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VOLUME I
FUNDAMENTALS OF
ORGANIC
CHEMISTRY
for the JEE (Main and Advanced)
ANANYA GANGULY
Fundamentals of
Organic Chemistry
for the J E E
(Main and Advanced)
Volume I
Ananya Ganguly
Copyright ©
Copyright © 2016
2015 Pearson
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Preface vii
Acknowledgments viii
Carbanions 2.90
Free Radicals 2.100
Carbenes 2.107
Arynes 2.111
Nitrenes 2.113
Concept of Acids and Bases 2.116
Ortho Effect 2.131
Bases 2.140
Basicity 2.141
Isomerism 2.149
Tautomerism 2.158
Optical Isomerism 2.171
Conformations of Alkanes: Rotation About Carbon-Carbon Single Bonds 2.194
Cycloalkanes: Ring Strain 2.198
Conformations of Cyclohexane 2.200
Conformations of Monosubstituted Cyclohexanes 2.203
15 Nitrogen and Phosphours Chirality Centres 2.204
Conformations of Disubstituted Cyclohexanes 2.205
Conformations of 1,3-Disubstituted Cyclohexanes 2.206
Conformations of 1,2-Disubstituted Cyclohexanes 2.207
Conformations of Fused Rings 2.208
Stereochemistry of Reactions: Regioselective, Stereoselective, and Stereospecific Reactions 2.209
Solved Conceptual Examples 2.210
Conceptual Assignments 2.220
Solutions 2.254
Chapter 3 HYDROCARBON3.1–3.180
Saturated Hydrocarbons - Alkanes 3.1
Chemical Properties of Alkanes 3.18
Unsaturated Hydrocarbons Alkene 3.31
Nomenclature (See chapter ‘nomenclature’ for detail) 3.32
Diels - Alder Reaction 3.84
Alkyne 3.92
Solved Conceptual Examples 3.116
Conceptual Assignments 3.124
Solutions 3.157
Chapter 4 ELECTROPHILIC AROMATIC SUBSTITUTION 4.1–4.118
Aromaticity 4.1
Electrophilic Aromatic Substitution Reactions on Benzene 4.1
Nitration of Benzene 4.7
Friedel-Crafts Reaction 4.8
Halogenation 4.19
Sulphonation 4.20
Protonation 4.21
Chloromethylation 4.23
Reactivity and Orientation in Electrophilic Aromatic Substitution 4.30
Theory of Substituent Effects on Electrophilic Aromatic Substitution 4.40
Classification of Substituents 4.41
Reactions of Alkyl Benzenes 4.43
Birch Reduction 4.47
Aryl Halides 4.67
Nucleophilic Aromatic Substituents 4.71
I am indeed very delighted to present the book Fundamentals of Organic Chemistry for the JEE (Main and Advanced)
Volume I to the readers with elaborated concepts along with more solved and unsolved problems.
In all competitive examinations, there are several vital areas that a candidate needs to master—organic chemistry being
one of them. There are various books in the market on this topic having different approaches; however this book provides
simple, shortcut methods and time-saving tactics which are helpful during the examination to the students. It will also help
you to gain confidence through the right approach to a particular questions rather than attempting number of questions.
This book would be extremely useful for the students who enroll for examinations like JEE (Main and Advanced) and for
other engineering entrance examinations.
In order to bridge the gap between theory and practical, each concept is explained in detail, in an easy-to-understand
manner supported with numerous worked-out examples and practical. These will stimulate thought and facilitate advanced
learning.
One of the important factors that contribute to the success of a book is the way it has been developed. This book reflects
my experience and understanding of the requirements of the students. The methods and approaches discussed in this book
are tried and tested modes of instruction in the class.
Fundamentals of Organic Chemistry, Volume I cover topics like, IUPAC Nomenclature, General Organic Chemistry,
Hydrocarbon, Electrophilic Aromatic Substitution, and Analysis of Organic Compounds. Volume II covers, Alkyl Halides
and Aryl Halides, Alcohol, Phenol and Ether, Aldehyde and Ketone, Carboxylic Acids and Derivatives, Nitrogen Containing
Compounds, Carbohydrates, Amino Acids and Polymers.
I am sure that readers will appreciate this book and will find this book very useful to prepare for various examinations.
Your comments and suggestions would be very useful in improving the subsequent editions of this book.
Although we have taken utmost care to prepare the manuscript and checking subsequent proofs, there may be a
possibility of some errors creeping inside the book. We will welcome suggestions for further improvement of the book.
Please mail us your suggestions on: chemistrycoach1@gmail.com.
Ananya Ganguly
Fundamentals of Organic Chemistry, Volume I is the result of encouragement that I received from my students, who
insisted that, my knowledge and experience should benefit a wider audience.
I would like to thank my friends who have, over the years, been my support and strength. Writing this book has been a
long but fulfilling journey and I am fortunate to be assisted by a talented team of editors.
I am indebted to my family for keeping me motivated during all stages of the project. I always feel a divine power sup-
porting my efforts when my family is around. They actually made me work harder on the project.
I extend my sincere thanks to Pearson editorial team for their constant encouragement and support during the publica-
tion of this book.
Carbon is the fourth most abundant chemical element in the universe by mass after hydrogen, helium, and oxygen. Carbon
is abundant in the Sun, stars, comets, and in the atmospheres of most planets.
Organic chemistry is a subdiscipline within chemistry involving the scientific study of the structure, properties, com-
position, reactions, and preparation (by synthesis or by other means) of carbon-based compounds, hydrocarbons, and their
derivatives. These compounds may contain any number of other elements, including hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, the
halogens as well as phosphorus, silicon and sulphur.
An organic compound is any member of a large class of gaseous, liquid, or solid chemical compounds whose mol-
ecules contain carbon. For historical reasons discussed below, a few types of carbon-containing compounds such as car-
bides, carbonates, simpleoxides of carbon, and cyanides, as well as the allotropes of carbon such as diamond and graphite,
are considered inorganic. The distinction between “organic” and “inorganic” carbon compounds, while ‛useful in organiz-
ing the vast subject of chemistry... is somewhat arbitrary’.
Organic chemistry is the science concerned with all aspects of organic compounds. Organic synthesis is the methodol-
ogy of their preparation.
Vitalism
The word ‛organic’ is historical, dating back to the 1st century. For many centuries, Western alchemists believed in vital-
ism. This is the theory that certain compounds could be synthesized only from their classical elements — earth, water,
air, and fire — by action of a ‛life-force’ (vis vitalis) possessed only by organisms. Vitalism taught that these ‛organic’
compounds were fundamentally different from the ‛inorganic’ compounds that could be obtained from the elements by
chemical manipulation.
Vitalism survived for a while even after the rise of modern atomic theory and the replacement of the Aristotelian ele-
ments by those we know today. It first came under question in 1824, when Friedrich Wöhler synthesized oxalic acid, a
compound known to occur only in living organisms, from cyanogen. A more decisive experiment was Wöhler’s 1828
synthesis of urea from the inorganic salts potassium cyanate and ammonium sulfate. Urea had long been considered to be
an ‛organic’ compound, as it was known to occur only in the urine of living organisms. Wöhler’s experiments were fol-
lowed by many others, where increasingly complex ‛organic’ substances were produced from ‛inorganic’ ones without the
involvement of any living organism.
Modern Classification
Even after vitalism had been disproved, the distinction between ‛organic’ and ‛inorganic’ compounds has been retained
through the present. The modern meaning of ‛organic compound’ is any one of them that contains a significant amount of
carbon - even though many of the ‛organic compounds’ known today have no connection whatsoever with any substance
found in living organisms.
1.2 IUPAC Nomenclature
There is no ‛official’ definition of an organic compound. Some textbooks define an organic compound as one contain-
ing one or more C-H bonds; others include C-C bonds in the definition. Others state that if a molecule contains carbon―it
is organic.
Even the broader definition of ‛carbon-containing molecules’ requires the exclusion of carbon-containing alloys (in-
cluding steel), a relatively small number of carbon-containing compounds such as metal carbonates and carbonyls, simple
oxides of carbon and cyanides, as well as the allotropes of carbon and simple carbon halides and sulfides, which are usually
considered to be inorganic.
The ‛C-H’ definition excludes compounds that are historically and practically considered to be organic. Neither urea
nor oxalic acid is organic by this definition, yet they were two key compounds in the vitalism debate. The IUPAC Blue
Book on organic nomenclature specifically mentions urea and oxalic acid. Other compounds lacking C-H bonds that are
also traditionally considered to be organic include benzenehexol, mesoxalic acid, and carbon tetrachloride. Mellitic acid,
which contains no C-H bonds, is considered to be a possible organic substance in Martian soil. All do, however, contain
C-C bonds.
The ‛C-H bond only’ rule also leads to somewhat arbitrary divisions in sets of carbon-fluorine compounds, as, for ex-
ample, Teflon is considered by this rule ‛inorganic’ but Tefzel organic. Likewise, many Halons are considered inorganic,
whereas the rest are considered organic. For these and other reasons, most sources consider C-H compounds to be only a
subset of ‛organic’ compounds.
In summary, most carbon-containing compounds are organic, and most compounds with a C-H bond are organic. Not
all organic compounds necessarily contain C-H bonds (e.g., urea).
Molecular Formulae
A molecular formula simply counts the numbers of each sort of atom present in the molecule, but tells you nothing about
the way they are joined together.
For example, the molecular formula of butane is C4H10, and the molecular formula of ethanol is C2H6O.
Molecular formulae are very rarely used in organic chemistry, because they don't give any useful information about
the bonding in the molecule. About the only place where you might come across them is in equations for the combustion
of simple hydrocarbons, for example:
C5H12 + 8O2 5CO2 + 6H2O
In cases like this, the bonding in the organic molecule isn't important.
Structural Formulae
A structural formula shows how the various atoms are bonded. There are various ways of drawing this and you will need
to be familiar with all of them.
Displayed Formulae
A displayed formula shows all the bonds in a molecule as individual lines. You need to remember that each line represents
a pair of shared electrons.
For example, this is a model of methane together with its displayed formula:
+
+ & +
+
IUPAC Nomenclature 1.3
Notice that the way methane is drawn bears no resemblance to the actual shape of the molecule. Methane is not flat with
90° bond angles. This mismatch between what you draw and what the molecule actually looks like can lead to problems
if you aren't careful.
For example, consider a simple molecule with the molecular formula CH2Cl2. You might think that there were two dif-
ferent ways of arranging these atoms if you drew a displayed formula.
+ +
+ &O
The chlorines could be opposite each other or at right angles to each other. But these two structures are actually exactly
the same. Look at how they appear as models.
+ + + +
But, again these are exactly the same. Look at the models.
ULJKWKDQGHQGRI
WKHPROHFXOH
URWDWHGDERXWWKH
&&ERQG
You could even condense it further to CH3COOH, and would probably do this if you had to write a simple chemical
equation involving ethanoic acid. You do, however, lose something by condensing the acid group in this way because you
can not immediately see how the bonding works.
You still have to be careful in drawing structures in this way. Remember from above that both these structures represent
the same molecule:
+ + + &O
+ & & &O + & & +
+ + + +
&+
All of these are just versions of four carbon atoms joined up in a line. The only difference is that there has been some
rotation about some of the carbon-carbon bonds. You can see this in a couple of models.
molecule has been twisted
about this C-C bond
Not one of the structural formulae accurately represents the shape of butane. The convention is that we draw it with all
the carbon atoms in a straight line–as in the first of the above structures.
This is even more important when you start to have branched chains of carbon atoms. The following structures again
represent the same molecule–2-methylbutane.
&+
&+ &+ &+ &+ &+ &+ &+
&+
&+
&+
The two structures on the left are fairly obviously the same–all we have done is flip the molecule over. The other one
is not so obvious until you look at the structure in detail. There are four carbons joined up in a row, with a CH3 group at-
tached to the next-to-end one. That is exactly the same as the other two structures. If you had a model, the only difference
between these three diagrams would be that you would have rotated some of the bonds and turned the model around a bit.
To overcome this possible confusion, the convention is that you always look for the longest possible chain of carbon
atoms, and then draw it horizontally. Anything else is simply hung off that chain.
It does not matter in the least whether you draw any side groups pointing up or down. All of the following represent
exactly the same molecule.
IUPAC Nomenclature 1.5
%U
&+ &+ &+ &+ &+ 2+ %U &+
2+ &+ &+ &+ &+ &+ &+
2+ %U %U &+
&+ &+ &+ &+ &+ &+ &+ &+ &+ &+
&+ 2+
If you made a model of one of them, you could turn it into any other one simply by rotating one or more of the carbon-
carbon bonds.
How to draw structural formulae in 3-dimensions
There are occasions when it is important to be able to show the precise 3-D arrangement in parts of some molecules. To do
this, the bonds are shown using conventional symbols:
bond in plane of paper
For example, you might want to show the 3-D arrangement of the groups around the carbon, which has the -OH group
in butan-2-ol.
Butan-2-ol has the structural formula:
&+ &+ &+ &+
2+
Using the conventional bond notation, you could draw it as, for example:
&+&+ &+&+
& RU &
+ &+ + &+
2+ 2+
The only difference between these is a slight rotation of the bond between the two carbon atoms in the centre. This is
shown in the two models below. Look carefully at them–particularly at what has happened to the lone hydrogen atom. In the
left-hand model, it is tucked behind the carbon atom. In the right-hand model, it is in the same plane. The change is very slight.
1.6 IUPAC Nomenclature
It doesn't matter in the least which of the two arrangements you draw. You could easily invent other ones as well.
Choose one of them and get into the habit of drawing 3-dimensional structures that way.
Notice that no attempt was made to show the whole molecule in 3-dimensions in the structural formula diagrams. The
CH2CH3 group was left in a simple form. Keep diagrams simple–trying to show too much detail makes the whole thing
amazingly difficult to understand.
Skeletal Formulae
In a skeletal formula, all the hydrogen atoms are removed from carbon chains, leaving just a carbon skeleton with func-
tional groups attached to it.
For example, we have just been talking about butan-2-ol. The normal structural formula and the skeletal formula look
like this:
&+&+&+&+
2+ 2+
In a skeletal diagram of this sort,
there is a carbon atom at each junction between bonds in a chain and at the end of each bond (unless there is something
else there already, like the -OH group in the example);
there are enough hydrogen atoms attached to each carbon to make the total number of bonds on that carbon up to 4.
Diagrams of this sort take practice to interpret correctly, and may well not be acceptable to your examiners
(see below).
There are, however, some very common cases where they are frequently used. These cases involve rings of carbon
atoms, which are surprisingly awkward to draw tidily in a normal structural formula.
Cyclohexane, C6H12, is a ring of carbon atoms, each with two hydrogens attached. This is what it looks like in both a
structural formula and a skeletal formula.
&+
&+ &+
&+ &+
&+
F\FORKH[DQH
And this is cyclohexene, which is similar but contains a double bond:
&+
&+ &+
&+ &+
&+
F\FORKH[DQH
But the commonest of all is the benzene ring, C6H6, which has a special symbol of its own.
benzene ring
IUPAC Nomenclature 1.7
Bond-Line Formulae
We will use a very simplified formula called a bond-line formula to represent structural formulae. The bond-line repre-
sentation is the quickest of all to write because it shows only the carbon skeleton. The number of hydrogen atoms necessary
to fulfill the carbon atoms’ valences are assumed to be present, but we do not write them in. Other atoms (e.g., O, Cl, N)
are written in and hydrogens attached to those atoms are also written. Each intersection of two or more lines and the end
of a line represent a carbon atom unless some other atom is written in.
&+ &+
&O &O
&+ &+
&+
&+ &+
&+ %RQGOLQH
IRUPXODH
Problem
1. Outline the carbon skeleton of the following condensed structural formulae and then write each as a bond-line
formula.
(a) (CH3)2CHCH2CH3 (e) CH3CH2CH(OH)CH2CH3
(b) (CH3)2CHCH2CH2OH (f) CH2=C(CH2CH3)2O
2
(c) (CH3)2C=CHCH2CH3 (g) &+&&+&+&+&+
(d) CH3CH2CH2CH2CH3 (h) CH3CHC1CH2CH(CH3)2
1.8 IUPAC Nomenclature
Illustration
1. (a) Provide a structural formula for CH3CH2C(CH3)2CH2CH(CH3)2, and define and identify all the primary (1°),
secondary (2°), tertiary (3°), and quaternary (4°) C’s. (b) Identify all the 1°, 2°, and 3° H’s. (e) Give number of H
atoms bonded to a 1°, 2°, 3°, and 4° carbon atom in an alkane. (d) Give the number of C atoms bonded to a 1°,
2°, 3°, and 4° carbon atom in an alkane.
IUPAC Nomenclature 1.9
Ans. (a) In the condensed formula all atoms or groups written after a C are bonded to it.
+ + +
+ + +
+ + &D + &D +
D E
+ &D &E &G &E &F &D + F G
+ + &D + + +
+ + +
1 °C is bonded to only one other C, a 2 °C to two other C’s, a 3 °C to three other C’s, and a 4° to four other
C’s. (The C of CH4 is super F.)
(b) 1 °H’s are those attached to 1 °C’s, 2 °H’s to 2 °C’s, and 3 °H’s to 3 °C’s. Other atoms or groups bonded to
C, like halogen, are similarly identified. (A 4 °H cannot exist because all four bonds of a 4 °C are bonded to
other C’s.)
(c) 3, 2, 1, and 0.
(d) 1, 2, 3, and 4.
5
DQ\DON\OJURXS
Iso alkyl group: An alkyl group in which the second last carbon in the chain is branched to one –CH3 group.
For Example,
5HPRYDORI+
+& &+ &+
IURPFDUERQ
QSURS\OJURXS
+ & &+ &+
5HPRYDORI+
&+ &+ &+
IURP
FDUERQ &+
&+ &+ &+ ,VREXW\OJURXS
&+ 5HPRYDO PHWK\OSURS\O
RI+
&+
IURP
FDUERQ &+ & &+
7HUWLDU\EXW\OJURXS
>ccGLPHWK\OHWK\O@
&+ &+
VHFRQGDU\EXW\O>ccGLPHWK\O
&+ &+ HWK\O@
Neoalkyl Group
The alkyl group in which second last carbon of the chain is branched to two CH3 groups.
For Example
&+
&+ & &+ QHRSHQW\ORUGLPHWK\O
SURS\O
&+
(i) Word root: The word root represents the number of carbon atoms in the parent chain. The general word root for different
aliphatic compounds is ALK. The word root for different lengths of carbon chains are given below in Table 1.2.
(ii) Primary Suffix: Primary suffix is used to represent saturation or unsaturation in the carbon chain. While writing the
name, primary suffix is added to the word root. Some of the primary suffixes are given below in Table 1.3.
It may be noted that an extra ‘a’ is added to the word root if the primary suffix to be added begins with a constant
(other than a, e, i, o, u.)
For example, for two double bonds, suffix is diene and if it is to be added to word root ‘but’ (for 4C atoms, it
becomes butadiene)
IUPAC Nomenclature 1.13
(iii) Secondary Suffix: Secondary suffix is used to indicate the functional group in the organic compounds. The terminal
‘e’ of the primary suffix is dropped if it is followed by a suffix beginning with ‘a’, ‘i’, ‘o’, ‘u’ or ‘y’. But it is retained
if secondary suffix begins with a consonant.
Secondary suffixes for various functional groups are given in Table 1.4.
Class of Organic General Functional Group Suffix IUPAC name of the Family
Compound Formula
(Word + pri. + sec.
root suffix suffix )
Alcohols R–OH –OH -ol Alkanol
Thioalcohols R–SH –SH -thiol Alkanethiol
Amines R–NH2 –NH2 -amine Alkanamine
Aldehydes R–CHO –CHO -al Alkanal
Ketones R–COR > CO -one Alkanone
Carboxylic acids R–COOH –COOH -oic Alkanoic Acid
Amines R–COOH2 –CONH2 -amide Alkanamide
Acid chlorides R–COCl –COCI -oyl chloride Alkanoyl Chloride
Esters R–COOR –COOR -oate Alkyl Alkanoate
Nitriles R–C ≡ N –C ≡ N -nitrile Alkane Nitrile
It may be noted that while adding the secondary suffix to the primary suffix, the terminal ‘e’ of the primary suffix
(i.e. ane, ene or yne) is dropped if the complete secondary suffix (the suffix plus multiplying affix, if any, such as di
tri tetra) begins with a vowel (a, e, i, o, u). However, the terminal ‘–e’ is retained if the secondary suffix begins with
a consonant.
For example,
Primary prefix Word root Primary Suffix Secondary Suffix IUPAC name
Cyclo hex ane – Cyclohexane
Secondary Prefix
Prefixes that are used to represent the names of alkyl groups (branched chains) or some functional groups, which are
regarded as substituents, are secondary prefix.
(a) Alkyl groups are formed by the removal of H atom from the alkanes. These are represented by the general
formula CnH2n+1 or R-. Some alkyl groups along with their prefixes are given in Table 1.5.
1.14 IUPAC Nomenclature
(b) Some functional groups are always indicated by the prefixes instead of secondary suffixes. These functional groups
along with their prefixes are listed in Table 1.6.
(c) In polyfunctional compounds, i.e., compounds with more than one functional group, one of the functional groups is
treated as the principal functional group and is indicated by the secondary suffix, whereas the other functional groups are
treated as substituents and are indicated by prefixes. The prefixes for various functional groups are given in Table 1.8.
Arrangement of Prefixes, Word root and Suffixes: The prefixes, word root and suffixes are arranged as follows while
writing the name.
Prefix(es) + Word root + p. suffix + sec. suffix
&+
&+&+&+&&+&+&+ 3DUHQWFKDLQ
&+ &+
6XEVWLWXHQWV
For example, in the following compound, the parent chain consists of nine carbon atoms (structure I) and not eight
(structure II). So, the compound is named as derivative of nonane.
&+ &+
&+&+&+&+&+&+&+&+&+ &+&+&+&+&+&+&+&+&
&+ &+
&+ &+
, ,,
&RUUHFWFKDLQ :URQJFKDLQ
FRQWDLQV&DWRPV FRQWDLQV&DWRPV
1.16 IUPAC Nomenclature
The number that indicates the position of the substituent or side chain is called locant. When series of the locants con-
taining the same number of terms are compared term by term, that series is lowest which contains the lowest number on
the occasion of first difference. Some examples are given below to illustrate the above idea:
&+ &+
&+
&+
&+
&+
&+
& &+
&+
&+
&+ &+
0HWK\OEXWDQHDQG 7ULPHWK\OSHQWDQH
QRW0HWK\OEXWDQHSHQWDQH DQGQRW7ULPHWK\O
&+
&+
&+
&+
&+
&+
&+ &+ &+ &+
&+
&+ &+
&+ &+
&+
&+
&+
&+
The names of alkyl groups attached as a branch are then prefixed to the name of the parent alkane, and the posi-
tion of the substituents is indicated by the appropriate numbers. If different alkyl groups are present, they are listed in
alphabetical order.
For example,
&+ &+ &+ &+ &+ &+ &+
&+ &+ &+
(WK\OPHWK\OKHSWDQH
It must be remembered that numbers are separated from the groups by hyphens, and there is no break between sub-
stituent and alkane names, i.e., between methyl and pentane, or ethyl and hexane.
&+ &+
&+ &+
&
&+
&+
&+
&+
&+
&+
&+ &+&+
'LPHWK\OSHQWDQH 'LHWK\OSHQWDQH
IUPAC Nomenclature 1.17
&+ &+
&+ &+
&+
&+
&+ &+
&+
&
&+
&+
&+ &+ &+
(WK\OPHWK\OSHQWDQH (WK\OGLPHWK\OSHQWDQH
&+ &+
&+ &+
&+
&+ &+
&+
(WK\OPHWK\OKH[DQH
1.18 IUPAC Nomenclature
&+
&+
&+
&+
&+ &+
&+
&+
&
&+
&+
&+&+ &+
&+&+
7ULPHWK\O PHWK\OSURS\O QRQDQH
&+
& &+
&+
'LPHWK\OHWK\O HWK\OGLPHWK\OGHFDQH
The numerical prefixes ‘bis-’, ‘tris-’, ‘tetrakis-’, ‘pentakis-’ etc. are used to indicate a multiplicity of substituted sub-
stituents. The name of the substituted substituent is enclosed in parentheses. For example,
+& &+
&+ &+ &+ &+ &+ &+ &+ &+ &+
&+ &+
&+ &+ &RPSOH[VXEVWLWXHQW
&+
'LPHWK\OSURS\O QRQDQH
&+ &+ &+ &+ &+ &+ &+ &+ &+
&+
&RPSOH[
GLPHWK\OSURS\O
&+&&+ VXEVWLWXHQW
IUPAC Nomenclature 1.19
&+&+
&+ &+ &+ &+ &+ &+ &+&+&+&+
&+
+&&&+
&+ &+
(WK\OEXW\O GLPHWK\OGHFDQH
2. It may be noted that dimethyl propyl (a complex substitution) is alphabetized under ‛d’ and not under ‛m’. Therefore,
it is cited before ethyl (e).
3. When the names of two or more complex substituents are composed of identical words, priority is given to the sub
substituent with lower locant at the first cited point of difference within the complex substituent.
For example,
&+
0HWK\OEXW\O
&+ &+ &+ &+
&+ &+ &+ &+ &+ &+ &+ &+ &+ &+ &+ &+
&+ &+ &+ &+
0HWK\OEXW\O
&+
0HWK\OEXW\O PHWK\OEXW\O GRGHFDQH
The substituent (1-methylbutyl) is written first because it has lower locant that the substituent (2-methylbutyl).
4. When there are more than one same complex substituents, it is indicated by the multiplying prefix bis (for two), tris
(for three), tetra kis (for four), etc.
&+
GLPHWK\SURS\O
&+ &+ & &+
&+ &+ &+ &+ &+ & &+ &+ &+ &+
&+ &+ & &+ &+
&+ GLPHWK\SURS\O
1.20 IUPAC Nomenclature
5. The prefixes iso- and neo- are considered to be part of alkyl group. The prefixes sec- and tert- are not considered to be
part of fundamental name. The use of ‘iso’ and related common prefixes for naming alkyl group is also allowed by
the IUPAC nomenclature as long as these are not further substituted.
&+ &+
&+ &+ &+ &+ &+ &+ &+ &+ &+ &+
+& &+ &+ &+
6HFEXW\OLVRSURS\OGHFDQH
If two equally long chains are possible, the chain with maximum number of side chains is selected as parent chain.
Note: It may be noted that the selected chain containing double or triple bonded carbon atoms (must include both the
carbon atoms of the double bond or triple bond) may or may not be the longest chain in the structure. For example, in the
above structure, the longest chain containing double bonded carbon atoms is of five carbon atoms and not of six.
The presence of one or more double or triple bonds in an otherwise saturated parent hydride (except for parent hydrides
with Hantzsch-Widman names) is denoted by changing the ‛-ane’ ending of the name of a saturated parent hydride to one
of the following:
Table 1.10
1. The presence of both double and triple bonds is similarly denoted by endings such as ‛-enyne’, ‛-adienyne’, ‛-enediyne’,
etc. Numbers as low as possible are given to double and triple bonds as a set, even though this may at times give ‛-yne’
a lower number than ‛-ene’. If a choice remains, preference for low locants is given to the double bonds. Only the
lower locant for a multiple bond is cited except when the numerical difference between the two locants is greater than
one, in which case the higher-numbered locant is cited in parentheses.
2. While writing the name of the alkene or alkyne, the suffix ‘ane’ of the corresponding alkane is replaced by ‘ene’ or
‘yne’ respectively.
3. The numbering must begin with the one end of the parent chain, but this is done in such a way that carbon atom
carrying the multiple bonds gets the lowest number. The position of the multiple bond is then indicated by using the
number of the first C-atom of the multiple bond.
IUPAC Nomenclature 1.21
Note: It may be noted that we give the lowest number to the carbon atom having double or triple bond and not to any
side chain (as in alkanes).
&+ &+ &+ &+&+
3HQWHQH
&+ &+ &+ &+±&+
QRW3HQWHQH
4. All the rules for naming side chains or substituents are then followed (same as in alkanes).
5. If the multiple bond occurs two or more times in the chain, then it is named as diene or diyne, triene or triyne etc. The
positions or multiple bonds are also prefixed with numbers.
Some examples are given below:
&+ &+ &+ &+ +&Ł& &+&Ł&+
%XWDGLHQH 3HQWDGL\QH
&+
&+ &+&&+ & Ł &+
&+&+
(WK\OPHWK\OKH[\QH
5. If the parent chain contains both the double and triple bonds, the following points should be followed:
If double bond and triple bond get the same locant from two sides of the parent carbon chain, double bond gets the
priority in the numbering but the name ends with triple bond. Example is given below.
+& & &+ & Ł &+
3HQWDHQ\QH
The terminal ‘e’ in the name of alkene is dropped if it is followed by the suffix beginning with a,e, i, o, u. For example,
terminal ‘e’ of the ene is dropped in the following cases:
+&Ł& &+ &+ &+ +&Ł& &+ &+ &+ &+
3HQWDHQ\QH +H[DGLHQ\QH
3UHIHUHQFHRIORFDQWIRUHQH
+&Ł& &+ &+ &+
3HQWHQ\QH
Examples
&+ 1 1
+&
+3 3 3+
+H[HQH 7ULSKRVSKD]DGLHQH
1.22 IUPAC Nomenclature
&+
+ & +& &+
+H[DGLHQH 3HQW\QH
&+
+& +& &+
+H[D 3HQWHQ\QH
GLHQ\QH
1+ 1
+ 1 1
1+
3HQWDD]HQH
13 1 2
12 3
11 14 4
10 8 5
9
Bicyclo[6.5.1]
tetradec-1(13)-ene
&+ 2+ &+2+
&+ &+ & &+ &+ &+ &+ &+ & &+ &+ &+
&+ &+
&RUUHFW :URQJ
2. The numbering of atoms in the parent chain is done is such a way that carbon atom bearing the functional group gets
the lowest number.
3. All the rules for naming side chains or substituents are then followed as discussed in case of alkanes.
Let us apply these rules to write the names of some compounds.
&+ &+ 2
&+ & 2+ &+ & &+2+ &+ &+ &+ & &+ &+
&+ &+ &+
0HWK\OSURSDQRO 'LPHWK\OSURSDQRO 0HWK\ORQH
IUPAC Nomenclature 1.23
It may be noted that the functional group should get the lowest number even if it violates the lowest locant
rule.
&+
&+ & &+ &+ &+ &+ &+ &+ &+ &+&+2
&+&+ 2+ &+
0HWK\OKHSWDQDO
&+&+
(WK\OGLPHWK\OKHSWDQRO
It may be noted that if functional groups such as –CHO, –COOH, –CONH2, –COOR, –CN etc. are present in the
molecule, the numbering of the parent chain in such a case must start from the carbon atom of the functional group.
However, this number is normally not indicated in the IUPAC name of the compound.
&+
&+ &+ & &+ &+ &+&+ &+ &+
&+2 &22+
(WK\OPHWK\OEXWDQDO 0HWK\OEXWDQRLFDFLG
&+&+ &+ &+&+ &22+ &+ &+ &+ &Ł1
3KHQ\OEXWDQRLFDFLG %XWDQHQLWULOH
4. Rules for Naming Compounds having functional groups, multiple bonds and side chains substituents:
If the organic compound contains a functional group, multiple bond, side chain or the substituent, the following order
of preference must be followed:
Functional group > Double bond > Triple bond > Side chain
For example,
&+
&+ &+ &+ &+ &+ &+2 +22& &+ &+ &22+
%XWHQHGLRLFDFLG RU
0HWK\OKH[HQDO
%XWHQHGLRLFDFLG
Some of the functional groups are treated as side chains, e.g., halogen, nitro nitroso, ether.
5. Rules for Naming Organic Compounds containing two or more Functional groups
When an organic compound contains two or more functional groups, one group is regarded as the principal functional
group. The other group is treated as the secondary functional group and may be treated as substituent. The following
decreasing-order of preference is used for selecting the principal functional group:
COOH, SO3H, COOR (R = alkyl group), COCl, CONH2, CN > H C = O, > C = O, OH, NH2, > C = C <, C ≡
For example, if an organic group contains –COOH and – OH groups, then – COOH group is regarded as the principal
group and –OH group is the substituent and is called hydroxyl.
6XEVWLWXHQW
2+
&+ &+ &+ &+ &22+ 3ULQFLSDO
+\GUR[\SHQWDQRLFDFLG IXQFWLRQJURXS
1.24 IUPAC Nomenclature
When an organic compound contains two or more different functional groups, the principal group forms the suffix of
the name while the other functional groups are considered as substituents and indicated as prefixes.
Table 1.11 Different functional Groups and Corresponding Suffixes and Prefixes
Class Functional Group General Formula Prefix (p) or Secondary Suffix (s) General IUPAC Name
±„„„
Carboxylic –C–OH R–COOH –oic acid (s) Alkanoic acid
acids ±„„„
±„„„ ±„„„
Amides –amide (s) Alkan amide
–C–NH2 R–C–NH2
±„„„ ±„„„
Acyl halides –C–X R–C–X –oyl halide Alkanoyl halide
X Cl, Br
±„„„ ±„„„
Esters –C–OR' R–C–O–R' Alkyl (p) oate (s) Alkyl alkanoate
±„„„ ±„„„ ±„„„ ±„„„
Acid anthydride –C–O–C– ±±±± –oic anhydride (s) Alkanoic anthyride
Cyanides –CN R–CN –nitrile Alkane nitrile
Table 1.12
Let us now apply various rules to write the names of some organic compounds.
Alcohols
2+
2+ 2+ +2
HWKDQRO SURSDQRO HWKDQHGLRO
HWK\ODOFRKRO SURS\ODOFRKRO Q HWK\OHQHJO\FRO
Alcohols (R-OH) take the suffix ‛-ol’ with an infix numerical bonding position: CH3CH2CH2OH is propan-1-ol. The suf-
fixes -diol, -triol, -tetraol etc. are used for multiple -OH groups: Ethylene glycol CH2OHCH2OH is ethane-1, 2-diol.
2+
2+
2
K\GUR[\SURSDQRLFDFLG
If higher precedence functional groups are present (see order of precedence, below), the prefix ‛hydroxy’ is used with
the bonding position: CH3CHOHCOOH is 2-hydroxypropanoic acid.
Halogen functional groups are prefixed with the bonding position and take the form fluoro-, chloro-, bromo-, iodo- etc.
depending on the halogen. Multiple groups are dichloro-, trichloro- etc., and dissimilar groups are ordered alphabetically
as before. For example, CHCl3 (chloroform) is trichloromethane. The anesthetic Halothane (CF3CHBrCl) is 2-bromo-
2-chloro-1,1,1-trifluoroethane.
1.26 IUPAC Nomenclature
Ketones
2 2
2
SURSDQRQH R[RKH[DQDO
DFHWRQH
In general, ketones (R-CO-R) take the suffix ‛-one’ (pronounced own, not won) with an infix position number:
CH3CH2CH2COCH3 is pentan-2-one. If a higher precedence suffix is in use, the prefix ‛oxo-’ is used: CH3CH2CH2
COCH2CHO is 3-oxohexanal.
Process: It is a non terminal group. Count the C- in the main chain at minimum locant in simple ketones. Otherwise,
follow the seniority table.
For example,
&+ 2
&+&+ & & &+
&+ (WK\OPHWK\OSHQWDQRQH
&+
&2&+ &2
$FHWRSKHQRQH %HQ]RSKHQRQH
The above names are retained. So derivatives of these compounds will get the base names of the above compounds.
2
& &+
&+ &+ GLPHWK\ODFHWRSKHQRQH
Aldehydes
2
2 2+
2
+ +
PHWKDQDO 2
IRUPDOGHK\GH R[RSURSDQRLFDFLG F\FORKH[DQHFDUEDOGHK\GH
Aldehydes (R-CHO) take the suffix ‛-al’. If other functional groups are present, the chain is numbered such that the alde-
hyde carbon is in the ‛1’ position, unless functional groups of higher precedence are present.
If a prefix form is required, ‛oxo-’ is used (as for ketones), with the position number indicating the end of a chain: CHO-
CH2COOH is 3-oxopropanoic acid. If the carbon in the carbonyl group cannot be included in the attached chain (for in-
stance, in the case of cyclic aldehydes), the prefix ‛formyl-’ or the suffix ‛-carbaldehyde’ is used: C6H11CHO is cyclohex-
anecarbaldehyde. If a aldehyde is attached to a benzene and is the main functional group, the suffix becomes benzaldehyde.
IUPAC Nomenclature 1.27
Process
This is also a terminal group, rule 1 is followed as above. At the end we use ‘al’
For the cyclic compounds we use carboxaldehyde. For example,
&+ & 2 &+ &+ 2 &+ 2
+ &+ 2 &\FORKH[DQH
(WKDQDO 3URSDQHGLDO FDUER[DOGHK\GH
& 2 .HWRQH
Carboxylic Acids
2+
2
HWKDQRLFDFLG
DFHWLFDFLG
In general, carboxylic acids are named with the suffix -‛oic acid’ (etymologically a back-formation from benzoic acid). As
for aldehydes, they take the ‛1’ position on the parent chain, but do not have their position number indicated. For example,
CH3CH2CH2CH2COOH (valeric acid) is named pentanoic acid. For common carboxylic acids, some traditional names such
as acetic acid are in such widespread use, they are considered retained IUPAC names, although ‛systematic’ names such as
ethanoic acid are also acceptable. For carboxylic acids attached to a benzene ring such as Ph-COOH, these are named as
benzoic acid or its derivatives.
If there are multiple carboxyl groups on the same parent chain, the suffix ‛-carboxylic acid’ can be used (as -dicarboxylic
acid, -tricarboxylic acid etc.). In these cases, the carbon in the carboxyl group does not count as part of the main alkane
chain. The same is true for the prefix form, ‛carboxyl-’. Citric acid is one example; it is named 2-hydroxypropane-
1,2,3-tricarboxylic acid, rather than 3-carboxy, 3-hydroxypentanedioic acid.
Process
1. Count the C of— CO2 H and put it in the longest chain (this is a 3 terminal group).
2. Find the base name, i.e., rest name and add ‘oic acid’ at last and follow seniority. For example,
&+&22+ &+&+&22+
(WKDQRLFDFLG 3URSDQRLFDFLG
&22+
&+ &22+ &22+
3URSDQHGLRLFDFLG &\FORSURSDQHFDUER[\OLFDFLG
With cyclic compounds, C of CO2 H is not counted in the main chain; therefore, use carboxylic acid.
Ethers
2
2 2
PHWKR[\PHWKDQH PHWKR[\HWKDQH PHWKR[\SURSDQH
GLPHWK\OHWKHU HWK\OPHWK\OHWKHU LVRSURS\OPHWK\OHWKHU
Ethers (R-O-R) consist of an oxygen atom between two attached carbon chains. The shorter of the two chains becomes the
first part of the name with the -‛ane’ suffix changed to -‛oxy’, and the longer alkane chain becomes the suffix of the name
of the ether. Thus, CH3OCH3 is methoxymethane, and CH3OCH2CH3 is methoxyethane (not ethoxymethane). If the oxygen
1.28 IUPAC Nomenclature
is not attached to the end of the main alkane chain, then the whole shorter alkyl-plus-ether group is treated as a side-chain
and prefixed with its bonding position on the main chain. Thus, CH3OCH(CH3)2 is 2-methoxypropane.
Esters
Main Article
2 2 2
2 2 2
PHWK\OPHWKDQRDWH PHWK\OHWKDQRDWH HWK\OPHWKDQRDWH
IRUPDWH DFHWDWH HWK\OIRUPDWH
Esters (R–CO–O–R') are named as alkyl derivatives of carboxylic acids. The alkyl (R’) group is named first. The
R–CO–O part is then named as a separate word based on the carboxylic acid name, with the ending changed from ‛-oic acid’
to ‛-oate’. For example, CH3CH2CH2CH2COOCH3 is methyl pentanoate, and (CH3)2CHCH2CH2COOCH2CH3 is ethyl 4-
methylpentanoate. For esters such as ethyl acetate (CH3COOCH2CH3), ethyl formate (HCOOCH2CH3) or dimethyl phthal-
ate that are based on common acids, IUPAC recommends use of these established names, called retained names. The
‛-oate’ changes to ‛-ate’. Some simple examples, named both ways, are shown in the figure above.
2
2
EXW\OSURSDQRDWH
If the alkyl group is not attached at the end of the chain, the bond position to the ester group is infixed before ‛-yl’:
CH3CH2CH(CH3)OOCCH2CH3 may be called but-2-yl propanoate or but-2-yl propionate.
1+ 1
1PHWK\OHWKDQDPLQH 1HWK\O1PHWK\OSURSDQDPLQH
Amines (R-NH2) are named for the attached alkane chain with the suffix ‛-amine’ (e.g., CH3NH2 Methyl amine). If nec-
essary, the bonding position is infixed: CH3CH2CH2NH2–propan-1-amine, CH3CHNH2CH3–propan-2-amine. The prefix
form is ‛amino-’.
For secondary amines (of the form R-NH-R), the longest carbon chain attached to the nitrogen atom becomes the prima-
ry name of the amine; the other chain is prefixed as an alkyl group with location prefix given as an italic N: CH3NHCH2CH3
is N-methylethanamine. Tertiary amines (R-NR-R) are treated similarly: CH3CH2N(CH3)CH2CH2CH3 is N-ethyl-N-
methylpropanamine. Again, the substituent groups are ordered alphabetically.
1+ 1
2 2
HWKDQDPLGH 11GLPHWK\OPHWKDQDPLGH
DFHWDPLGH
Amides (R-CO-NH2) take the suffix ‛-amide’, or ‛-carboxamide’ if the carbon in the amide group cannot be included
in the main chain . The prefix form is both ‛carbamoyl-’ and ‛amido-’.
IUPAC Nomenclature 1.29
Secondary and tertiary amides are treated similarly to the case of amines: alkane chains bonded to the nitrogen atoms
are treated as substituents with the location prefix N: HCON(CH3)2 is N, N-dimethylmethanamide.
2 2
±&2; DFLGKDOLGH ±&21+ DPLGH & 2 DQK\GULGH & 25 HVWHU
& 2
Process
We will take one example from each to understand the writing technique.
For example,
2
&+ & &O
5RRWQDPHHWKDQ
(WKDQRLFDFLG (WKDQRLFDFLG 2
For mixed anhydride, e.g., CH3 — — O — —H, ethanoic methanoic anhydride is the IUPAC name
2 2
In case of &+ & 2&+, write the alkyl group (R) of & first. Give space then write the parent acid’s root
methyl ethanoate
2 5
name and add ‘oate’ finally.
2
For + & 2 &+, IUPAC name is methyl methonate.
2
& 2&+
3UHIL[0HWK\O Suffix: Carboxylate
1.30 IUPAC Nomenclature
VSDFH
&Ł1
&+±&Ł1 &\FORKH[DQHFDUERQLWULOH
(WKDQHQLWULOH
5RRWQDPH 6XIIL[
5RRWQDPH6XIIL[ 1RVSDFH
&+ 1 &
0HWK\O FDUE\ODPLQH
5RRWQDPH 6XIIL[
ZLWKµ\O¶
&+&+ &22+
±2+ DOFRKRO ±6+ WKLRO
2+
&+&+ 2+ +\GUR[\ SURSDQRLF DFLG
Root name : Ethane 3UHIL[ 5RRWQDPH 6XIIL[
Suffix : ol
Therefore Ethanol
is the IUPAC name
CH3CH2 – SH
Root Name : ethane
Suffix : thiol
Therefore, ethane thiol is the IUPAC name of the above compound.
&+&+ &22+
6+
0HUFDSWRSURSDQRLFDFLG
&+1+
1+
&\FOREXWDQDPLQH &\FORSURS\OHWKDQDPLQH
Aromatic amines have common names and are used as their base names while writing the names of their derivatives.
1+ 1+
&+
DQLOLQH RPSWROXLGLQH
IUPAC has retained the common names for aromatic amine like aniline etc. The other groups Cl, Br, I, NO2 etc. are
used as prefixes and seniority depends on alphabetical seniority of their names.
For Example,
&+ 2 &+&+
0HWKR[\HWKDQH
1RVSDFH
Likewise, considering the smaller alkyl group in the alkoxy part and larger alkyl group as alkane, the name of the fol-
lowing compound is
&+
&+ 2 &+
&+
0HWKR[\LVRSURSDQH
RU
0HWKR[\SURSDQH
2
&+ &+
&O %U &+ &+ &+
%URPR&KORURHWKDQH &O
DOSKDEHWLFDOVHQLRULW\ FKORURHSR[\SURSDQH
Many derivatives of principal characteristic groups or functional parent compounds may be named by name modifiers
which consist of one or more separate words placed after the name of the parent structure. This method is most useful in
an indexing environment.
Illustrations
Ans. 1. The longest chain containing functional group is of six carbon atoms. Therefore, the word root is ‛hex’.
&+ &+ &+ &+ &+ &+ &+2
&+
Ans. 1. The longest chain containing functional group is of seven carbon atoms. Therefore, word root is Hept.
2. As C = C double bond is present in the molecule. Thus, the primary suffix is ‛ene’.
3. The secondary suffix is ‛al’ because of presence of –CHO group.
4. The chain is numbered as shown as that carbon atom of –CHO group gets number 1. The methyl group is
present on carbon 5 while position of double bond is 3.
5. Thus, IUPAC name is Methylhept-3-en-1-al.
## Practice Exercise
1. Write the secondary suffixes for the following functional groups:
(i) –CN (ii) –COCl (iii) –CO–
(iv) –CHO (v) –COOH (vi) –NH2
SOLUTIONS
1. (i) –nitrile (ii) –oyl chloride (iii) –one
(iv) –al (v) –oic acid (vi) –amine
O
4CH
3 – 3CH2 – 2CH – 1C – OCH3 Methyl 2-ethylbutanoate
C2H5
O
4CH
3 – 3CH = 2CH – 1C – OH But 2-en-1-oic acid
OCH3
4CH – 3CH = 2C – 1CH3 2-Methoxybut-2-ene
3
CH3 O
3CH
2 = 2C –– 1C – OC2H5 Ethyl 2-methylprop-2-enoate
CH3 CH3
4CH
3 – 3CH – 2CH – 1CH2NH2 2, 3-Dimethylbutan-l-amine
O
1CH – 2C – 3CH – 4CH – 5CH3 3-Ethyl-4-methylpentan-2-one
3
C2H5 CH3
1.34 IUPAC Nomenclature
O
4CH
3 – 3CH – 2CH
2 – 1C – Br 3-Methylbutanoyl bromide
CH3
3CH – 2CH – 1CH2 – OH 2-Phenylpropan-1-ol
3
C6H5
&+
&+ & &+ &+ &+ &+ 4-lodo-2,2,3-trimethylthexane
&+&+
&+
&+ &+
&+
&+
& &+ 4-Chloro-2,3-dimethylhexan-2-ol
&O &+ 2+
2
&+
&+ &
&+ 3-methylbutane-2-one
&+
Here, word root is ‛but’, primary suffix is ‛ane’ and secondary siffix is ‛ol’. The –OH groups are positioned at carbon
number 1,2 and 3. Thus, the name is
Butane-1,2,3-triol
Some more examples of the compounds containing more than one similar functional groups are given below.
4CH – 3CH
2 = 2CH – 1CHO Pent-2-ene-1,5-dial
5CHO
1CH – 2CH
2 – 3CH2 – 4CH2 2-Methylbutane-1,4-diamine
NH2 CH3 NH2
CH2Cl
3
CH2 – CH – 1CH2
2
1,3-Dicholoro-2-(chloromethyl) propane
Cl Cl
CH3
1CH – 2CH
3 – 3CH – 4CH – 5C – 6CH3 3,5,5 – Trimethylhexane-2,4-diol
OH CH3 OH CH3
1 2 3 4
HOOC–CH = CH–COOH But-2-en-1, 4-dioic acid
Note: If an unbranched chain is linked directly to more than two carboxyl groups, these groups are named by substitutive
use of suffix ‛tricarboxylic acid’ etc. The principal chain selected should be linked directly to maximum possible number
of carboxyl groups.
For example,
COOH
1 2 3 4
HOOC–CH2 – CH – CH2– CH2 –COOH
Butane-1, 2, 4-tricarboxylic acid
COOH COOH
1 2 3 4 5
HOOC – CH2 – CH – CH2 – CH2 – CH2 – COOH
Pentane-1,2,3,4,5-tetracarboxylic acid
The carboxyl groups which are not directly linked to the principal chain are expressed by ‛carboxyalkyl’ prefixes.
COOH COOH
6 5 4 3 2 1
CH3 – CH – CH2– CH – CH – CH2 –COOH
CH2COOH
3-(Carboxymethyl) hexane-1,2,5-tricarboxylic acid
Similarly, the subjective prefixes for aldehydes, cyanides, acylchlorides and amides are carbaldehyde, carbonitrilie,
chlorocarbonyl and carboxamide respectively.
As pointed out earlier, that the functional group which gets priority is treated as principal functional group and is
indicated by the secondary suffix. On the other hand, the other functional groups in the compound are considered as
substituents and are indicated by suitable prefixes. The prefixes for such functional groups have been given in Table 1.13.
L’Orient est une tranche du monde beaucoup plus grande que les
Européens ne tiennent à l’admettre. Les uns disent qu’il commence
à St-Gothard, où les odeurs des deux continents se rencontrent et se
battent pendant tout le temps que dure ce terrible dîner de wagon-
restaurant dans le tunnel. D’autres l’ont découvert à Venise par les
chaudes matinées d’avril. Mais l’Orient se trouve partout où l’on
aperçoit la voile latine, à gréement en forme de nageoire de requin
qui, pendant des centaines d’années, a poursuivi les baigneurs
blancs sur toute l’étendue de la Méditerranée. Il lui reste encore
dans le sang comme une menace, comme une insinuation de
piraterie toutes les fois que passe la voie latine, que ce soit pour
pêcher, que ce soit pour porter des fruits ou pour longer la côte.
« Celui-ci n’est pas mon métier de jadis, dit-elle à voix basse à la
mer complice. Si chacun exerçait ses droits je serais en train de faire
quelque chose de tout à fait différent, car ma mère était la jonque et
mon père était le dhow, et à eux d’eux ils ont fait l’Asie. » Alors elle
exécute des bordées désordonnées mais effroyablement vives, et,
d’une allure traînante, son chapeau sur l’œil, et pour ainsi dire un
coutelas dans son ample manche, dépasse le paquebot peu
imaginatif.
Même les bateaux chargés de pierre, affairés à allonger la jetée,
montrent leur origine sauvage qui éclate en dépit de leur gauche
lourdeur. Ils sont tous enfants du Dhow à nez de chameau, principe
de tout mal. Pourtant c’était bien agréable de les rencontrer une fois
de plus sous le soleil cru, inchangés même jusque dans leurs agrès
et leur rapiècement.
Le vieux Port-Saïd de jadis avait disparu sous des kilomètres et
des kilomètres de bâtiments neufs où l’on pouvait se promener à
loisir sans être rembarré par des soldats.
Il restait encore deux ou trois points de repère ; on disait qu’il en
existait encore deux ou trois, et certaine Face se montrait encore
après bien des années — ravagée mais respectable — rigidement
respectable.
— Oui, dit la Face, je suis restée tout le temps ici. Mais j’ai gagné
de l’argent, et quand je mourrai je m’en retournerai chez moi pour
être enterrée.
— Pourquoi ne pas vous en retourner avant d’être enterrée, ô
Face ?
— Parce que j’ai vécu ici depuis si, si longtemps. Le foyer n’est
bon que pour être enterré.
— Et que faites-vous maintenant ?
— Rien, je vis de mes rentes !
Pensez donc ! Vivre à tout jamais au milieu d’un spectacle
cinématographique de voyageurs excités, inquiets, regarder entrer et
sortir, tels des wagons de chemins de fer, des gigantesques bateaux
à vapeur sans connaître personne et sans être connu d’âme qui
vive ; parler cinq ou six langues également bien, et ne posséder
aucun pays à soi, aucun intérêt sur terre, sauf une concession dans
quelque cimetière continental.
La soirée était froide après une abondante pluie, et les rues à
moitié submergées sentaient fort mauvais. Mais nous autres,
touristes invaincus, courions de-ci de-là en troupeaux pour voir tout
ce qu’il y avait à voir avant le départ du train. La plupart d’entre nous
ne vîmes pas le jardin de la Compagnie du Canal qui, par hasard,
sert à marquer une ligne de démarcation, à la fois désagréable et
exacte, entre l’Orient et l’Occident.
Jusqu’à cet endroit, qui forme une frange de palmiers toute raide
sur le fond du ciel, l’élan donné par les souvenirs du foyer et l’intérêt
des échos de chez soi suffisent pour rendre le début de ce voyage
très agréable au jeune homme, mais arrivé à Suez, il est des choses
auxquelles on est obligé de faire face. C’est généralement à cet
endroit que les gens les plus sympathiques quittent le bateau — les
gens plus âgés, qui se sont découverts et qui vont poursuivre le
voyage se sont mis à parler affaires — pas de journaux à bord, rien
que des dépêches de Reuter tronquées ; le monde entier paraît
cruellement grand et absorbé par ses propres affaires. C’est
lorsqu’on va faire une promenade que l’on découvre ce petit bout de
terrain bien entretenu, avec, de chaque côté du sentier des maisons
confortables devant lesquelles se trouvent de petites barrières. Alors
on commence à se demander — de préférence dans le crépuscule
— quand on pourra revoir ces mêmes palmiers du côté opposé. Puis
c’est l’heure sombre des nostalgies, des vains regrets, des sottes
promesses, et des faibles désespoirs qui vous enveloppe en même
temps que l’odeur d’une terre étrangère et la cadence de langues
inconnues.
Les chemins de traverse et les haltes dans les déserts sont
toujours fréquentés par les djins et les lutins. Le jeune homme les
trouvera qui l’attendent dans le jardin du Canal de la Compagnie de
Port-Saïd.
D’autre part, s’il a assez de chance pour avoir gagné l’Orient en
héritage, puisqu’il y a des familles qui l’ont servi pendant cinq ou six
générations, il ne rencontrera pas de fantômes dans ce jardin, mais
une bienvenue libre, amicale et large d’esprits bienfaisants de
l’Orient. Les voix des jardiniers et des veilleurs de nuit seront
pareilles aux souhaits des domestiques de son père dans la
demeure paternelle. Les senteurs du soir et le spectacle des
hibiscus et des poinsetties dénoueront sa langue et il dira des
paroles et des phrases qu’il croyait avoir complètement oubliées, et il
rentrera à bord de son navire (que j’ai vu) comme un prince dans
son royaume.
Il y avait un homme dans notre compagnie, un jeune Anglais, à
qui l’on venait d’accorder tout ce que son cœur pouvait désirer sous
la forme de quelque région primitive située au sud de tout ce qui est
sud dans le Soudan, où avec des gages un tiers moins forts que
ceux d’un député et dans des conditions de vie qui consterneraient
tout fonctionnaire qui se respecte, il verra en tout une douzaine peut-
être de blancs par an, et ramassera certainement deux sortes de
fièvre. Il avait été amené à travailler très dur pour obtenir ce poste,
par suite des arguments d’un ami employé dans la même profession
qui l’avait assuré que c’était « un emploi pas trop mauvais » et il était
tout feu tout flamme et avait hâte d’arriver à Khartoum faire sa
déclaration et commencer son travail. S’il a de la chance il se peut
qu’il obtienne une région où les gens sont si vertueux qu’ils ne
portent pas de vêtements du tout, et si ignorants qu’ils ne
connaissent pas encore les boissons alcooliques.
Le train qui nous conduisit au Caire ressemblait à s’y méprendre
à un train quelconque du Sud-Africain — pour cette raison je l’aimais
bien, — mais il fut un vrai supplice pour certains habitants des États-
Unis. Ils étaient accoutumés au système Pullman, et n’étaient pas à
leur aise dans les wagons à couloirs sur les côtés et aux
compartiments fermés. L’ennuyeux dans une démocratie
« standardisée » est que, lorsqu’elle s’affranchit de ses standards, il
ne lui reste plus de quoi l’étayer. Les gens ne sont pas oubliés et les
bagages sont rarement égarés sur les voies ferrées du vieux monde.
Il y a un rituel prévu pour l’administration de toutes choses, et si un
individu consent à s’y conformer et à rester tranquille on s’occupera
et de lui et des siens aussi bien que des autres. Les gens que je
suivais des yeux ne voulurent pas le croire. Ils couraient de-ci de-là
et perdirent leur temps à essayer d’arriver plus vite que leurs voisins.
Voici un fragment de dialogue entendu dans un wagon-
restaurant.
— Dites-moi donc ! moi et quelques-uns de mes amis allons venir
dîner à cette table. Nous ne voudrions pas être séparés et…
— Vous avez votre numéro pour le service, M’sieu ?
— Numéro ? Quel numéro ? Je vous dis que nous voulons
déjeuner ici.
— Vous prendrez votre numéro pour le premier service, M’sieu.
— De quoi ? Et où diable se procure-t-on ce numéro-là ?
— Je vous donnerai le numéro au moment voulu pour le premier
service, M’sieu.
— Bien, mais nous voulons déjeuner ici, maintenant.
— Le service n’est pas encore prêt, M’sieu !
Et ainsi de suite, et ainsi de suite, avec des marches, des contre-
marches et chacun des mots nerveusement séparés, comme en
italiques. En fin de compte ils ont mangé précisément à l’endroit où il
y avait de la place pour eux dans ce nouveau monde dans lequel ils
s’étaient fourvoyés.
D’un côté nos fenêtres donnaient sur l’obscurité d’une solitude
morne, de l’autre côté sur la noirceur du Canal dont les intervalles
étaient constellés par les gigantesques lanternes à l’avant des
vapeurs qui voguaient la nuit. Puis venaient des villes éclairées à
l’électricité, gouvernées par des commissions mixtes et faisant le
trafic du coton. Une ville par exemple comme Zagazig, vue pour la
dernière fois par un tout petit garçon que l’on souleva et sortit du
wagon, et que l’on déposa au pied d’un mur badigeonné et sous les
étoiles nues au milieu d’un espace vide, illimité, parce que, lui disait-
on, le train avait pris feu. Étant tout enfant cela ne le tourmenta pas.
Ce qui resta dans son esprit tout engourdi par le sommeil fut le nom
absurde de l’endroit et la prédiction faite par son père qui lui dit que
lorsqu’il serait homme il reviendrait par là « dans un grand bateau à
vapeur ».
De sorte que, pendant toute sa vie, le nom Zagazig était resté
associé dans ses souvenirs avec un hangar en briques, le
papillotement d’une mèche de lampe flottant dans de l’huile, un ciel
rempli d’yeux, et une locomotive toussant dans un désert au bout du
monde. Ces souvenirs renaquirent dans le wagon-restaurant qui
avançait avec des cahots au milieu de ce qui semblait être des
kilomètres de rues et de factoreries brillamment éclairées. Pas un de
tous ceux qui étaient assis à table n’avait même tourné la tête pour
regarder le champ de bataille de Kassassin et de Tel-El-Kébir ; et
puis, après tout, pourquoi l’auraient-ils fait ? Ce travail-là est terminé
et des enfants se préparent à naître qui diront : « Moi, je me
souviens de Gondokoro (ou bien de El Obeid ou de quelque grande
bifurcation à laquelle on ne pense même pas encore sur la route
d’Abyssinie), avant même qu’une seule factorerie n’eût été fondée,
avant que la circulation aérienne ne commençât, oui, quand il y eut
une épidémie, oui parfaitement, une épidémie dans la ville elle-
même !!… »
L’intervalle n’est pas plus grand que celui qui existe entre le
Zagazig d’aujourd’hui et celui de jadis, entre les chars à chevaux de
la voie de terre qui existaient du temps du lieutenant Waghorn et
l’auto étincelante qui, en un clin d’œil, nous transporta à notre hôtel
au centre du Caire, en passant par ce qui ressemblait aux faubourgs
de Marseille ou de Rome.
Gardez toujours une ville inconnue pour le matin. « Dans la
journée », il est écrit dans le Livre de Perspicuité [5] , « tu as de
longues occupations. » Notre fenêtre donnait sur la rivière, mais
avant même que de s’y diriger on entendait le cri rauque des milans,
— de ces mêmes malandrins voleurs de route qui, à cette heure,
surveillaient le déjeuner de chaque Anglais dans chaque habitation
et dans chaque camp depuis le Caire jusqu’à Calcutta.
[5] Le Coran.