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Fragility Based Seismic Performance Assessment of Modular Underground Arch Bridges Van Toan Nguyen Full Chapter PDF
Fragility Based Seismic Performance Assessment of Modular Underground Arch Bridges Van Toan Nguyen Full Chapter PDF
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Structures 39 (2022) 1218–1230
Structures
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/structures
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Keywords: Seismic performance assessment of modular underground arch bridges (MUABs) can help mitigate structural
Modular underground arch bridge damage to MUABs during earthquakes. This study proposed an efficient procedure to evaluate the seismic
Seismic performance performance of a three-hinge MUAB by using fragility-based analysis. Firstly, a novel proposal for damage states
Stratum-uncertainty characteristics
was presented using the relationship between the crack depth and thickness of the arch component. The rela
Damage states
Fragility-based analysis
tionship between ground motion intensity and structural failure probability was then described using stratum-
uncertainty characteristics. The multiple stripe analysis approach with the maximum likelihood function was
introduced to detail the uncertainty characteristics of strata by allowing various ground motions at distinct
seismic intensity levels. Finally, the collapse probability considering stratum-uncertainty characteristics was
specified for seismic intensity and probability levels. The results revealed that the proposed procedure to
randomly select ground motions from the strong-motion database of the Pacific Earthquake Engineering
Research Center is feasible for evaluating the seismic vulnerability of MUABs. Therefore, the seismic perfor
mance of MUABs can be reasonably predicted under earthquakes.
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: jwonhuh@chonnam.ac.kr (J. Huh).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.istruc.2022.04.005
Received 7 January 2022; Received in revised form 30 March 2022; Accepted 1 April 2022
2352-0124/© 2022 Institution of Structural Engineers. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
V.-T. Nguyen et al. Structures 39 (2022) 1218–1230
influence of soil–structure interaction on the seismic responses of 2. 3D finite element model of MUAB
MUABs [23]. The static loads on the arch bridge increased approxi
mately linearly with the depth of cover, whereas the loads were only A 3D FEA model of three-hinge MUAB was constructed based on the
mildly affected by the cover depth under earthquake loadings [45] previous study, as illustrated in Fig. 1. Numerical simulation was per
because phasing occurred between the motion of the side fill and the formed according to Nguyen et al. [23].
cover. Studies conducted on MUABs have considered limited ground In the FEA model, incompatible-mode eight-node brick elements
motions. In some studies, MUABs have been subjected to one ground from ABAQUS [48] were used to represent the arch-foundation-
motion with no change in the intensity level [46]. Nguyen et al. [23] wingwall-soil system of the MUAB. The most optimal meshing of
provided considerable insights on the seismic behavior examination for MUAB was obtained through numerous trial analyses. The arch was
MUABs by using the three-dimensional (3D) finite element analysis finely discretized for seismic damage analysis of concrete. Boundaries of
(FEA) model. However, limited number of ground motions have been the FEA model were truncated with an approximate ratio of 1.5 from the
investigated. Nguyen et al. [23] indicated that further study is necessary center of the arch to reduce computational cost. The truncated bound
for investigating the seismic vulnerability of MUABs. aries were based on the viscous-spring artificial boundary model [49]
This study proposed a feasible and efficient fragility-based procedure applied in ABAQUS [12,50]. A viscous-spring artificial boundary was
to assess the seismic performance of MUABs. First, previous literature is imposed by installing springs and dampers on the truncated boundaries
discussed, and a sophisticated 3D finite element modeling of three-hinge of the surrounding soil corresponding to excitation directions [23].
MUABs was simulated considering contact interactions and prestressed Springs and viscous dampers are installed in the normal and tangential
rebar. The concrete damaged plasticity model was used to investigate directions on each node of the truncated boundaries. Consequently, the
the micro-damage-cracking behavior of concrete by using the dissipated FEA model closely reproduced the actual response of far-field soil
fracture energy. A methodology of fragility-based analysis for MUABs because of the truncated boundaries; the seismic waves were absorbed
was subsequently derived. Next, we described a random selection pro on reaching the boundary.
cedure of ground motions for the 3D FEA model of MUABs. An extensive The concrete damaged plasticity (CDP) model [51,52] was used for
database of ground motions was inputted in the FEA model, and the concrete material considering its nonlinearity [53]. Two damage vari
uncertainty in the ground motion time history was assessed. Next, we ables, namely failure mode and tensile cracking and compression
discussed critical findings from seismic fragility analysis, followed by crushing, were adopted for the concrete model. Detailed can be further
crucial conclusions drawn from this research. referred to Nguyen et al. [23] and Yazdani and Habibi [54]. The CDP
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V.-T. Nguyen et al. Structures 39 (2022) 1218–1230
model represents the damage-cracking behavior with the formation of moment. A load scenario can be a combination of axis force (N), shear
micro-cracks. M40 grade concrete was used for the segmented arch and force (V), and moment (M) (Fig. 2). Thus, limited studies have been
the wingwall, whereas M30 grade concrete used in ABAQUS was used conducted on the DI of MUABs because the criterion for the probabilistic
for invert foundation [23]. The concrete of segmented arch has the seismic analysis of MUABs does not exist.
following properties: initial elastic modulus of 30,000 MPa, Poisson’s Furthermore, recent efforts delved into investigating the seismic
ratio of 0.2, the mass density of 2450 kg/m3, compressive strength of 40 resistance of masonry arch bridges (MABs) [5,6,18,47,54]. The MAB is
MPa, the tensile strength of 4 MPa, the maximum compressive strain of the sibling structure of MUABs due to forming from modular concrete
0.00363, and maximum tensile strain of 0.00133. The dynamic prop arch structures and using the soil-arching effect in the overall structural
erties of concrete were used in nonlinear seismic analysis. The structural stability. The maximum displacement of the arch (aka the crown) was
damping of MUABs was incorporated using Rayleigh damping and 5% considered as the structural engineering demand parameter or repre
damping ratio in the fundamental vibration modes to investigate mass- sented the damage state of MABs [6,47] instead of other structural re
and stiffness-proportional damping factors. sponses because of similarity and accessibility with the well-known drift
The damaged plasticity parameters were considered in the numerical [62]. The probability of damage state presented by the maximum
simulation of the CDP model in ABAQUS [23,48]. The dilation angle displacement was adopted using the incremental dynamic analysis [6].
considerably affected the entire model because it was the ratio between Yazdani and Habibi [54] proposed and employed the extended finite
volume strain and shear strain. The dilation angle depended on two element method, which is efficient for quantitative crack growth pat
parameters, namely plastic strain and confining pressure. An increase in terns and failure of MABs. Therefore, the crack is a manifestation of the
plastic strain and confined pressure resulted in a decrease in the dilation failure state that can be quantified using estimation to evaluate the loss
angle. Thus, concrete was assumed to exhibit a constant dilation angle of of the structure. The quantities of the structural response (i.e., moment,
31◦ for numerous pressure stresses used for the confinement of concrete. displacement, stress, crack) could use to represent the damage condition
The default flow potential eccentricity was 0.1. The default value of fb0/ of different soil–arch structure systems.
fc0 was 1.16, representing the ratio of initial equibiaxial compressive The crack depth can reflect the damage level of the concrete arch. At
yield stress to starting uniaxial compressive yield stress. The ratio of the every cross-section of each strip of the arch, tensile and compressive
second stress invariant on the tensile meridian to the compressive me stresses resulting from thrust and/or shear force and/or moments are
ridian was 0.67. A null default viscosity parameter was used so that combined; the internal-force combination depends on the geometric
viscoplastic regularization did not occur [48]. This parameter value shapes of the arch and the external-force combination (Fig. 2). The
enhanced the convergence rate of the model when the softening process equivalent plastic strain (PEEQ) results from stress on the cross-section.
occurred, and it provided excellent results in the seismic analysis Crack propagation with crack depth corresponds to PEEQ because the
[23,55]. macrocracks propagate through the arch when the PEEQ value exceeds a
threshold value [23].
3. Methodology of fragility-based analysis for MUABs In this study, the DI is assumed to be based on the classification but
not on the definition of Pitilakis [63] and Argyroudis and Pitilakis [60].
The fragility curve is a potent tool for identifying the potential The DI is the ratio between the crack depth (DCrk) and the thickness of
seismic risk and consequences of MUABs during and after an earthquake the arch component (DThks), as expressed in Eq. (1), followed by a suit of
[56,57]. This study involved defining damage states of MUABs, fragility damage, as presented in Table 1. The DI, ranging from 0 to 1, is not
curve function, and random ground motions compatible with the dependent on loading directions. Furthermore, the DI is not dependent
seismic hazard used as input excitations. An overview of the method on the loading combination of N-V-M scenarios. The damage state
ology of fragility-based analysis for MUABs is presented in this section. classifications of MUABs, from DS1 to DS3, corresponded to the well-
known three performance levels [immediately occupancy (IO), life
3.1. Damage states of MUABs safety (LS), and collapse prevention (CP)] [64,65]. Therefore, in
approximation theory, the minor, moderate, and extensive damage can
In the fragility-based approach, seismic fragility curves correspond be considered serviceability performance, repairable level, and collapse
ing to the variance in the damage index with an increase in the intensity prevention. Definitions in studies have been subjective, resulting in high
measurement for various levels of damage states (DSi) are plotted. Thus, uncertainty of qualification in a particular damaged state. The defini
the damage states represent the damage condition of MUABs associated tions presented in this study can be used for analytical analysis.
with a limit state of the structural response.
crack depth DCrk
DSi and corresponding indices have not been identified for under DI = = (1)
thickness of arch component DThks
ground structures like MUABs. Numerous methods have been proposed
to indicate the damage levels of underground structures [58,59]. For The probabilistic seismic demand model could be based on regres
underground box bridges (UBBs), the number of plastic hinges could sion analysis [56,66–70] in accordance with adaptable and sufficient
represent damage levels [59]. Furthermore, the damage index (DI) could data regarding the demands and/or capacities of MUABs. Thus, the
be assumed to be the ratio of the elastic moment demand to the yield relationship between the structural engineering demand parameter
moment (also known as the capacity bending moment) [58–60]. An (EDP) and the ground motion parameter (IM) in the study could be
assumption for this definition is that the seismic behavior of UBBs is expressed as follows:
approximated to that of an elastic beam subjected to deformations
EDP = a × IM b (2)
imposed by surrounding soil because of seismic waves propagating
perpendicular to the longitudinal direction of UBBs.
where IM is the intensity measure of ground motions; a and b are un
For underground arch bridges (UABs), Argyroudis et al. [61] used
known regression coefficients obtained from linear regression analysis.
the same method with UBBs. However, the studies mentioned above are
For a database of EDP, the median value (EDPmedian) of the EDP-data
based on two-dimensional (2D) FEA models of underground bridges
set is well-known as a special parameter. EDPmedian is a value separating
[58–61]. Hence, ground motions in all horizontal directions have not
the higher half from the lower half of the EDP-data set. The relationship
been considered. The seismic resistance of MUABs between the longi
between EDPmedian and IM can be expressed as follows:
tude and transversal direction differs considerably [23,46]. The ratio of
the maximum bending moment on the arch to its capacity is widely used EDPmedian = a × IM b (3)
to determine damage states. The arch structure cannot withstand a
Using a two-sided logarithm, Eq. (3) becomes a new form similar to a
loading combination of static and dynamic loads at a single bending
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V.-T. Nguyen et al. Structures 39 (2022) 1218–1230
Fig. 2. Various cross-section shapes of MUABs correspond with their internal-force combination from thrust (N) and/or shear force (V) and/or moment (M).
Table 1
Definition of damages states for MUABs.
Damage Meaning Range of Median value of Performance
state level damage damage index level [64,65]
index (DI or (DImedian or
EDP) EDPmedian)
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V.-T. Nguyen et al. Structures 39 (2022) 1218–1230
seismic intensity IM = x will cause MUAB to collapse, Φ[ ] is the stan underground structures, Huh et al. [4] considered 23 seismic PGA levels
dard normal cumulative distribution function, θ is the median of ranging from 0.02 to 1.3 g and 50 artificial acceleration time histories
fragility function (the IM level with 50% probability of collapse), and β is for each PGA level according to the Korean design spectrum codes
the standard deviation of ln(IM). Therefore, θ and β are fragility pa [89,90]. Huh et al. [4] recommended that the number of ground motions
rameters of the distribution function. per PGA was equal to or greater than 20, which reasonably satisfies the
A multiple stripe analysis was conducted using seismic IM levels. fragility curves of UBBs. Consequently, 1,150 ground motion time his
Structural analyses of collapses were conducted for numerous ground tories were applied to derive vulnerability curves of a two-story UBB
motions at intensity levels IM = xj. Assuming that the observation of based on the ground response acceleration method [4]. The 1D linear
collapse or no-collapse from each ground motion is independent of the site response analysis was adopted to perform the free-field soil response
observations from other ground motions, the probability mass function for each soil profile [4,86].
of observing zj collapses or no collapses out of nj ground motions with Hu et al. [91] selected fifteen-actual ground motions with ten in
IM = xj can be calculated by the binomial distribution. The probability pj tensities up-and-down scaled to acquire the internal forces of UABs. Bao
that a ground motion with IM = xj causes the collapse of MUABs is et al. [2] used a dataset of 10 earthquakes with a large magnitude of 6.5
expressed as follows: to 6.9 from the Pacific Earthquake Engineering Research Center (PEER)
( ) database to perform a seismic vulnerability analysis of buildings. The
( ) nj zj ( )n − z
P zj collapse in nj ground motions = pj 1 − pj j j (7) selected earthquakes were then scaled according to their intensity in
zj
dexes to generate 200 ground motion samples. Notably, Chen et al. [92]
The maximum likelihood function was obtained by considering the used 42 near-fault pulse-like ground motions records. The 42-real
product of the binomial probabilities at each IM level to obtain the ground motions having PGA from 0.13 to 1.34 g were applied to cap
likelihood for the entire data set as Eq. (8). Therefore, the fragility ture seismic hazard levels for pier bridges.
function provided the highest probability of collapse data based on the In particular, the prior techniques to build up ground motion sam
maximum likelihood approach. The observation data of collapse was plings are dissimilar in terms of selecting criteria, earthquake charac
obtained from the dynamic structural analysis, which was conducted teristics, the number of ground motions, and generating/calculating
using various IM levels (m is the number of various IM levels). methods for accelerograms [2,4,88,91,92]. These studies made suitable
m ( ) choices to solve the research objectives following degrees of an
∏ nj zj ( )n − z
Likelihood = pj 1 − pj j j (8) acceptable level. The artificial accelerograms can be useful when the
j=1
z j
approach using real accelerograms is challenging or inappropriate. The
use of real records could be a potential selection when there is an in
The fragility parameters (θ and β) are explicit in the substitution
crease in the availability of strong-motion accelerograms. Therefore,
likelihood function, as expressed in Eq. (9). Estimates of the fragility
using real records and spectrum matching techniques was recommended
function parameters are obtained by maximizing the logarithm of the
for deriving suits of records for use in nonlinear dynamic analysis of
likelihood function as follows:
structures [93]. No specific guidance or reference exists for the number
m ( ) ( )z [ ( ) ]nj − zj
∏ nj ln(x/θ) j ln(x/θ) of random ground motions selected from the current earthquake data
Likelihood = Φ 1− Φ (9)
zj β β base as the PEER for MUABs. Thus, this study proposed the following
j=1
procedure to select ground motions from the strong-motion database of
{⌢ ⌢} ∑m { (
nj
) [ (
ln(x/θ)
)]
( ) PEER randomly:
θ , β = argmax ln + zj × ln Φ + n j − zj
z β
(1) Each earthquake candidate has distinct characteristics. First, the
θ,β j=1 j
[ ( )]}
× ln 1 − Φ
ln(x/θ) Richter magnitude (Mw) is equal to or greater than 4.0 [94].
β Second, the epicentral distance is greater than 10 km to reduce
(10) the influence of near-field effects. Third, the travel-time averaged
near-surface shear wave velocity corresponding to 30 m depth of
3.3. Input ground motions and intensity measurements Vs30 is smaller than 1500 m/s to cover most classification of
subsoil classes [95–97].
A database of ground motion records is required for seismic fragility (2) In the NGA databases [98,99], only the RotD50 component [100]
analysis. Therefore, random selections of ground motions are critical for is available. Initially, the record component of the RotD50 mea
estimating seismic demands because the selections must ensure an sure was adopted to perform searches for records based on the
adequate number of ground motions to satisfy site characteristics [23]. median value of the distribution of each IM.
Many scholars have evaluated the influence of different types of (3) For each seismic event, only horizontal seismic waves should be
seismic IM in earthquake performance assessment for underground and selected for each station to avoid the effect of the same focal
semi-underground structures [83–87]. Nguyen et al. [85] revealed that mechanism. Next, the seismic waves are selected for greater PGA
the PGA might not be the best option for seismic response analysis in the priority [91].
high-frequency seismic regions for nuclear power plants. However, for (4) Kohrangi et al. [101] noted that when analyzing 3D structural
shallow UBBs, the PGA is an efficient and appropriate IM of the ground models subjected to ground motions in the two horizontal di
motions in constructing seismic fragility curves [83]. Zhang et al. [84] rections, alternative components definitions, such as GeoMean or
concluded that the optimal IM depends on stratum characteristics in the SRSS, should be considered. Thus, the spectral ordinate of SRSS
fragility analysis of UBBs. The PGA is more adaptable for the stratum with a damping ratio of 5% was adopted for selecting control.
having high equivalent shear wave velocity, while the velocity spectrum (5) To define the target spectral ordinate, the record selections
intensity is a priority for low equivalent shear wave velocity. However, should match the Korean code-based spectrum [89,90]. This
the peak ground velocity is better correlated with seismic damage to study was first based on a return period of 500 years, alongside
deep underground structures [86,87]. Therefore, the PGA was adopted seismic zone 1.
as seismic IM to assess the seismic performance of MUABs without loss of (6) At least 40 best-fit records were selected to be ground motions.
generality because the MUABs were designed as shallow underground
structures. A set of selected ground motion records is listed in Table 2, which
A range from 10 to 20 records is sufficient to provide high accuracy matched the Korean design spectrum. The selections are scattered in an
in the seismic demand analysis for mid-rise buildings [88]. Regarding approximately 50-year period. The selected records were scaled into 12
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V.-T. Nguyen et al. Structures 39 (2022) 1218–1230
Table 2
Selected ground motions from the PEER ground motion database.
No. RSN Event Year Mw PGA (g) PGV (cm/s) PGD (cm) Vs30 (m/s)
intensity levels (0.03, 0.09, 0.15, 0.3, 0.45, 0.6, 0.75, 0.9, 1.05, 1.2, The types of distribution in the data of earthquake characteristics are
1.35, and 1.5 g) according to their intensity indexes. Therefore, a dataset displayed in Fig. 5. Linear regression results from the least-squares an
of 480-time history samples can represent random input ground motion alyses revealed that Vs30 data fits with lognormal distribution, whereas
for the fragility analysis of MUAB. PGA is distributed in the normal distribution. Similarly, moment
The response spectrum of the 40 selected ground motion records is magnitude Mw and the epicentral distance of the earthquakes are rep
displayed in Fig. 4. A deconvolution procedure was adopted for resented in normal and lognormal distributions, respectively. Although
matching the earthquakes [23]. The average response spectrum was the selection was random from the PEER to eliminate stratum-
similar to the design response spectrum, which could play a critical role uncertainty characteristics, the analyses indicated that earthquake
in seismic behavior and response of MUABs. Each acceleration time characteristics have correlations between earthquake quantities and
history from the data set of time history samples was separately applied uncertainty of stratum in their distribution (i.e., Vs30, PGA, Mw, and
to the 3D FEA model at the bottom face. epicentral distance). There is a similarity in the distribution shape of
Differences in seismic resistance and seismic response of MUABs PGA and Mw, which represents the earthquake magnitude. Furthermore,
resulting from the horizontal ground motion effects and/or the vertical there is a prominent correspondence of the convergence degree in dis
ground motion effects are available in the literature [23,45]. The tribution between Vs30 and the epicentral distance. The lognormal dis
maximum thrust in the arch was significantly affected by the depth of tribution is more consistent with the geological properties, and hence
cover during the vertical seismic loading. In contrast, the effect of the Vs30 and epicentral distance can be used to estimate geological structure.
horizontal seismic loadings on the arch was more detrimental due to the Therefore, the data on earthquake characteristics can range between the
combination of thrust and moment in the arch structure. The maximum upper and lower bound of the probabilistic seismic hazard curve. In
moment was caused by the horizontal seismic motions rather than the comparison with previous studies [102,103], this proposal of ground
ones in the vertical direction [45]. The detrimental force acting on the motion selection provided accurate results because uncertainties of the
arch with shallow cover depth was influenced mainly by the effect of the parameter of the soil deposit structures were considered without any
horizontal ground motions compared to the ones in the vertical direction random modeling by random parameters. These random selections
[23]. Therefore, this seismic fragility analysis focused on the combined covered uncertainties of the soil parameters. Therefore, seismic hazards
effects of the vertical and horizontal ground motion components. In defined in terms of acceleration spectra of a set of 40-earthquake records
every application, the PGA of ground motion was assumed to be iden represented the seismic environment.
tical in both the longitudinal and transverse directions and two-thirds in
the vertical direction. The assumption is similar to the hypothesis for the
seismic performance assessment of arch dams [12].
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V.-T. Nguyen et al. Structures 39 (2022) 1218–1230
4. Results and discussion deposits and uncertainties in soil properties. Multiple stripe analysis
[56] by loading a data set of ground motion covering all types of strata
4.1. Probabilistic seismic demand model can comprehensively assess the seismic performance of MUABs.
The results of linear regression analysis between DI and PGA with
Many seismic standards are used; therefore, site classification criteria various soil deposits are presented in Fig. 6. The goodness-of-fit (R2) of
for the seismic response of soil profile differ for countries and continents, all analyses is more significant than 0.9. Thus, the discreteness of
as presented in Table 3. This study clarified the selection of criteria. regression results is small, and these fitting results are satisfactory. This
Specifically, the EUROCODE-8 standard [104] was used to classify the analysis revealed that the correlation between the seismic intensity of
ground with the average shear wave velocity of the upper 30 m soil layer ground motions and the DI of MUAB is the lognormal distribution.
in the same approach as NBCC [105] and ASCE-7-16 [106]. However, in However, the increase in PGA did not rapidly increase the crack depth
Japan and Mexico, the site period is applied as a ground classification when the crack depth was extensive. As mentioned before, the damage
method because the amplification of seismic motion by the ground oc index is the ratio of the crack depth and the thickness of the arch
curs in the site period and increases the seismic load of structures similar component. Crack propagated in the arch depth depends on the ground
to the site period. The average shear wave velocity of the upper 30 m soil motion intensity level (i.e., PGA) [23]. Generally, the crack occurs at
layer and the site period are mixed according to Australia, New Zealand, specific intensity then progresses with increments in the PGA. Interest
and China standards. Most classification standards are based on shear ingly, the relationship between the crack depth and the PGA was not
wave velocity. Therefore, the shear wave velocity was adopted in this perfect linearity from the initial crack to the completed crack. An in
study to classify the seismic site responses of soil deposit profiles. crease in crack depth propagation slowed down when the concrete
Uncertainties in soil deposits were considered according to set reached nearly complete plasticity [23]. As a result, the increase in ln
standards [89,104–106,112]. The soil deposits were classified into four (DI) significantly decreased when the PGA increased over a threshold
groups based on their shear wave velocities Vs30 and corresponded to a value (PGA = 1 g). Therefore, the relationship between ln(PGA) and ln
decrease in soil stiffness, as listed in Table 4. This classification revealed (DI) is linear for each PGA interval, although the confidence level of the
that it was in accordance with various standards. Therefore, the classi fitting is high.
fication can represent the variation of shear wave velocities of the soil The higher the Vs30 value is, the lower vulnerability in the MUABs is;
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V.-T. Nguyen et al. Structures 39 (2022) 1218–1230
Fig. 5. Distribution function in data of earthquake record characteristics: (a) Travel-time averaged near-surface shear wave velocity Vs30; (b) Peak ground accel
eration PGA; (c) Moment magnitude Mw; and (d) Epicentral distance.
Table 3 Table 4
Site classification criteria for the seismic site response of soil profile corre Variation of shear wave velocities of the soil deposits corresponding to earth
sponding to various standards. quake standards.
Continent Representative Standard Classification criteria Group Vs30 (m/ Mean Equivalent site class Equivalent site
territory soil s) EUROCODE-8 [104], class in KDS 17
ASCE-7-16 [106], NEHRP 10 00 [89]
Asia Japan BCJ 1997 [107] Site period
[112], and NBCC [105]
Korea KDS 17 10 00 [89] Shear wave velocity
China GB-50011-2010 Shear wave velocity and 1 760–1500 Rock Class B S1
[108] site period 2 360–760 Soft Class C S1, S2
Europe EU EUROCODE-8 Shear wave velocity rock
[104] 3 180–360 Stiff Class D S2, S3, S4
Oceania Australia AS-1170.4-2007 Shear wave velocity and soil
[109] site period 4 <180 Soft Class E S5
New Zealand NZS 1170.5-2004 Shear wave velocity and soil
[110] site period
America Canada NBCC [105] Shear wave velocity
USA ASCE-7-16 [106] Shear wave velocity 4.2. Fragility curve
Mexico MOC-2008 [111] Site period
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V.-T. Nguyen et al. Structures 39 (2022) 1218–1230
Fig. 6. DI (EDP) versus various IMs for four soil profile classes in accordance with the Korean standard to consider the effects of local soil conditions, geological
conditions, and surface and subterranean topography on the seismic demand of the MUAB corresponding to the classification of soil deposits as presented in Table 4.
gentler. Notably, the better the soil deposit, the smoother the curve. The
fragility curve of the minor level is the steepest, which revealed the
probability of MUAB surpassing the regular use performance level
subjected to the earthquake effect.
Fig. 9 displays each seismic performance level’s probability thresh
olds (upper and lower thresholds). These probability-bounded regions
determine the variation degree of collapse probability for the damage
state levels. Furthermore, the variation degree of collapse probability
covering uncertainties in soil deposit was dependent on both PGAs and
probability levels.
The estimated fragility parameters are listed in Table 5. The esti
mation is appropriate and reasonable because of the accurate fragility
function obtained from structural analyses. The fragility function pa
rameters were calculated by using the maximizing the likelihood func
tion. Results of the estimation revealed that the standard deviation
parameter (β) and the median parameter (θ) decreased with a decrease
in the soil property of Vs30 (soil 1 to soil 4). Variation of the median
Fig. 7. Relationship between the damage state levels of MUAB for various soil parameter is displayed in Fig. 10. The median of the fragility function
deposits and intensity levels of ground motions. corresponded with the IM level with a 50% probability of collapse, and β
reflected the standard deviation of ln(IM). The effective IM values are
vulnerability curve of the MUAB indicates the probability that the approximately centered around the median of the fragility function.
seismic demand of MUAB exceeds a specific failure state under the Analysis of the seismic behavior of MUAB [23] revealed that the
loading of array IM of earthquakes. The abscissa (horizontal axis) in segment components of MUAB are repairable (corresponding to the
dicates the PGAs representing the magnitude of randomly seismic crack depth ratio of 20%) when PGA was below 0.47 g for Vs30 = 620 m/
ground motions. As the intensity of ground motion increases, the s with individually longitudinal/transverse ground motion. This per
collapse probability of MUAB increases. However, the curves differed formance level of MUAB can be equal to the minor damage state (IO).
considerably in various types of soil deposits. The higher performance However, the analyzed results revealed that the MUAB could reach the
level progresses from the minor to extensive levels; the curve slope is IO level (50% probability) with combined ground motions having PGA
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V.-T. Nguyen et al. Structures 39 (2022) 1218–1230
Fig. 8. Multiple stripe analysis results for observed fractions of collapse, fragility curves based on fragility-estimated function according to maximum likelihood
method: (a) Soil 1; (b) Soil 2; (c) Soil 3; (d) Soil 4.
1227
V.-T. Nguyen et al. Structures 39 (2022) 1218–1230
MUAB can satisfy the seismic design philosophy; the MUAB can resist
random SEs with a PGA of 0.3 g and random DBEs with a PGA of 0.5 g.
Future research should consider the potential effects of the
geometrical arch properties, such as arch cross-section shapes, because
arch geometry considerably affects MUAB stability.
Acknowledgments
1228
V.-T. Nguyen et al. Structures 39 (2022) 1218–1230
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Eines Tages ging es dem Einsiedlerkrebs nicht recht gut. Er
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das gute Essen hat mich zu dick gemacht.“
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„Nä —,“ sagte die Seeanemone und guckte heraus.
„Hinein mit dir,“ schrie der Einsiedlerkrebs. „Wenn du nicht gleich
hineingehst, beiß’ ich dich.“
Die Seeanemone entfaltete sich ganz und fächelte mit den
Brennesseln ganz nah am Hinterleib des Einsiedlerkrebses herum.
„Denk’ daran, wieviel Freude und Nutzen wir noch voneinander
haben können,“ sagte der Einsiedlerkrebs und wand sich
jämmerlich.
„Ich überlege mir das gerade,“ sagte die Seeanemone. „Sonst
hätte ich natürlich längst deinen Schwanz gefressen. Noch nie im
Leben hab’ ich einen solchen Leckerbissen gesehen.“
„Aber es ist nur ein Bissen. Hast du ihn gefressen, so ist er weg.“
Die Seeanemone sagte nichts, fächelte und fächelte nur mit den
Armen und kam dem Hinterleib ihres guten Freundes immer näher.
Der Einsiedlerkrebs krümmte sich in größten Nöten.
„Wenn du das tust, so begehst du eine große Dummheit,“ sagte
er. „Dann mußt du morgen dein altes Leben wieder anfangen, das
nicht entfernt so bequem war wie das, das du führst, seitdem du bei
mir wohnst. Du wirst wieder nur langsam von der Stelle kriechen.
Den einen Tag sitzest du auf einem dummen Stein und lässest alle
Fische entwischen. Den nächsten sitzest du auf einem Hai, der mit
dir auf und davon schwimmt und dich herumwirbelt, so daß du weder
aus noch ein weißt.“
Die Seeanemone fächelte mit den Armen.
„Au!“
„Ich habe dich nicht angerührt.“
„Du warst nahe daran,“ sagte der Einsiedlerkrebs. „Du denkst an
nichts andres. Das kann ich dir ansehen. Wenn du das tust, so
benimmst du dich wie ein junger, unbesonnener Mensch. Als wir
jung waren, da taten wir so etwas. Da dachten wir nie an den
morgigen Tag.“
„Das war eine schöne, schöne Zeit,“ sagte die Seeanemone
fächelnd.
„Neulich sind wir doch übereingekommen, daß d i e G e g e n w a r t
die bessere Zeit ist,“ sagte der Einsiedlerkrebs verzweifelt. „Jetzt
sind wir ruhiger und verständiger und machen uns zunächst immer
klar, wie es werden wird. Wenn ich alt und hinfällig wäre, würd’ ich
noch nichts dazu sagen. Und wenn einer von uns auf dem letzten
Loche pfiffe, so wäre es nur recht und billig, daß der andere ihn
fräße. Er wäre ja der Nächste dazu. Aber nun stehen wir beide im
kräftigsten Alter und können einander für lange Zeit Nutzen und
Freude bringen. Daran solltest du denken.“
„Ich denke daran. Und ich glaube, du hast recht. Kriech also
hinein ins neue Haus! Ich werde dir nichts tun.“
„Ziehst erst deine Brennesseln ein!“
Die Seeanemone tat es, und der Einsiedlerkrebs schaffte
langsam und vorsichtig seinen Hinterleib in das neue Haus. Das
nahm Zeit in Anspruch; ordentlich mußte es ja gemacht werden, und
während der ganzen Prozedur heftete er das eine seiner Stielaugen
auf die Seeanemone. Aber sie bezwang sich, bis alles überstanden
war.
„Das war keine Kleinigkeit,“ sagte der Einsiedlerkrebs. „Ich hatte
wirklich Furcht vor dir.“
„Dazu hattest du auch allen Grund,“ erwiderte die Seeanemone.
„Ich habe mich sehr zusammennehmen müssen. Erinnerst du dich
daran, was du sagtest: Daß wir einander auffressen sollen, wenn wir
alt und verbraucht sind?“
„Ich erinnere mich meiner Worte recht gut und bleibe auch
dabei,“ sagte der Einsiedlerkrebs. „Es ist auch noch gar nicht so
sicher, daß ich früher alt werde als du. Aber das soll unsre Sorge
einstweilen nicht sein. Jetzt ist die Freundschaft erprobt und wird
desto länger vorhalten.“
Drauf kroch er vergnügt von dannen mit seinem neuen Hause
und seinem Freunde auf dem Nacken. Sie fingen eine Menge Fische
ein und gediehen beide aufs beste.
*
Einige Zeit darauf war der Seeanemone etwas sonderbar
zumute.
Sie hatte ihre Not mit der Entfaltung ihrer Blüte und ließ einen
kleinen Fisch nach dem andern entwischen.
Der Einsiedlerkrebs sah es wohl, aber er hatte selber ein paarmal
mit seiner Schere daneben gegriffen und sagte darum nichts.
„Wie geht es dir?“ sagte die Seeanemone hierauf.
„Danke, vortrefflich,“ antwortete der Einsiedlerkrebs. „Und dir?“
„Es ist mir noch nie so gut gegangen wie heute. Ich fragte nur,
weil ich sah, daß du nach einem Fisch fehlgriffst.“
„Wirklich? Ich habe selber gar nicht darauf geachtet. Dagegen
hab ich gesehen, wie d u vorhin zwei Fische vorbeisegeln ließest,
außer einer wunderschönen Schnecke. Du fängst doch nicht etwa
an, dich alt zu fühlen?“
„Gott, wie kannst du das glauben!“ sagte die Seeanemone und
fing an, wie toll mit den Armen zu fächeln. „Du fällst wohl eher als ich
zusammen.“
„Ich ... alt?“ sagte der Einsiedlerkrebs und schnitt heftig mit der
Schere vor sich hin. „Nein, ich werde dich ganz gewiß überleben.
Und dann fress’ ich dich auf. Du weißt ja, so haben wir’s verabredet.“
„Gott behüte! Ich werde dich auch auffressen, verlaß dich darauf!
Im Augenblick bin ich leider nicht hungrig, sonst tät’ ich es gerne
sofort.“
„Na, also hungrig bist du auch nicht! Das ist ja ein schlechtes
Zeichen.“
Der Einsiedlerkrebs fing an, das Haus tüchtig zu schütteln, und
bemerkte, daß die Seeanemone nicht so fest saß wie sonst. Aber es
krachte so in ihm selber, daß er einen gehörigen Schreck bekam.
Die Seeanemone ließ ihre Brennesseln auf einen vorbeistreichenden
Fisch gleiten, aber sie brannten nicht mehr. Der Einsiedlerkrebs griff