15] V. Periannan, M.R. von Spakovsky, D. Moorhouse, Investigation of the effects
of various energy and exergy-based figures of merit on the optimal design of a
high performance aircraft system, Proc. ASME Int. Mech. Eng. Congr. Expos.
(2006) 337–347.
[16] D.W. Riggins, T. Taylor, D.J. Moorhouse, Methodology for performance analysis
of aerospace vehicles using the laws of thermodynamics, J. Aircr. 43 (2006)
953–963.
[17] D.W. Riggins, D.J. Moorehouse, J.A. Camberos, Characterization of aerospace
vehicle performance and mission analysis using thermodynamic availability, J.
Aircr. 47 (2010) 904–916.
[18] A. Bejan, S. Lorente, B.S. Yilbas, A.Z. Sahin, The effect of size on efficiency:
power plants and vascular designs, Int. J. Heat Mass Transf. 54 (7) (2011)
1475–1481.
[19] S. de Oliveira Jr., Exergy: Green Energy and Technology, Springer, Germany,
Please cite this article as: Y. Şöhret, et al., Exergy as a useful tool for the performance assessment of aircraft gas turbine engines: A key
review, Progress in Aerospace Sciences (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.paerosci.2016.03.001i
2013.
[20] F. Whittle, The first james clayton lecture: the early history of the whittle jet
propulsion gas turbine, Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. (1945) 419–435.
[21] B. Gunston, The development of jet and turbine aero engines, 4th Ed., Haynes
Publishing, London, 2006.
[22] B.L. Koff. Spanning the globe with jet propulsion AIAA 21st Annual Meeting
and Exhibit, 1991, doi: 10.2514/6.1991-2987.
[23] A.F. El-Sayed, Aircraft Propulsion and Gas Turbine Engines, CRC Press, Boca
Raton, 2008.
[24] J.D. Mattingly, Elements of Gas Turbine Propulsion, McGraw-Hill, New York,
1996.
[25] O. Balli, A. Hepbasli, Energetic and exergetic analyses of T56 turboprop engine,
Energy Convers. Manag. 73 (2013) 106–120.
[26] H. Aydin, O. Turan, A. Midilli, T.H. Karakoc, Exergetic and exergo-economic
analysis of a turboprop engine: a case study for CT7-9C, Int. J. Exergy 11 (2012)
69–88.
[27] O. Turan, Exergetic effects of some design parameters on the small turbojet
engine for unmanned air vehicle applications, Energy 46 (2012) 51–61.
[28] A. Bejan, G. Tsatsaronis, M. Moran, Thermal Design and Optimization, Wiley-
Interscience, New York, 1996.
[29] W. Hermann, Quantifying global exergy resources, Energy 31 (2006)
1685–1702.
[30] R.A. Gaggioli, W.J. Wepfer, Second law analysis of energy devices and pro-
cesses Exergy economics, Energy 5 (1980) 823–837.
[31] C.A. Frangopoulos, Thermo-economic functional analysis and optimization,
Energy 12 (1987) 563–571.
[32] G. Tsatsaronis, M. Winhold, Exergoeconomic analysis and evaluation of en-
ergy-conversion plants—I. A new general methodology, Energy 10 (1985)
69–80.
[33] A. Valero, M.A. Lozano, M. Muñoz. A general theory of exergy saving. I. On the
exergetic cost. Computer-Aided Engineering and Energy Systems. Second Law
Analysis and Modelling, vol. 19. pp.1–8.
[34] M.R. Von Spakovsky, R.B. Evans, Engineering functional analysis—Part I, J.
Energy Resour. Technol. 115 (1993) 86–92.
[35] G. Tsatsaronis, L. Lin, J. Pisa, Exergy costing in exergoeconomics, J. Energy
Resour. Technol 115 (1193) (1993) 9–16.
[36] C. Torres, A. Valero, L. Serra, J. Royo, Structural theory and thermoeconomic
diagnosis: Part I. On malfunction and dysfunction analysis, Energy Convers.
Manag. 43 (2002) 1503–1518.
[37] A. Lazzaretto, G. Tsatsaronis, SPECO: a systematic and general methodology for
calculating efficiencies and costs in thermal systems, Energy 31 (2006)
1257–1289.
[38] M.A. Rosen, I. Dincer, Exergy–cost–energy–mass analysis of thermal systems
and processes, Energy Convers. Manag. 44 (2003) 1633–1651.
[39] H.Y. Kwak, D.J. Kim, J.S. Jeon, Exergetic and thermoeconomic analyses of
power plants, Energy 28 (2003) 343–360.
[40] G. Tsatsaronis, Exergoeconomics and exergoenvironmental analysis, in: B.
R. Bakshi, T.G. Gutowski, D.P. Sekulic (Eds.), Thermodynamics and Destruction
of Sources, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2011, pp. 377–401.
[41] A. Midilli, I. Dincer, Development of some exergetic parameters for PEM fuel
cells for measuring environmental impact and sustainability, Int. J. Hydrog.
Energy 34 (2009) 3858–3872.
[42] K. Hacatoglu, I. Dincer, M.A. Rosen, Sustainability assessment of a hybrid en-
ergy system with hydrogen-based storage, Int. J. Hydrog. Energy 40 (3) (2015)
1559–1568.
[43] B.A. Roth, D.N. Mavris. A comparison of thermodynamic loss models applied to
the J-79 turbojet engine. in: Proceedings of 36th Joint Propulsion Conference
and Exhibit, 2001.
[44] J. Etele, M.A. Rosen, Sensitivity of exergy efficiencies of aerospace engines to
reference environment selection, Exergy Int. J. 1 (2001) 91–99.
[45] D.W. Riggins, The thermodynamic continuum of jet engine performance: the
principle of lost work due to irreversibility in aerospace systems, Int. J.
Thermodyn. 6 (2003) 107–120.
[46] T.H. Karakoc, E.T. Turgut, A. Hepbasli. A study on exergy analysis of a hydrogen
fuelled turbofan engine. in: Proceedings of 3rd International Green Energy
Conference, 2007.
[47] E.T. Turgut, T.H. Karakoc, A. Hepbasli, Exergetic analysis of an aircraft turbofan
engine, Int. J. Energy Res. 31 (2007) 1383–1397.
[48] O. Balli, H. Aras, N. Aras, A. Hepbasli, Exergetic and exergoeconomic analysis of
an Aircraft Jet Engine (AJE), Int. J. Exergy 5 (2008) 567–581.
[49] H. Struchtrup, G.J. Elfring, External losses in high-bypass turbo fan air engines,
Int. J. Exergy 5 (2008) 400–412.
[50] E.T. Turgut, T.H. Karakoc, A. Hepbasli, M.A. Rosen, Exergy analysis of a turbofan
aircraft engine, Int. J. Exergy 6 (2009) 181–199.
[51] C. Tona, P.A. Raviolo, L.F. Pellegrini, S. de Oliveira Jr., Exergy and thermo-
economic analysis of a turbofan engine during a typical commercial flight,
Energy 35 (2010) 952–959.
[52] H. Aydin, O. Turan, T.H. Karakoc, A. Midilli, Component-based exergetic
measures of an experimental turboprop/turboshaft engine for propeller air-
crafts and helicopters, Int. J. Exergy 11 (2012) 322–348.
[53] O. Turan, Effect of reference altitudes for a turbofan engine with the aid of
specific-exergy based method, Int. J. Exergy 11 (2012) 252–270.
[54] M.A. Ehyaei, A. Anjiridezfuli, M.A. Rosen, Exergetic analysis of an aircraft
turbojet engine with an afterburner, Therm. Sci. 17 (2013) 1181–1194.
[55] H. Aydın, O. Turan, A. Midilli, T.H. Karakoc, Energetic and exergetic perfor-
mance assessment of a turboprop engine at various loads, Int. J. Exergy 13
 Y. Şöhret et al. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences ∎ (∎∎∎∎) ∎∎∎–∎∎∎ 13

(2002) 543–564. turbofan engine, Int. J. Exergy 6 (2009) 277–294.

[56] H.Z. Hassan, Evaluation of the local exergy destruction in the intake and fan of
a turbofan engine, Energy 63 (2013) 245–251.
[57] O. Turan, H. Aydın, T.H. Karakoc, A. Midilli, Some exergetic measures of a JT8D
turbofan engine, J. Autom. Control Eng. 2 (2014) 110–114.
[58] O. Balli, Afterburning effect on the energetic and exergetic performance of an
experimental turbojet engine (TJE), Int. J. Exergy 14 (2014) 212–243.
[59] V.C. Tai, P.C. See, C. Mares, Optimisation of energy and exergy of turbofan
engines using genetic algorithms, Int. J. Sustain. Aviation 1 (2014) 25–42.
[60] T. Baklacioglu, O. Turan, H. Aydin, Dynamic modeling of exergy efficiency of
turboprop engine components using hybrid genetic algorithm-artificial neural
networks, Energy (2015).
[61] Y. Sohret, M.Z. Sogut, T.H. Karakoc, O. Turan, Customised application of exergy
analysis method to PW120A turboprop engine for performance evaluation, Int.
J. Exergy (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2015.08.089 (In press).
[62] S. Ekici, O. Altuntas, E. Acikkalp, M.Z. Sogut, T.H Karakoc, Assessment of
thermodynamic performance and exergetic-sustainability of turboprop en-
gine using mixture of kerosene and methanol, Int. J. Exergy (2016) (In press)..
[63] Y. Sohret, E. Acikkalp, A. Hepbasli, T.H. Karakoc, Advanced exergy analysis of
an aircraft gas turbine engine: Splitting exergy destructions into parts, Energy
90 (2015) 1219–1228.
[64] Y. Sohret, A. Dinc, T.H. Karakoc, Exergy analysis of a turbofan engine for an
unmanned aerial vehicle during a surveillance mission, Energy 93 (2015)
716–729.
[65] E.T. Turgut, T.H. Karakoc, A. Hepbasli, Exergoeconomic analysis of an aircraft
[66] O. Balli, A. Hepbasli, Exergoeconomic, sustainability and environmental da-
mage cost analyses of T56 turboprop engine, Energy 64 (2014) 582–600.
[67] R. Atilgan, O. Turan, O. Altuntas, H. Aydin, K. Synylo, Environmental impact
assessment of a turboprop engine with the aid of exergy, Energy 58 (2013)
664–671.
[68] H. Aydin, O. Turan, T.H. Karakoc, A. Midilli, Exergo-sustainability indicators of
a turboprop aircraft for the phases of a flight, Energy 58 (2013) 550–560.
[69] H. Aydin, O. Turan, T.H. Karakoc, A. Midilli, Sustainability assessment of
PW6000 turbofan engine: an exergetic approach, Int. J. Exergy 14 (2014)
388–412.
[70] H. Aydin, O. Turan, T.H. Karakoc, A. Midilli, Exergetic sustainability indicators
as a tool in commercial aircraft: a case study for a turbofan engine, Int. J. Green
Energy 12 (2015) 28–40.
[71] O. Turan, An exergy way to quantify sustainability metrics for a high bypass
turbofan engine, Energy 86 (2015) 722–736.
[72] N. Kaya, O. Turan, A. Midilli, T.H. Karakoc, Exergetic sustainability improve-
ment potentials of a hydrogen fueled turbofan engine UAV by heating its fuel
with exhaust gasses, Int. J. Hydrog. Energy (2016) (In press).
[73] W.R. Dunbar, N. Lior, Sources of combustion irreversibility, Combus. Sci.
Technol. 103 (1–6) (1994) 41–61.
[74] K. Nishida, T. Takagi, S. Kinoshita, Analysis of entropy generation and exergy
loss during combustion, Proc. Combus. Inst. 29 (1) (2002) 869–887.
[75] S.K. Som, A. Datta, Thermodynamic irreversibilities and exergy balance in
combustion processes, Prog. Energy Combus. Sci 34 (3) (2008) 351–376.

Please cite this article as: Y. Şöhret, et al., Exergy as a useful tool for the performance assessment of aircraft gas turbine engines: A key
review, Progress in Aerospace Sciences (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.paerosci.2016.03.001i
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
amount from an army which had 260,000 men on its rolls, and
212,000 actually under the colours.
But this was only a commencement. It was more important that
the Armies of the South and Catalonia were to contribute a large
number of cadres to the new Grande Armée. Those of Portugal,
Aragon, the Centre, and the North were at first less in question,
because their regiments were, on the average, not so strong as
those of the other two. The Army of the South was specially affected,
because its units were (and always had been) very large regiments.
In 1812 Soult’s infantry corps nearly all had three battalions—a few
four. Similarly with the cavalry, many regiments had four squadrons,
none less than three. The edict of January 4th ordered that each
infantry regiment should send back to France the full cadre of
officers and non-commissioned officers for one battalion, with a
skeleton cadre of men, cutting down the number of battalions
present with the eagle by one, and drafting the surplus rank and file
of the subtracted battalion into those remaining in Spain. The cadre
was roughly calculated out to 120 of all ranks. When, therefore, the
system was applied to the Army of the South, it was cut down from
57 battalions to 36 in its 19 regiments[368]. The 21 cadres took off to
France 2,500 officers and men. Similarly 15 cavalry regiments, in 50
squadrons, were to send 12 squadron-cadres to France, some 600
sabres.
The small Army of Catalonia was to contribute a battalion-cadre
from each of those of its regiments which had three or more
battalions—which would give six more cadres for Germany.
The Armies of Portugal, Aragon, and the Centre were mainly
composed of regiments having only two battalions—they were
therefore for the present left comparatively untouched. The first
named was only ordered to give up one battalion-cadre, the second
two, the third three (all from Palombini’s Italian division). Of cavalry
the Army of Portugal only gave up one squadron-cadre, the Army of
the Centre three.
In addition, the small number of foreign auxiliary troops still left in
Spain were ordered back to France, save the remnant of Palombini’s
and Severoli’s Italians and the Rheinbund units[369] in the Army of the
Centre, viz. the 7th Polish Lancers (the last regiment of troops of this
nationality left south of the Pyrenees), the Westphalian horse in the
Army of the Centre, and the Berg and Westphalian infantry in
Catalonia. Moreover, the brigade of the Young Guard in the Army of
the North (that of Dumoustier) and the three naval battalions from
Cadiz, which had served so long in the Army of the South, were to
come home, also four batteries of French horse-artillery and two of
Westphalian field artillery. Lastly, cadres being as necessary for the
military train as for any other branch of the service, all the armies
were to send home every dismounted man of this corps. The same
rule was applied to the Équipages militaires and the Artillery Park.
This whole deduction from the Army of Spain under these heads
came to nearly 12,000 soldiers of all arms, over and above these
cadres.
There was an elaborate clause as to reorganizing the Army of the
North: in return for giving up four provisional regiments of drafts to
the Armies of Portugal and the South, it was to get three regiments
made over to it from the former, and one from the latter. Napoleon
calculated that it would lose nothing in numbers from the exchange,
but as a matter of fact it did. The drafts to be returned to their proper
corps ran to over 8,000 men. But General Reille, being told to
contribute three regiments to the Army of the North, selected the
three depleted units which had composed Thomières’ unlucky
division at the battle of Salamanca (the 1st, 62nd, and 101st), which
together did not make up 3,000 bayonets[370], though Gazan chose to
make over the 64th, a three-battalion regiment with 1,600 men. The
Army of the North, therefore, lost nearly 3,000 men on the balance of
the exchange, though the Emperor was aware that it was already too
weak for the task set it. But he probably considered that Palombini’s
Italians, detached (as we have already seen[371]) from the Army of
the Centre, would make up the difference.
In addition to the squadron-cadres which he requisitioned on
January 4th, the Emperor had a further intention of bringing back to
Central Europe some complete units of heavy cavalry, to furnish the
host now collecting in Germany with the horsemen in which it was so
notoriously deficient. The whole of the dragoon-division of Boyer in
the Army of Portugal is marked in the March returns with ordre de
rentrer en France; so are several dragoon regiments in the Army of
the South. But as a matter of fact hardly one of them had started for
the Pyrenees by May[372], so that both in the Army of Portugal and
the Army of the South the cavalry total was only a few hundreds
smaller at the time of the opening of the campaign of Vittoria than it
had been at the New Year—the shrinkage amounting to no more
than the squadron-cadres and the few men for the Imperial Guard.
The Emperor’s intentions, therefore, as they became known to
King Joseph and Jourdan on February 16th, left the three armies
opposed to Wellington some 15,000 men smaller than they had been
at the time of the Burgos retreat; but this was a very modest
deduction considering their size, and still kept nearly 100,000 men in
Castile and Leon, over and above the Army of the North, which
might be considered as tied down to its own duty of suppressing the
rising in Biscay and Navarre, and incapable of sparing any help to its
neighbours. When we reflect on the scale of the Russian disaster,
the demand made upon the Army of Spain seems very moderate.
But there were two ominous doubts. Would the Emperor be content
with his original requisitions in men and horses from the armies of
Spain? And what exactly did he mean by the phrase that the King
would have to lend appui et secours to the Army of the North, for the
destruction of the rebels beyond the Ebro? If this signified the
distraction of any large body of men from the forces left opposed to
Wellington, the situation would be uncomfortable. Both these doubts
soon developed into sinister certainties.
On receiving the Emperor’s original orders King Joseph hastened
to obey, though the removal of his court from Madrid to Valladolid
looked to him like the abandonment of his pose as King of Spain. He
ordered Soult’s successor, Gazan, to evacuate La Mancha, and to
draw back to the neighbourhood of Madrid, leaving a small
detachment of light troops about Toledo. The Army of the South also
took over the province of Avila from the Army of Portugal, and it was
intended that it should soon relieve the Army of the Centre in the
province of Segovia. For Joseph had made up his mind that any help
which he must give against the northern rebels should be furnished
by D’Erlon’s little army, which he would stretch out from Segovia
towards Burgos and the Ebro[373], and so take Mina and the
insurgents of Navarre in the rear. Early in March all these
movements were in progress, and (as we have seen in the last
chapter) were beginning to be reported to Wellington, who made
many deductions from them. Joseph himself transferred his head-
quarters to Valladolid on March 23rd, by which time the greater part
of the other changes had been carried out. The Emperor afterwards
criticized his brother’s delay of a whole month between the receipt of
his orders to decamp and his actual arrival at Valladolid. To this
Jourdan made the reply that it was useless to move the head-
quarters till the drawing in of the Army of the South had been
completed, and that the bringing in of such outlying units as
Daricau’s division from the province of Cuenca, and the transference
of the Army of the Centre northward, took much time[374].
Evacuations cannot be carried out at a day’s notice, when they
involve the moving of magazines and the calling in of a civil
administration.
On March 12th, while all the movements were in progress,
another batch of orders from Paris came to hand. They contained
details which upset the arrangements which the King was carrying
out, for the Emperor decided that the succour which was to be given
to the Army of the North was to be drawn from Reille’s Army, and not
from D’Erlon’s, so that a new series of counter-marches would have
to be carried out. And—what was more ominous for the future—
Napoleon had dropped once more into his old habit of sending
orders directly to subordinate generals, without passing them
through the head-quarters of the Army of Spain. For Clarke, in his
dispatch of February 3rd, informed the King that the Emperor had
sent Reille directions to detach a division to Navarre at once, ‘a
disposition which cannot conflict with any orders which your Majesty
may give to the Army of Portugal, for the common end of reducing to
submission the provinces of the North[375].’ Unfortunately this was
precisely what such an order did accomplish, for Joseph had sent
D’Erlon in the direction to which he now found that Reille had
simultaneously detached Barbot’s division of the Army of Portugal,
without any knowledge that D’Erlon had already been detailed for the
job.
The Emperor was falling back into the practice by which he had
in the preceding year ruined Marmont—the issuing of detailed orders
for the movement of troops, based on information a month old, it
being certain that the execution of these orders would take place an
additional three weeks after they had been formulated. As we shall
presently see, the initial successes of Wellington in his Vittoria
campaign were entirely due to the position in which the Army of
Portugal had placed itself, in obedience to Napoleon’s direct
instructions.
Meanwhile Clarke’s dispatch of February 2nd, conveying these
orders, arrived at the same moment as two others dated ten days
later[376], which were most unpleasant reading. The first contained an
absolutely insulting message to the King from his brother: ‘his
Imperial Majesty bids me say,’ wrote Clarke, ‘with regard to the
money for which you have asked in several recent letters, that all
funds necessary for the armies of Spain could have been got out of
the rich and fertile provinces which are being devastated by the
insurgent bands. By employing the activity and vigour needed to
establish order and tranquillity, the resources which they still possess
can be utilized. This is an additional motive for inducing your Majesty
to put an end to this war in the interior, which troubles peaceful
inhabitants, ruins the countryside, exhausts your armies, and
deprives them of the resources which they could enjoy if these fine
regions were in a peaceful state. Aragon and Navarre are to-day
under Mina’s law, and maintain this disastrous struggle with their
food and money. It is time to put an end to this state of affairs.’
Written apparently a few hours later than the dispatch quoted
above came another[377], setting forth the policy which was to be the
ruin of the French cause in Spain three months later. It is composed
of a series of wild miscalculations. When the head-quarters of the
Army of Spain should have been moved to Valladolid, it would be
possible to send the whole Army of Portugal to help the Army of the
North beyond the Ebro. ‘The Armies of the Centre and South,
occupying Salamanca and Valladolid, have sufficient strength to
keep the English in check, while waiting on events. Madrid and even
Valencia are of secondary importance. Valladolid and Salamanca
have become the essential points, between which there should be
distributed forces ready to take the offensive against the English,
and to wreck their plans. The Emperor is informed that they have
been reinforced in Portugal, and that they seem to have two
alternative schemes—either to make a push into Spain, or to send
out from the port of Lisbon an expedition of 25,000 men, partly
English, partly Spanish, which is to land somewhere on the French
coast, when the campaign shall have begun in Germany. To prevent
them engaging in this expedition, you must always be in a position to
march forward and to threaten to overrun Portugal and take Lisbon.
At the same time you must make the communications with France
safe and easy, by using the time of the English inactivity to subdue
Biscay and Navarre.... If the French armies in Spain remain idle, and
permit the English to send expeditions against our coast, the
tranquillity of France will be compromised, and the ruin of our cause
in Spain will infallibly follow.’
A supplementary letter to Jourdan of the same day recapitulates
all the above points, adding that the Army of Portugal must send to
Clausel, now Caffarelli’s successor in the North, as many troops as
are needed there, but that the King at the same time must menace
Portugal, so that Wellington shall not be able to detach men from his
Peninsular Army.
The fundamental error in all this is that, underrating Wellington’s
strength, Napoleon judged that the Armies of the South and Centre
could keep him in check. They were at this moment under 60,000 of
all arms: if the Army of Portugal were out of the way, they were
absolutely insufficient for the task set them. As to their menacing
Lisbon, Wellington would have liked nothing better than an advance
by them into Portugal, where he would have outnumbered them
hopelessly. The hypothesis that Wellington was about to send
25,000 men by sea for a landing inside the French Empire, on which
Napoleon lays so much stress, seems to have been formed on
erroneous information from French spies in London, who had heard
the rumour that a raid on Holland or Hanover was likely, or perhaps
even one aimed at La Vendée. For the royalist émigrés in England
had certainly been talking of such a plan, and pressing it upon Lord
Liverpool, as the dispatches of the latter to Wellington show[378]. The
Emperor did not know that all such schemes would be scouted by
the British Commander in Spain, and that he now possessed
influence enough with the Cabinet to stop them.
 It would appear that the Emperor’s intelligence from England
misled him in other ways: he was duly informed of the departure
from Lisbon of the depleted cavalry and infantry units, about which
Wellington disputed so much with the Duke of York, and the
deduction drawn was that the Peninsular Army was being
decreased. The exaggerated impression of the losses in the Burgos
retreat, which could be gathered from the Whig newspapers, led to
an underrating of the strength that the British Army would have in the
spring. Traitors from Cadiz wrote to Madrid that the friction between
the Regency and Wellington was so great, that it was doubtful
whether the new Generalissimo would have any real control over the
Spanish armies. And the sickness in both the British and the
Portuguese armies—bad as it was—was exaggerated by spies, so
wildly that the Emperor was under the delusion that Wellington could
not count on more than 30,000 British or 20,000 Portuguese troops
in the coming campaign. It may be worth while to quote at this point
the official view at Paris of the British army in Portugal, though the
words were written some time later, and only just before the news of
Wellington’s sudden advance on the Douro had come to hand:
‘In the position in which the enemy found himself there was no
reason to fear that he would take the offensive: his remoteness, his
lack of transport, his constant and timid caution in all operations out
of the ordinary line, all announced that we had complete liberty to act
as suited us best, without worry or inconvenience. I may add that the
ill feeling between English and Spaniards, the voyage of Lord
Wellington to Cadiz, the changes in his army, of which many
regiments have been sent back to England, were all favourable
circumstances allowing us to carry out fearlessly every movement
that the Emperor’s orders might dictate[379].’
It is only necessary to observe that Wellington was not more
remote from the French than they were from him: that he had
excellent transport—far better than his enemies ever enjoyed: that
timid caution was hardly the policy which stormed Badajoz or won
Salamanca: that his rapid and triumphant offensive was just starting
when the Minister of War wrote the egregious paragraph which we
have just cited. Persistent undervaluing of the resources and energy
of Wellington by Head-quarters at Paris—i.e. by the Emperor when
present, by the Minister of War in his absence—was at the roots of
the impending disaster.
Leaving the King newly established at Valladolid, the Army of the
South redistributing itself between Madrid and the Douro, the Army
of the Centre turning back from its projected march to Burgos in
order to reoccupy the province of Segovia, and the Army of Portugal
beginning to draw off from in front of Wellington troops to be sent to
the North, we must turn for a moment to explain the crisis in Navarre
and Biscay which was engrossing so much of Napoleon’s attention.
 SECTION XXXV: CHAPTER V
THE NORTHERN INSURRECTION.
FEBRUARY-MAY 1813

It has been explained in an earlier chapter that ever since

General Caffarelli concentrated all the available troops of the Army of
the North, in order to join Souham in driving away Wellington from the
siege of Burgos, the three Basque provinces, Navarre, and the coast-
land of Santander had been out of hand[380]. The outward and visible
sign of that fact was the intermittent stoppage of communication
between Bayonne and Madrid, which had so much irritated Napoleon
on his return from Russia. It was undoubtedly a just cause of anger
that important dispatches should be hung up at Tolosa, or Vittoria, or
Burgos, because the bands of Mina or Mendizabal or Longa were
holding the defile of Salinas—the grave of so many convoy-escorts—
or the pass of Pancorbo. It had been calculated in 1811 that it might
often require a small column of 250 men to bring an imperial courier
safely through either of those perilous narrows. But in the winter of
1812-13 things had grown far worse. ‘The insurgents of Guipuzcoa,
Navarre, and Aragon,’ as Clarke wrote to Jourdan with perfect
truth[381], ‘have had six months to organize and train themselves: their
progress has been prodigious: they have formed many formidable
corps, which no longer fear to face our troops when numbers are
equal. They have called in the English, and receive every day arms,
munitions, and even cannon on the coast. They have actually begun
to conduct regular sieges.’ Yet it was three months and more since
the King had sent back Caffarelli and the field-force of the Army of the
North from Valladolid, to restore order in the regions which had
slipped out of hand during the great concentration of the French
armies in November.
 If it be asked why the North had become so far more unquiet than
it had been in previous years, the answer must be that the cause was
moral and not material. It was not merely that many small places had
been evacuated for a time by the French during the Burgos
campaign, nor that the British fleet was throwing in arms and supplies
at Castro-Urdiales or Santander. The important thing was that for the
first time since 1808 the whole people had got a glimpse of hope: the
French had been driven out of Madrid; they had evacuated Biscay;
Old Castile and Leon had been in the power of Wellington for several
months. It was true that Madrid had been recovered, that Wellington
had been forced to retreat. But it was well known that the general
result of the campaign of 1812 had been to free all Southern Spain,
and that the French had been on the verge of ruin in the early
autumn. The prestige of the Imperial armies had received at
Salamanca a blow from which it never recovered. Wherefore the
insurgents of the North put forth during the winter of 1812-13 an
energy such as they had never before displayed, and the French
generals gradually discovered that they had no longer to do with
mere guerrillero bands, half-armed, half-fed wanderers in the hills,
recruited only from the desperate and the reckless, but with a whole
people in arms. When Caffarelli returned from Burgos, he found that
the Spanish authorities had re-established themselves in every town
which had been left ungarrisoned, that taxes and requisitions were
being levied in a regular fashion, and that new regiments were being
formed and trained in Biscay and Guipuzcoa. The nominal Spanish
commander in this region was Mendizabal, theoretically Chief of the
‘Seventh Army’—but he was an officer of little resource and no
authority. The real fighting man was Longa, originally a guerrillero
chief, but now gazetted a colonel in the regular army. He was a
gunsmith from the Rioja, a very resolute and persistent man, who had
taken to the hills early, and had outlived most of his rivals and
colleagues—a clear instance of the ‘survival of the fittest.’ His useful
co-operation with Sir Home Popham in the last autumn has been
mentioned above: his band, now reorganized as four infantry
battalions, was raised from the mountaineers of the province of
Santander and the region of the upper Ebro. His usual beat lay
between the sea and Burgos, and he was as frequently to be found
on the Cantabrian coast as at the defile of Pancorbo, where the great
Bayonne chaussée crosses from the watershed of the Ebro to that of
the Douro. His force never much exceeded 3,000 men, but they were
tough material—great marchers and (as they proved when serving
under Wellington) very staunch fighters on their own ground. West of
Longa’s hunting grounds were those of Porlier, in the Eastern
Asturias: the star of the ‘Marquesito,’ as he was called, had paled
somewhat of late, as the reputation of Longa had increased. He had
never had again such a stroke of luck as his celebrated surprise of
Santander in 1811[382], and the long French occupation of the Asturias
in the days of Bonnet had worn down his band to little over 2,000
men. At this moment he was mainly engaged, under the nominal
command of Mendizabal, in keeping Santoña blockaded. To besiege
it in form he had neither enough men nor a battering train: but if
driven away once and again by Caffarelli, he never allowed himself to
be caught, and was back again to stop the roads, the moment that
the relieving column had marched off. In Biscay the leading spirit was
Jauregui (El Pastor), another old ally of Sir Home Popham, but in
addition to his band there was now on foot a new organization of a
more regular sort, three Biscayan and three Guipuzcoan battalions,
who had received arms from the English cruisers. They held all the
interior of the country, had fortified the old citadel of Castro-Urdiales
on the coast, with guns lent them from the fleet, and co-operated with
Mendizabal and Longa whenever occasion offered. They had held
Bilbao for a time in the autumn, but were chased out of it when
Caffarelli returned from Burgos. In January they made another
attempt upon it, but were repulsed by General Rouget, in command
of the garrison.
Between the fields of operation of the Biscayans and Longa and
that of the Navarrese insurgents, there was the line of the great
Bayonne chaussée, held by a series of French garrisons at Tolosa,
Bergara, Mondragon, Vittoria, Miranda del Ebro, and the castle of
Pancorbo. This line of fortified places was a sore hindrance to the
Spaniards, but on many occasions they crossed it. Mina’s raiding
battalions from Navarre were frequently seen in the Basque
provinces. And they had made communication between one garrison
and another so dangerous that the post-commanders often refused to
risk men on escorts between one place and the next, and had long
ceased to attempt requisitions on the countryside. They were fed by
convoys pushed up the high road, with heavy forces to guard them, at
infrequent intervals. In Navarre, as has been already explained, Mina
held the whole countryside, and had set up an orderly form of
government. He had at the most 8,000 or 9,000 men, but they spread
everywhere, sometimes operating in one column, sometimes in many,
seldom to be caught when sought after, and capable of turning on
any rash pursuing force and overwhelming it, if its strength was seen
to be over-small. Mina’s sphere of action extended far into Aragon, as
far as Huesca, so that he was as much a plague to Paris, the
Governor of Saragossa, as to Thouvenot, Governor of Vittoria, or
Abbé, Governor of Pampeluna. His strategical purpose, if we may
ascribe such a thing to one who was, after all, but a guerrillero of
special talent and energy, was to break the line of communication
down the Ebro from Miranda to Saragossa, the route by which the
King and the Army of the North kept up their touch with Suchet’s
troops in Aragon. It was a tempting objective, since all down the river
there were French garrisons at short distances in Haro, Logroño,
Viana, Calahorra, Milagro, Tudela, and other places, none of them
very large, and each capable of being isolated, and attacked for some
days, before the Governor of Navarre could come to its aid with a
strong relieving column. And there were other garrisons, such as
those at Tafalla and Huesca, covering outlying road-centres, which
were far from succour and liable to surprise-attacks at any moment.
Nor was Mina destitute of the power to call in help for one of his
greater raids—he sometimes shifted towards the coast, and got in
touch with the Guipuzcoans and Biscayans, while he had also
communication with Duran, south of the Ebro. This officer who was
theoretically a division-commander in the Valencian Army, was really
the leader of a band of four or five thousand irregulars, who hung
about the mountains of Soria, and kept the roads from Madrid to
Saragossa and the Ebro blocked. And Duran was again in touch with
the Empecinado, whose beat lay on the east side of New Castile, and
whose main object was to molest the French garrisons of
Guadalajara, Segovia, and Alcalá. Temporary combinations of
formidable strength could be made, when several of these irregular
forces joined for a common raid: but the chiefs generally worked
apart, each disliking to move very far from his own district, where he
was acquainted with the roads and the inhabitants. For in a country of
chaotic sierras, like Northern Spain, local knowledge was all-
important: to be aware of exactly what paths and passes were
practicable in January snow, or what torrents were fordable in March
rain, was the advantage which the guerrillero had over his enemy. It
is probable that in March or April 1813 the total force of all the
insurgent bands was no greater than that of the French garrisons and
movable columns with which they had to contend. But the Army of the
North was forced to tie down the larger half of its strength to holding
strategical points and long lines of communication, while the
guerrilleros could evacuate one whole region for weeks at a time, in
order to mass in another. They could be unexpectedly strong in one
district, yet lose nothing by temporary abandonment of another. They
were admirably served for intelligence, since the whole population
was by goodwill or by fear at their service: the French could only
depend on afrancesados for information, and these were timid and
few; they grew fewer as Mina gradually discovered and hanged
traitors. When the French columns had gone by, it was easily to be
guessed who had guided them or given them news—and such
people perished, or had to migrate to the nearest garrison. But local
knowledge was the real strength of the guerrilleros: a French column-
commander, guiding his steps from the abominable maps of Lopez—
the atlas which was universally used for want of a better—was always
finding his enemy escape by a path unindicated on the map, or
appear in his rear over some unknown cross-road, which could not
have been suspected to exist. Hence the local Spanish traitor was
absolutely necessary as a guide, and often he could not be found—
treachery having been discovered to be a path that led inevitably to
the gallows. The Army of the North had acquired, from old and painful
experience of counter-marches, some general knowledge of the
cross-roads between the Ebro and the Pyrenees. But when troops
from a distance—sections of the Bayonne Reserve, or reinforcements
from the Army of Portugal—were turned on to the game of guerrillero-
hunting, they found themselves very helpless. As a rule, the most
promising march ended in finding the lair still warm, but the quarry
invisible.
Napoleon and his mouthpiece, the War Minister Clarke, refused to
the end, as Marshal Marmont remarked[383], to see that the War of
Spain was unlike any other war that the French armies had waged
since 1792. The nearest parallels to it were the fighting in Switzerland
in 1798 and against Hofer’s Tyrolese in 1809. But both of these
earlier insurrectionary wars had been fought on a very limited area,
against an enemy of no great numerical strength, practically unhelped
from without. In Spain the distances were very great, the mountains—
if less high than the Alps—were almost as tiresome, for in the Alps
there were vast tracts completely inaccessible to both sides, but the
Sierras, if rugged, are less lofty and better furnished with goat-tracks
and smugglers’ by-ways, where the heavily laden infantryman cannot
follow the evasive mountaineer. Moreover, the English cruisers
continued to drop in the arms and munitions without which the
insurgents could not have kept the field.
There can be no doubt that Napoleon undervalued the power of
the Spanish guerrilleros, just as he undervalued the resources and
the enterprise of Wellington. From the first moment of his return from
Russia he had continued to impress on Joseph and Jourdan the
necessity for pacifying the North, before the season for regular
campaigning should have arrived, and Wellington should have taken
the field. But his theory that the winter was the best time for dealing
with the bands was rather specious than correct. For although the
short days, the snow in the passes, and the swollen torrents were, no
doubt, great hindrances to that freedom of movement which was the
main strength of the guerrilleros, they were even greater hindrances
to combined operations by bodies of regular troops. Rapid marches
are impossible off the high roads in Northern Spain, during the
midwinter months; and it was only by combined operations and the
use of large forces that the insurgents could be dealt with. Indeed, the
country roads were practically impassable for any regular troops in
many regions. What officer would risk detachments in upland valleys
that might be found to be blocked with snow, or cut off from their
usual communication by furious streams that had overflowed the
roads and made fords impracticable? Winter marches in unexplored
hills are the most deadly expedients: all the weakly soldiers fall by the
way—had not Drouet lost 150 men in passing the Guadarrama during
the early days of December—and the Guadarrama was crossed by
one of the few great royal roads of Spain? What would be the losses
of columns sent out on cross-roads and caught in blizzards, or in
those weeks of continuous rain which are not uncommon in the sub-
Pyrenean region?
The Emperor’s view was that Caffarelli had failed in his task from
want of resourcefulness. He was always trying to parry blows rather
than to strike himself: he allowed the insurgents to take the initiative,
and when they had executed some tiresome raid would set out in a
pursuit which was seldom useful, since they naturally outran him[384].
He was always marching to deliver or revictual some threatened
garrison, anywhere between Santoña and Pampeluna, instead of
setting himself to destroy the main agglomeration of hostile forces.
Now Caffarelli, it is true, was no great general, and may have been
on occasion wanting in vigour. But the best reply to the criticism of
him sent from Paris is to observe that his successor, Clausel,
universally acknowledged to be the most active officer in Spain, failed
in exactly the same way as his predecessor, even when he had been
lent 20,000 veteran troops to aid him in his task.
Napoleon wanted a great general movement pour balayer tout le
Nord. He granted that Caffarelli had not enough troops both to furnish
garrisons for every important point, and to hunt down the guerrilleros
with a large field-force. Therefore he ordered Reille to furnish
Caffarelli’s successor with every man that he asked for. If necessary,
the whole Army of Portugal might be requisitioned, since those of the
South and Centre would be enough to keep Wellington in check. The
letter of instructions which Clarke was directed to give to Clausel,
when the latter took up his appointment, explains the Emperor’s
views. ‘By a continual taking of the offensive it ought to be possible to
reach a prompt and happy result. The moment that the
reinforcements to be furnished by General Reille arrive (and possibly
they have already put themselves at your disposition) in Navarre and
Biscay, I am convinced that your usual activity will change the face of
affairs. Rapid pursuits, well directed, and above all properly adapted
to the topographical configuration of the district; raids made without
warning on the insurgents’ dépôts of provisions, their hospitals, their
stores of arms, and in general on all their magazines, will infallibly
carry confusion into their operations. After you have had some
successful engagements with them, it will only require politic
measures to complete their disorganization. When you have
scattered their juntas, all the young men they have enrolled by
compulsion will melt home. If you leave them no rest, and surprise
them in their remotest places of refuge, the matter should end by their
going wholly to pieces.... As to the keeping open your communication
with France, one particular device, to whose utility all the generals
who have served in that region bear witness, is to establish at regular
distances and in well chosen positions, especially where roads meet,
small palisaded forts, or blockhouses, which will form a chain of posts
and support each other. Owing to the wooded nature of the country
they will not cost much to build—the estimate for such a system of
blockhouses has been calculated to me at no more than 300,000
francs.
‘Santoña and Pampeluna must be held—the latter because its
capture is Mina’s main ambition, the former because it is a terror to
the English, who recently tried to have it besieged: General Caffarelli
had to lead an expedition to relieve it. Pampeluna is the more
important for the moment: when a division of the Army of Portugal
reaches Navarre you ought to be able to make Mina change his tone.
Santoña can wait—it may be reprovisioned by sea from the small
ports of Biscay. As General Caffarelli has inconsiderately evacuated
most of them, you should reoccupy them all, especially Bermeo and
Castro-Urdiales. The latter is said to have been fortified with the help
of the English. For the sake of the safety of Santoña all these places
must be retaken at once: from the mouth of the Bidassoa to
Santander every maritime position should be in French hands.
Santander especially is, by the Emperor’s express orders, to be
permanently occupied by an adequate garrison.
‘It is necessary that all these operations should be carried out
simultaneously. The pursuit of Mina in Navarre should synchronize
with the operations in Biscay. The insurgents should be hunted in the
inland, at the same time that they are attacked on the coast. This is
the only way to disorganize them, to make them weak and divided at
all points.... It seems preferable to use every available man for a
general simultaneous attack, than to undertake each necessary
operation in succession, with a smaller force and more leisure—all
the more so because the reinforcements, which are to co-operate in
your scheme, may be called elsewhere by some unforeseen
development of affairs[385].’
Clausel, in obedience to his instructions, tried to carry out the
whole of this scheme, and had small luck therewith. He built the chain
of blockhouses from Irun to Burgos, thereby tying up many battalions
to sedentary duty. He hunted Mina right and left, drove the
insurrectionary Junta of Biscay from its abode, occupied all the little
ports from Santander to San Sebastian, stormed the well-fortified
Castro-Urdiales, revictualled Pampeluna and Santoña, and at the end
of three months had to report that his task was unfinished, that the
insurrection was still unsubdued, and that although he had borrowed
20,000 infantry from the Army of Portugal, he must ask for another
20,000 men [where were they to be got?] in order to finish the
campaign. And by this time—the end of May—Wellington was loose,
and the King was falling back on the Ebro, vainly calling for the five
divisions that his brother had made over to the Army of the North. But
we must resume the chronicle of the Northern campaign, before
commenting on its inadequate and unhappy conclusion.
The operations may be said to have begun in January, when
Palombini’s Italian division marched from Old Castile to join the Army
of the North, in order to replace Dumoustier’s brigade of the Young
Guard, which was being recalled to France. After crossing the
Guadarrama Pass in a blizzard, which cost some lives, they got to
Burgos on the 28th, driving away the Cura Merino and his band, who
had been blocking the road from Valladolid. From Burgos Palombini
marched to Vittoria, escorting a convoy of drafts returning to France,
couriers, officials, and convalescents. There he heard that Longa and
Mendizabal had cut in behind him, and had again stopped
communications. Wherefore he turned back, and swept the Bureba,
where they were reported to be. Not finding them, he marched as far
as Poza de la Sal, not far from Briviesca, but some leagues off the
great chaussée. In this town his head-quarters were fixed, while the
bulk of his division was sent out in flying columns to collect food. He
had only 500 men with him, when on the night of February 10-11 he
found himself surrounded by three Spanish columns, which had
slipped through the intervals of the outlying Italian regiments, and ran
in on the town from different quarters. The surprise, contrived by
Longa, was complete; but Palombini, collecting his men in a clump,
held out till daylight, when his battalions came flocking in to the sound
of the musketry and relieved him. The Spaniards disappeared, taking
with them some baggage and prisoners captured in the first rush, and
were soon lost to sight in the mountains.
The Italians, lucky to have escaped so cheaply, marched back to
the Ebro by way of Domingo Calzada, where there was a French
garrison in imminent danger of starvation, as it had long been
blockaded by local bands[386]. Palombini took it on with him, and blew
up the castle, as the place was inconveniently remote from any other
French post. He then returned to Vittoria by way of Haro (February
18) and next pushed on to Bilbao, where he relieved Dumoustier’s
brigade of the Imperial Guard, which was at last able to obey the
Emperor’s order to return to France (February 21). Caffarelli used this
force as his escort back to Bayonne, and returned in some disgrace
to Paris. Clausel assumed command in his stead on the next day.
Pampeluna had been declared by the new commander’s letter of
instructions to be the place of which he should be most careful. But
seeing no chance of visiting and relieving it till his reinforcements
from the Army of Portugal should have come up, Clausel, while
waiting for their arrival, came to Bilbao, where he began to make
preparations for the siege of Castro-Urdiales, by far the most
important, for the moment, of the ports along the coast which the
Emperor had commended to him for destruction.
Meanwhile the Biscayan insurgents collected opposite Bilbao, on
the Eastern side, and Mendizabal brought up Longa’s troops and
some of the smaller bands to threaten it from the West. The idea was
to give Clausel so much trouble about his head-quarters that he
would be unable to march away against Castro. The days slipped by,
and farther East Mina was more active than ever in Navarre. He had
at last become the happy possessor of two siege guns, landed at
Deba on the Biscay coast, and dragged by incredible exertions
across mountain paths to the farthest inland. When they came to
hand he set to work to beleaguer the French garrison of Tafalla, an
outlying place, but less than thirty miles from Pampeluna. This was a
challenge to General Abbé, the Governor of Navarre: a force which
has dug trenches and brought up heavy guns is obviously asking for
a fight, and not intending to abscond. Abbé marched with 3,000
infantry and 150 chasseurs to raise the siege, and found Mina with
four of his battalions and his regiment of cavalry drawn up across the
high road, in a mountain position at Tiebas, ten miles north of Tafalla.
After a hard day’s fighting, Abbé failed to break through, and had to
fall back on Pampeluna[387] (February 9). The news of his repulse
disheartened the garrison, whose walls were crumbling under the fire
of Mina’s heavy guns, and they surrendered on February 11th to the
number of 11 officers and 317 men—the post-commander and many
others had been killed during the siege.
This success of Mina’s meant nothing less than that the whole
open country of Navarre was at his mercy, since Abbé had been
beaten in the field; wherefore Clausel hastened to dispatch the first
reinforcements from the Army of Portugal which reached him—
Barbot’s division—to this quarter. But the affair created less
excitement than an exploit of reckless courage carried out by one of
Mina’s detachments in the following month. The old castle of
Fuenterrabia commands the passage of the Bidassoa, and looks
across its estuary into France: on March 11 it was surprised by
escalade by a handful of guerrilleros, the garrison taken prisoner, the
guns thrown into the water, and the whole building destroyed by fire.
The flames were visible far into France—troops hurried up from Irun
and Hendaye, but of course found the guerrilleros gone[388].
This exploit was rather spectacular than harmful to the French—
quite otherwise was the last event of the month of March. Barbot’s
division, on entering Navarre, was directed to help Abbé to clear the
country between Pampeluna and the Ebro. Having reached Lodosa
on March 30, Barbot sent out two battalions to raise requisitions in
the neighbouring town of Lerin. The place was being sacked, when
the scattered French were suddenly attacked by two of Mina’s
battalions, while two more and 200 Navarrese lancers cut in between
the enemy and Lodosa. The French, thoroughly surprised, lost
heavily in the first shock, but rallied and started to cut their way back
to their division, only eight miles away. In a running fight they were
much mauled, and finally had to form square to receive the cavalry. In
this inconvenient formation they were forced to a long musketry fight
with the Navarrese, which so shook the square that it finally broke
when Mina’s lancers charged. The two battalions were annihilated, 28
officers and 635 men taken prisoners—the rest cut down. Gaudin, the
colonel commanding the detachment, escaped with a few mounted
officers[389]. The extraordinary part of the affair was that its last crisis
took place at only two miles from Lodosa, where Barbot was lying
with his remaining six battalions. The French general never stirred,
but only put himself in a posture of defence, thereby provoking Mina’s
surprise[390], for he could have saved the column by going out to its
help. After the disaster he retired to Pampeluna, with a division
reduced to little over 3,000 men. But not long after Taupin’s division of
the Army of Portugal also entered Navarre, and joined Abbé. This
gave the latter a very heavy force—at least 13,000 men, and when
Clausel had finished his own operations in the direction of Bilbao, and
marched from Biscay to encircle Mina on one side, while Abbé was to
hold him on the other, the great guerrillero was in grave danger. But
this was only in late April and May, and before the chronicle of these
weeks is reached we have to turn back westward for a space.
Napoleon’s orders had told Clausel to attack at all points at once,
and to lose no time in setting to work. But it was quite clear that no
general synchronized move could be made, until the divisions
borrowed from Reille had all arrived. What active operations meant,
before the reinforcements had come up, had been sufficiently proved
by Abbé’s defeat at Tiebas: and Clausel’s own doings in March were
equally discouraging, if not so disastrous. He had resolved to carry
out one of the Emperor’s urgent orders by capturing Castro-Urdiales,
the touching-place of British cruisers and the one fortified port which
the Allies possessed on the Biscay coast. Undervaluing its strength,
he marched out on March 21 with the bulk of Palombini’s Italian
division and a single French battalion, intending to take it by
escalade. For he had been told that its ancient walls had been
indifferently repaired, and were almost without guns. When, however,
he had reached the neighbourhood of Castro on the 22nd, he had to
own on inspection that the enterprise would be hopeless—his