Professional Documents
Culture Documents
(Download PDF) Greek and Roman Technology A Sourcof Translated Greek and Roman Texts Second Edition Andrew N Sherwood Milorad Nikolic John W Humphrey John P Oleson Full Chapter PDF
(Download PDF) Greek and Roman Technology A Sourcof Translated Greek and Roman Texts Second Edition Andrew N Sherwood Milorad Nikolic John W Humphrey John P Oleson Full Chapter PDF
https://ebookmass.com/product/greek-and-roman-technology-a-
sourcebook-of-translated-greek-and-roman-texts-2nd-edition-
andrew-n-sherwood/
https://ebookmass.com/product/sexuality-in-greek-and-roman-
society-and-literature-a-sourcebook-2nd-edition-marguerite-
johnson/
https://ebookmass.com/product/elsevier-weekblad-
week-26-2022-gebruiker/
https://ebookmass.com/product/the-new-york-review-of-
books-n-09-may-26-2022-various-authors/
The Oxford Handbook of Greek and Roman Mythography
Smith
https://ebookmass.com/product/the-oxford-handbook-of-greek-and-
roman-mythography-smith/
https://ebookmass.com/product/ancient-greek-and-roman-science-a-
very-short-introduction-liba-taub/
https://ebookmass.com/product/the-oxford-handbook-of-greek-and-
roman-mythography-r-scott-smith/
https://ebookmass.com/product/jock-seeks-geek-the-holidates-
series-book-26-jill-brashear/
https://ebookmass.com/product/landscape-and-space-comparative-
perspectives-from-chinese-mesoamerican-ancient-greek-and-roman-
art-jas-elsner/
Greek and Roman
Technology
In this new edition of Greek and Roman Technology, the authors translate and
annotate key passages from ancient texts to provide a history and analysis of the
origins and development of technology in the classical world.
Sherwood and Nikolic, with Humphrey and Oleson, provide a comprehensive
and accessible collection of rich and varied sources to illustrate and elucidate the
beginnings of technology. Among the topics covered are energy, basic mechanical
devices, hydraulic engineering, household industry, medicine and health, transport
and trade, and military technology. This fully revised Sourcebook collects more
than 1,300 passages from over 200 ancient sources and a diverse range of literary
genres, such as the encyclopaedic Natural History of Pliny the Elder, the poetry of
Homer and Hesiod, the philosophies of Plato, Aristotle, and Lucretius, the agricul-
tural treatises of Varro, Columella, and Cato, the military texts of Philo of Byzan-
tium and Aeneas Tacticus, as well as the medical texts of Galen, Celsus, and the
Hippocratic Corpus. Almost 100 line-drawings, indexes of authors and subjects,
introductions outlining the general significance of the evidence, notes to explain
the specific details, and current bibliographies are included.
This new and revised edition of Greek and Roman Technology will remain an
important and vital resource for students of technology in the ancient world, as
well as those studying the impact of technological change on classical society.
Andrew N. Sherwood is associate professor in the School of Languages and
Literatures at the University of Guelph, Canada.
Milorad Nikolic is associate professor in the Department of Classics at
Memorial University of Newfoundland in St. John’s, Canada.
John W. Humphrey is retired from the Department of Classics and Religion at
the University of Calgary, Canada.
John P. Oleson is retired from the Department of Greek and Roman Studies at
the University of Victoria, Canada.
R out led g e So urce book s for the
An c ie n t Wo rld
Titles include:
Ancient Rome
Social and Historical Documents from the Early Republic to the Death of
Augustus, 2nd Edition
Matthew Dillon and Lynda Garland
www.routledge.com/Routledge-Sourcebooks-for-the-Ancient-World/book-
series/RSAW
Greek and Roman
Technology
A Sourcebook of Translated Greek and
Roman Texts
Second Edition
Andrew N. Sherwood,
Milorad Nikolic,
John W. Humphrey,
and John P. Oleson
Second edition published 2020
by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
and by Routledge
52 Vanderbilt Avenue, New York, NY 10017
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2020 Andrew N. Sherwood, Milorad Nikolic, John W. Humphrey, and
John P. Oleson
The right of Andrew N. Sherwood, Milorad Nikolic, John W. Humphrey,
and John P. Oleson to be identified as authors of this work has been
asserted by them in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright,
Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or
utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now
known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in
any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing
from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or
registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation
without intent to infringe.
First edition published by Routledge 1997
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Sherwood, Andrew N. (Andrew Neil), 1955– author. | Oleson,
John Peter, author. | Nikolic, Milorad, 1968– author. | Humphrey, John
William, 1946– author.
Title: Greek and Roman technology : a sourcebook annotated translations
of Greek and Latin texts and documents / Andrew N. Sherwood, Milorad
Nikolic, John P. Oleson, John W. Humphrey.
Description: Second edition. | Abingdon, Oxon ; New York, NY :
Routledge, 2019. | Series: Routledge sourcebooks for the ancient world |
Includes bibliographical references and indexes.
Identifiers: LCCN 2019016909 (print) | LCCN 2019017300 (ebook) |
ISBN 9781315682181 (ebook) | ISBN 9781317402411 (web pdf) |
ISBN 9781317402398 (mobi/kindle) | ISBN 9781317402404 (epub) |
ISBN 9781138927902 (hbk :
alk. paper) | ISBN 9781138927896 (pbk : alk. paper) |
ISBN 9781315682181 (ebk)
Subjects: LCSH: Technology–Greece–History–Sources. |
Technology–Rome–History–Sources.
Classification: LCC T16 (ebook) | LCC T16 .S44 2019 (print) | DDC
609.38–dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019016909
Devon
Nancy and Laura
Benjamin, Sophia, William, Rose
Mac, Allison, Mike, John, ANGUS†,
Ryan, Alanna, Dan, Neil
Suri and Lincoln
Susan
List of illustrations ix
Preface to the second edition xii
Extract from the preface and acknowledgements of the
first edition xv
List of abbreviations xviii
Introduction 1
3 Agriculture 88
6 Metallurgy 221
7 Sculpture 252
vii
c o n t e n ts
12 Record-keeping 621
Indexes 732
viii
I l l ust r a ti o n s
ix
I l l ust r a ti o n s
x
I l l ust r a ti o n s
xi
Preface to the second
e d iti o n
The first edition, published in 1998 and itself a product of 20 years of diligent
accumulation of material, has been used successfully for 20 years as a resource
and textbook. Even though the past appears immutable from a modern point of
view, it is anything but – at least not in the perception of researchers as scholarly
curiosity, acumen, and initiative bring to light new information. Since the publi-
cation of the first edition, for example, the use of a crank was confirmed in a
Roman context and the date of Archimedes’ screw was revised. On a more per-
sonal level, mid-career tenured faculty members (i.e. two of the original authors)
have retired, and undergraduate students (specifically one of the current authors)
have become mid-career tenured faculty members: plenty of change to warrant a
new edition. The publisher canvassed users who had indicated their desire for a
new edition to increase the usefulness of the book as a textbook, and collected
numerous helpful suggestions. Many of these contradicted one another. Hence
the second edition would ideally contain more material and more images, while
having a smaller physical format and lower price. We did the best we could to
respond to the suggestions and to include the results of scholarship from the past
two decades. Updated chapter bibliographies reflect the advances made in the
study of ancient technology over the past two decades years. We have retained
most of the bibliography items from the first edition, as they give the reader a
glimpse into the progression of the discipline – a kind of meta-analysis of the
study of the history of technology, as it were. One conspicuous difference from
20 years ago is the big increase in the number of female scholars who are making
groundbreaking contributions to the field. May it forever continue in this fashion.
In general, the volume of excellent publications has virtually exploded, so that it
is hardly possible for one or two individuals to be aware of every relevant article
that has appeared in journals around the world. Most items newly included in the
chapter bibliographies are, therefore, edited collections and important mono-
graphs, each with its own bibliography that will, we hope, guide interested
readers to more detailed publications in their individual field of interest. We call
it, to use a phrase from urban water distribution, a dendritic system. It is almost
inevitable to miss publications, and we apologise to those authors whose work
we have overlooked in spite of our best efforts.
xii
P r e f a c e t o t h e s e c o n d e d iti o n
xiii
P r e f a c e t o t h e s e c o n d e d iti o n
delays and setbacks than one could possibly have imagined, yet Routledge has
been behind us the entire time. Amy Davis-Poynter has helped us considerably
in the early stages, but Elizabeth Risch has been a rock of perseverance and
understanding for us throughout the entire process. We cannot really express our
gratitude sufficiently to you Lizzi – thank you so much!
Selections from Documents in Mycenaean Greek are reproduced with the per-
mission of Cambridge University Press and John Chadwick (passages 6.27, 8.7,
10.32, 10.125, 10.126, and 12.3).
Andrew N. Sherwood, Milo Nikolic
xiv
Ext r a c t f r o m t h e p r e f a c e
a n d a c k n o w l e d g e m e n ts
o f t h e f i r st e d iti o n
xv
Ext r a c t f r o m t h e p r e f a c e a n d a c k n o w l e d g e m e n ts
xvi
Ext r a c t f r o m t h e p r e f a c e a n d a c k n o w l e d g e m e n ts
xvii
Abb r e vi a ti o n s
xviii
Introduction
At its most basic level technology can be regarded as the attempt by humans to
control and master the natural environment, changing it into a more hospitable,
if artificial, one. Unlike pure science, which involves a theoretical understanding
of the environment that may involve research but often lacks any immediate
implementation, technology is the process by which humans accomplish this
change. A varied body of knowledge, composed of recipes and practical skills as
well as the abstract knowledge of inventions and designs, is utilised to alleviate
perceived problems; in the process various devices and machines are manufac-
tured to aid in the conversion of the environment. It is clear that technological
innovations have improved human existence considerably by providing the
basics of life (better food, shelter, clothing, defence, and transport), and few
aspects of life escape their influence. One goal of this book is the assembly in
English translation of the most important passages in Greek and Latin literature
illustrative of the role of technology in Greek and Roman society. This Introduc-
tion attempts to present some of the themes and sources of this topic.
Throughout human history, attempts have been made to discover the impetus
that prompted technological innovation. Ancient and modern theories identify
numerous stimuli. Advanced societies realise they had once been simpler and
often examine the process by which their standard of living had improved. When
historical sources are absent, logic, emotion, and religion become rational
sources of explanation. The assumption of a very primitive existence for early
humans, a time in which society was too simple to create its own technological
inventions, resulted in the belief that advances were made by divine gifts/inter-
ventions, chance, or natural occurrence: fire was given by Prometheus; lightning
created fire, which then melted naturally occurring ores by chance; trees pro-
vided food, shelter, and clothing, which humans merely had to harvest or put
to use.
A more sympathetic view of humankind suggested that humans might see
natural examples and then imitate them by artificial means to alter their environ-
ment: observation of a tree leaning across a river prompts people to produce
1
Introduction
bridges; an acanthus plant inspires the creation of the Corinthian capital. The
next step was obvious – people invented/manufactured technologies as necessity
prompted: the need for shelter compelled them to create them from the materials
at hand; lack of appropriate materials or labour forced humankind to create or
discover alternatives; military disadvantages drove them to invent new and better
weapons; desire for wealth stimulated crafts and trades. In certain cases, the lack
of need or lack of demand for an invention might result in the failure to put a
machine to practical use, retaining it for its value as a novelty. Many of Hero’s
and Ctesibius’ devices fall into this category. In other cases, a conservative audi-
ence might actively resist innovations that could have led to significant changes
in society: the intellectual elite often scorned applied science, and others were
content with the status quo as long as it functioned. On the other hand, progres-
sive societies or individuals could radically stimulate technology by encouraging
or rewarding productive inventors: Hieron II, ruler of Syracuse, funded a cluster
of inventions by Archimedes.
But it is humankind’s ingenuity that most often has been given credit for
technological advances. Accounts of individual genius stretch from legendary/
mythical inventors, like Daedalus and Palamedes, to historical figures, like
Archimedes and Hero. Humankind’s visionary ideal of a better world stimulated
many advances that improved civilisation. Even the philosophical tenets of the
Greeks, that a rational order governed the world, led to theoretical examination
of the environment, which in turn did stimulate technology. The human spirit
thrived on the challenge to provide a better life for humankind, generating a
competitive side that hastened improvements via technological advance. Gener-
ally, the competitive motive was positive, but occasionally jealousy hindered
technological developments as people worked through the process of trial and
error in their march to improve their environment. And surely human curiosity –
our fascination with machines, materials, and power – was responsible for much
of the impetus towards technological advance.
Many of humankind’s most important technological discoveries, which were
subsequently used to further or to create other advances, occurred long before
the Greek and Roman civilisations existed. The use and control of fire is recog-
nised as humankind’s most important advance, crucial in the struggle against the
cold and wild animals, and crucial for a wider selection of foods. Agricultural
advances, like domestication of crops and animals, once humankind’s nomadic
existence began to end, led to civilisation and permanent settlements that pro-
duced food surpluses, which in turn eventually resulted in specialisation of
labour that promoted more technological changes. Humans began to produce
textiles, which replaced animal skins for clothing, and to decorate their shelters,
and for the first time had leisure for “unproductive” activities. The discovery and
use of the wheel for pottery and transport is often cited as one of the greatest
inventions, since it is ubiquitous today, but in antiquity its importance was prob-
ably much less. Instead, the use of domesticated animals and the discovery and
use of water transport were most important to those who made their way through
2
Introduction
and around the rough terrain of the Mediterranean lands. The discovery of ores,
their smelting, and alloying also began at an early date, but new processes,
metals, and alloys were discovered during the classical period. Writing, a major
technological advance that had a profound effect upon human culture in the
Bronze Age, had to be re-introduced to Greece during the eighth century bc.
The appearance of similar technologies in diverse geographical areas occa-
sionally may have been the result of simultaneous creation, but for the most part
technologies were dispersed and developed as different peoples came into
contact. Not only might the lack of raw materials in an area lead to a pattern of
exchange that could transfer a technology that formed the need for the exchange
(one component for an alloy, for example), but also such contact might lead to
other incidental technological transfers (a new form of transport or method of
construction). Such trade could be conducted on a peaceful level, but need/desire
might also produce dispersal of technologies in a more aggressive manner, by
conquest.
Although the Greeks often are characterised as theoretical thinkers without
interest in practical application and the Romans as interested only in practical
matters and not in theory, both characterisations are exaggerated. Obviously, the
Greeks created and put into use many technological innovations, and the Romans
spent time on theoretical observations. A different perception of the world and
of humankind’s position in it, however, did exist between the two cultures, at
least at the level of the elite. The Greeks were interested in theory, science, and
philosophy as they tried to determine and understand the rational order of the
universe. Technological and practical advances may have been regarded as less
“worthy” than theoretical ones by many Greek thinkers, but Greece did produce
important inventors throughout her history – Eupalinus, Archimedes, Ctesibius,
and Hero – some of whom were merely better than their contemporaries at
putting their discoveries into practice.
The Romans, on the other hand, were superb at building upon the discoveries
of others. Their society thrived on organisation and improving its effectiveness.
One might think of Rome’s military forces and the production of direct, paved
roads on a scale hitherto unattempted, largely to make the army more effective.
Again and again Roman writers like Cato, Columella, Frontinus, and Pliny the
Elder stress the practicality of their culture. Yet they were also creative when the
need arose. Military innovations gave them an empire; the development and
implementation of the arch, cement, and kiln-baked brick created engineering
marvels that inspired subsequent cultures and that stand to this day.
Technology without doubt improved the life of peoples in antiquity as it con-
tinues to do today. Arrangements such as the division of labour potentially meant
better and faster production. The standard of living improved as nature was har-
nessed or “conquered”. Food was better, more varied, and more abundant; shel-
ters were stronger, larger, and more comfortable; leisure and luxuries became
available; one even could work, play, or eat at night instead of merely sleep. Life
had improved as humankind began to dominate and mould its environment.
3
Introduction
Written records are available from the Bronze Age onwards, but it is not until
the classical period of Greece and Rome that the works are particularly valuable
for a study of ancient technology. Selections from over 150 ancient authors
appear in the following pages; of these, the following groupings (of which some
overlap) represent the most important.
Encyclopaedists. Although a Greek concept initially, the gathering of know-
ledge into a collected body was best carried out by the practical Romans. Most
important for technology is the Natural History of Pliny the Elder (first
century ac), an uncritical treatment in 37 books of a multitude of subjects:
physics, geography, ethnology, human physiology, zoology, botany, architecture
and art, stones, and metallurgy. Other important compilers include Aulus Gellius
4
Introduction
(second century ac) and etymologists like Varro (first century bc) and Isidore
(sixth to seventh centuries ac).
Topical Monographs or Treatises. Of the many treatises written about specific
topics, often by inventors or builders, very little survives beyond author and title. In
a few cases, like Ctesibius, later writers sometimes provide a bit more information.
We are fortunate to have a few complete or almost complete handbooks: the Mech-
anical Problems, originating in the school of Aristotle, concerned with the basic
machines, as well as more complex ones; portions of Philo of Byzantium’s (late
third century bc) work on catapults and other weapons, and on hydraulic machinery
survive as an important source of information; and work by Hero of Alexandria
(mid-first century ac) that provides important information regarding devices using
air and water pressure, gearing, and making of screw threads. Best known of the
monographs, however, are several by Roman writers: Vitruvius’ On Architecture, a
late first century bc work, which examines construction, materials, time recording,
water supply, and machines in ten books; Frontinus’ late first-century ac book On
the Aqueducts of Rome, and the more derivative military work, On Stratagems. This
last topic is supplemented by a military treatise by Vegetius (fourth century ac).
Agricultural Writers. Since farming was the basis of the ancient economy,
and since it was considered one of the few honourable occupations, it is not sur-
prising that we have three classical Roman monographs on the subject: written
by Cato (second century bc), Varro (first century bc), and Columella (first
century ac), they treat cultivation, livestock, farm equipment, and so on. Poets,
like Hesiod (eighth century bc) and Vergil (first century bc), also provide
important agricultural information (see Poets).
Historians. Although technology is rarely an important focus for ancient
historians, their narratives often provide detailed information about ancient tech-
nologies. The Greek Herodotus (fifth century bc), for example, gives details on
the building of the Egyptian pyramids; Julius Caesar provides many useful
descriptions of military technology in his accounts of his own campaigns in the
first century bc; and Josephus (first century ac) provides accounts of military
technology and harbour construction.
Geographers. Travellers like Strabo (early first century ac) and Pausanias
(mid-second century ac) have left us accounts of their journeys in the Mediterra-
nean during the Roman Empire, often providing interesting descriptions of
engineering feats, famous structures, and artistic marvels, and recording legends
and myths regarding early inventors.
Poets. Homer’s and Hesiod’s works, our earliest Greek literature (eighth
century bc), not only provide evidence for agricultural life in the archaic period,
a harsh existence, but give information regarding seafaring, smithing, and fanci-
ful robots among others. The later poets, both Greek and Latin, continue to
provide unexpected bits of evidence for farming (Vergil), textiles (Aristophanes;
fifth century bc), tradespeople (Plautus; early second century bc), and so on. Sati-
rists like Horace (first century bc) and Juvenal (first century ac) relate informa-
tion regarding construction practices and transport in their descriptions of life.
5
Introduction
6
Introduction
7
Introduction
The following Greek and Latin terms are used frequently in the text (where they
appear in italicised form unless translated) rather than the English or metric equi-
valent, to give readers a more accurate sense of the measurements that appear in
the original. It should be noted that, especially for the Greek examples that
follow, there are frequent local variations – for example (see 11.117).
Weights
Greek Roman
8
Introduction
Length
Greek Roman
Area
Greek Roman
1 plethron 100 feet by 100 feet 1 iugerum 120 feet by 240 feet
Liquid volume
Greek Roman
Dry volume
Greek Roman
Money
Greek Roman
1 obolos [obol] 1 as
6 oboloi = 1 drachma 2.5 asses = 1 sestertius
6,000 drachmai = 1 talanton [talent] 4 sestertii = 1 denarius
25 denarii = 1 aureus
9
Introduction
Bibliography
Society and technology in antiquity
Blank, Horst, Einführung in das Privatleben der Griechen und Römer. Darmstadt:
Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1976.
Blümner, Hugo, Technologie und Terminologie der Gewerbe und Künste bei Griechen
und Römern. 5 Vols. Leipzig: Teubner, 1875–1887.
Cotterell, Brian and Johan Kamminga, Mechanics of Pre-Industrial Technology. Cam-
bridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990.
Cuomo, Serafina, Technology and Culture in Greek and Roman Antiquity. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 2007.
Daumas, Maurice, ed., A History of Technology and Invention, I: The Origins of Techno-
logical Civilization. New York: Crown Publishers, 1969.
De Camp, L. Sprague, The Ancient Engineers. New York: Doubleday, 1963.
Feldhaus, Franz Maria, Die Technik der Vorzeit, der geschichtlichen Zeit und der Natur-
völker. Leipzig, Berlin: Wilhelm Engelmann, 1914.
Feldhaus, Franz Maria, Die Technik der Antike und des Mittelalters. Potsdam: Athenaion,
1931 [Repr. Hildesheim: Olms, 1971. Foreword and Bibliography by Horst Callies].
Forbes, Robert J., Studies in Ancient Technology. 9 Vols. 2nd edn. Leiden: Brill,
1964–1972.
Gille, Bertrand, Histoire des techniques: Technique et civilisations, Technique et science,
ed. Bertrand Gille, with contributions by André Fell, Jean Parent, Bertrand Quemada,
and François Russo. Paris: Gallimard, 1978.
Gille, Bertrand, Les mécaniciens grecs. La naissance de la technologie. Paris: Éditions du
Seuil, 1980.
Greene, Kevin, “Historiography and Theoretical Approaches”. Pp. 62–90 in John P.
Oleson, ed., Oxford Handbook of Engineering and Technology in the Classical World.
Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008.
Hodges, Henry, Technology in the Ancient World. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1970.
Hodges, Henry, Artifacts. An Introduction to Early Materials and Technology. 2nd edn.
London: John Baker, 1976.
Humphrey, John W., Ancient Technology. Westport: Greenwood Press, 2006.
Irby, Georgia L., ed., A Companion to Science, Technology, and Medicine in Ancient
Greece and Rome. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell, 2016.
Landels, John G., Engineering in the Ancient World, revised edition. Berkeley: University
of California Press, 2000.
Moorey, Peter R.S., Ancient Mesopotamian Materials and Industries: The Archaeological
Evidence. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1994.
Oleson, John P., ed., Bronze Age, Greek, and Roman Technology. A Select, Annotated
Bibliography. New York: Garland, 1986.
Oleson, John P., ed., The Oxford Handbook of Engineering and Technology in the Classi-
cal World. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008.
Rihll, Tracey E., Technology and Society in the Ancient Greek and Roman Worlds. Wash-
ington: American Historical Association/Society for the History of Technology, 2013.
Roebuck, Carl, The Muses at Work. Arts, Crafts, and Professions in Ancient Greece and
Rome. Cambridge: MIT Press, 1969.
Schneider, Helmuth, Einführung in die antike Technikgeschichte. Darmstadt: Wissen-
schaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1992.
10
Introduction
Schneider, Helmuth, Geschichte der antiken Technik. Munich: C.H. Beck, 2007.
Singer, Charles, Eric J. Holmyard, Alfred R. Hall, and Trevor I. Williams, eds., A History
of Technology, Vol. I: From Early Times to Fall of Ancient Empires c.500 b.c. Oxford:
Clarendon Press, 1954.
Singer, Charles, Eric J. Holmyard, Alfred R. Hall, and Trevor I. Williams, eds., A History
of Technology, Vol. II: The Mediterranean Civilizations and the Middle Ages. Oxford:
Clarendon Press, 1957.
White, Kenneth D., Greek and Roman Technology. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1984.
11
1
The rise of humans and
human technology
12
The rise of humans and human technology
Many myths and legends exist that tell of earlier peoples and lands in which
humans did not have to work for their sustenance or who were culturally
advanced. Some stories record single civilisations that had been destroyed,
others tell of successive generations and their decline from an initial “Golden
Age” to ages of toil. The Golden Age represented a paradise when humans
mingled with the gods and the age to which later generations looked back with
longing. Its loss meant the loss of a simple yet blissful existence of early civili-
sation; the achievements of material culture with the accompanying moral sins
of mortals were not adequate compensation.
13
The rise of humans and human technology
home and means of living and settled them at the end of the earth apart from
everyone. And they live free from worry on the Islands of the Blessed along the
shore of deep-swirling Oceanus. Fortunate are these heroes, since the grain-
giving earth produces a honey-sweet harvest three times a year for them. Oh,
that I were not living among the fifth race, but had either died before or been
born afterwards. For now is the iron race, when humans never will cease from
labour and sorrow by day and from suffering at night, since the gods will give
only grievous concerns…. And Zeus will destroy this race of mortals too.
14
The rise of humans and human technology
15
The rise of humans and human technology
pelts of wild animals; but they inhabited the woods and forests and mountain
caves, and they concealed their rough bodies among the undergrowth when forced
to escape the lashing of the winds and rains…. Confident in the wonderful power
of their hands and feet, they used to hunt the woodland haunts of wild animals
with stone missiles and with great, heavy clubs, overpowering many, and avoid-
ing few from their places of ambush. And like the bristly boars, when overcome
by night, they surrendered their wild, naked bodies to the earth, rolling leaves and
boughs around themselves…. [Sometimes they had to flee in terror when wild
animals troubled their rest; humankind was more likely to die if attacked by wild
animals, since no medical knowledge existed.]…. But at that time a single day
did not send many thousands of men led under military standards to destruction,
nor did the rough waters of the sea dash men and ships on the rocks; at that time
the wicked skill of navigation lay hidden. Instead it was lack of food that sent
weak bodies to death; now, to the contrary, abundance of everything destroys
mortals…. After they had procured huts and skins and fire, then, for the first time,
the human race began to grow soft. For fire took care that their shivering bodies
could no longer endure the cold under the vault of the sky…. Then also neigh-
bours began to join in friendships among themselves, eager neither to do harm
nor be harmed. They entrusted their children and women to one another and indi-
cated with stuttering voice and gesture that it was right for everyone to pity the
feeble. It was not possible, however, to produce harmony among everyone, but a
good and large part of them piously maintained the agreement, or else even then
the human race would have been wholly destroyed, and begetting would not have
been able to prolong the generations up to the present.
16
The rise of humans and human technology
The dialogue continues, discussing how and by whom certain skills were recovered and the human
condition following the destruction of cities and the loss of technology.
A: “Were they not happy to see one another since there were very few round
about at that time, since the ways of passage, by which they might cross by
land and by sea to each other, were almost all destroyed along with the arts
as the story tells us? Thus to mingle with one another was not very possible,
I imagine. For iron and bronze and all the minerals in the confusion [of the
flood] vanished so that it was difficult to extract all these, and as a result
there was a scarceness of felled timber. For even if some tools happened to
be on the mountains, these soon were worn out and disappeared and were
not to be found again until the art of metal-working was rediscovered”.
C: “How could they?”
A: “How many generations do we think had passed before this happened?”
C: “Clearly very many”.
A: “And so all the arts needing iron and bronze and all such metals must have
remained secret the whole period and even longer?”
C: “How else?”
A: “Moreover civil strife and war disappeared because of many reasons at that
time”.
The Athenian speaker concludes that this primitive state without metals had many advantages.
C: “How so?”
A: “In the first place they were quite content and friendly towards each other on
account of their isolation, secondly there was no fighting over their food.
17
The rise of humans and human technology
For there was no scarcity of pasturage, except perhaps at the outset for
some, which for the most part was what humans lived on at that time: in no
way were they lacking milk and meat since they were able to obtain excel-
lent and plentiful foods by hunting. And they were well equipped with
clothing and coverlets and houses and cooking pots and other pots; for
moulding and weaving are skills that don’t need iron; and god gave these
two skills to humankind to supply them with everything so that whenever
the human race should come into distress, it might have the means for
sprouting up and increasing”.
The Athenian concludes that without gold and silver, humans were neither poor nor rich, and thus
there were no rivalries or deceptions; instead, this was a race of simple but noble people. This scen-
ario is also found in the more famous account of Atlantis (Plato, Timaeus 20e–26e): the peoples of
Atlantis disappeared, and an earlier, advanced Athenian people survived on a more primitive level.
The concept of divine help as the source for all human achievements was wide-
spread. Prometheus was often regarded as the greatest benefactor of human
development, but other divinities were also credited with providing specific gifts;
the theme is that a superior being aids an inferior one, an idea anchored in
reality; advanced and technologically superior cultures did help inferior ones.
The unique positions of the Athenians and Romans in their respective empires
led to an inflated opinion of their cultures. Their confident belief that they were
superior to other peoples is revealed in the last two passages, where they replace
the role of the gods by improving the lives of more primitive peoples through the
instrument of technology.
18
The rise of humans and human technology
lives in utter confusion like dreamy images. They had no knowledge of well-built
houses warmed in the sun, nor the working of timber, but lived like crawling ants in
the ground in deep, sunless caverns. Nor did they have a fixed sign to mark off
winter or flowery spring or fruitful summer; their every act was without knowledge
until I came. I showed them the risings and settings of the stars, hard to interpret till
now. I invented for them also numbering, the supreme skill, and how to set words
in writing to remember all things, the inventive mother of the Muses. I was the first
to harness beasts under the yoke with a trace or saddle as a slave, to take the man’s
place under the heaviest burdens; put the horse to the chariot, made him obey the
rein, and be an ornament to wealth and greatness. No one before me discovered the
sailor’s wagon, the flax-winged craft that roam the seas. Such tools and skills I dis-
covered for humans.… [Other benefits are recounted here.]…. So much for proph-
ecy. But as for those benefits to humans that lay hidden in the earth, the bronze,
iron, silver, and gold – who else before me could claim to have found them first?
No one, I know well, unless he wishes to sound like a fool. Learn the whole matter
in a brief phrase: all arts possessed by mortals come from Prometheus.
19
The rise of humans and human technology
The widespread and persistent belief of the Athenian importance to the progress of Greek civilisation
is supported by other passages. Diodorus of Sicily (History 13.26.3) has a Syracusan victor recom-
mend mercy for Athenian prisoners captured in 413 bc on the basis of their benefactions to the
human race. An inscription from the late second century bc (Dittenberger, SIG 704 lines 11–22;
Vol. 2 p. 324 n. 12 for further references) states that the Athenian people gave to the world laws,
agriculture, civilisation, and admitted some people to the Mysteries.
20
The rise of humans and human technology
garrisons, they were not upset by their changing lifestyle and were becoming
different without noticing it.
Tacitus, Agricola 21
The following winter [ad 79] was spent in very beneficial consultations. For in
order that the scattered and barbaric Britons, a people ready for war, might be
accustomed to pleasure by means of peace and relaxation, Agricola, by praising
the enthusiastic and scolding the lazy, urged on individuals and assisted com-
munities to construct temples, market places, and homes…. Gradually the
Britons yielded to the enticing vices: the covered porticoes, the baths, and the
elegance of banquets. And this condition was called “civilisation” among simple
Britons, although it was part of their slavery.
Compare Aelius Aristeides (To Rome 36–39), who paints a fawning and enthusiastic description of
the benefits of Roman urban life.
21
The rise of humans and human technology
22
The rise of humans and human technology
Similar sentiments regarding location, climate, and intelligence are provided by Plato (Timaeus
22d–e, 24c–d) and Vitruvius (On Architecture 6.1.9–12). The latter suggests Italy as the perfect
location.
23
The rise of humans and human technology
Vitruvius continues with the advances in housing (8.1) and the advantages of imitation and rivalry
for improving themselves. Lucretius (6.1) relates the power of fire and its role in the discovery of
metals and metallurgy.
24
The rise of humans and human technology
25
The rise of humans and human technology
bird-nets, so that he rules not only over animals upon the earth, but also over
those in the sea and the air. Such is the hand of man as an instrument of might.
Yet, man is also both a peaceful and civil animal, and with his hands he writes
his laws, raises altars and statues to the gods, and makes the ship and flute and
lyre and knife and fire-tongs and all the other tools of the arts, and he leaves
behind him commentaries on the theories of them in his writings…. Thus, man
is the most intelligent of the animals and, thus, hands are the tools suitable for an
intelligent animal … [intelligence is the key to success, while] … hands are a
tool, like the lyre of the musician and the tongs of the smith….
26
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
In measuring women’s economic advance this need for a human
interest in their work must never be forgotten. Of any occupation it
must be asked, What does it offer to women when the novelty has
worn off, and they realise that for twenty or thirty years more nearly
all their time must be given to it?
Another fact, too, must be remembered—that although high pay
may compensate for uninteresting work, a woman will never be
worth high pay if the work does not interest her. And we find,
therefore, the paradoxical result that, generally speaking, the women
who earn the highest incomes are the women who have chosen their
work for the work’s sake.
Taking these points into consideration, I am inclined to think that
we have made sufficient economic progress to be “good, useful,
healthy and self-respecting” up to the age of thirty. But the great
mass of middle-class women, if fated to earn their living as middle-
aged spinsters, would, I am afraid, be unable to earn an income
sufficient to keep either their utility or their health up to the standard.
But optimists may fairly urge that the majority will not be called
upon to go through this ordeal. The average woman marries; it is the
exceptionally intellectual or the exceptionally feeble-minded who do
not. The latter will be looked after by society, and the former can hold
her own.
That is true to some extent. But while I think we have made great
strides in the right direction, I think we have some serious truths to
face. We are constantly congratulating ourselves that our middle-
aged spinsters have nothing in common with the old maid of the
past, while we assume that the next half-century will see a still
greater exaltation of the maiden lady. I doubt it very much, unless
much more thought and effort are given to making the duller girls
industrially competent.
Our pioneers were full of enthusiasm in their journey to the
promised land where sex barriers should be removed and sex
prejudices die away. Those of us who passed through the gates
which they opened for us were (I am afraid it must be admitted) often
unpopular among those we left behind and were delighted with the
novelty of the country before us. The next generation are coming into
the field under new conditions. To begin with, it is realised that work
is work; next, that economic liberty is only obtained by the sacrifice
of personal freedom; that there is nothing very glorious in doing work
that any average man can do as well, now that we are no longer told
we cannot do it. The glamour of economic independence has faded,
although the necessity for it is greater than ever. Further, although it
used to be true that a smaller proportion of the girls who
distinguished themselves most at school and at college married than
was the case among the girls in the lower forms, this no longer holds
good. Now that all girls, as a matter of course, are taught Latin and
mathematics, they are no longer regarded as necessarily
disagreeable in consequence; nor is inability to do their school work
considered a merit. Large numbers of middle-class women must
remain unmarried, but there seem to me to be many signs that it is
no longer the Sixth Form girl, but her duller schoolfellow, who must
be trained to make her way alone in the world.
And this after all means progress for the race.
RECENT PUBLICATIONS BY
P. S. KING & SON, Westminster.
Elements of Statistics.
By Arthur L. Bowley, M.A., F.S.S., Lecturer in Statistics at the
London School of Economics; Guy Silver Medallist of the Royal
Statistical Society. Edited by Prof. W. A. S. Hewins, M.A., Director of
the London School of Economics. Demy 8vo, cloth, 342 pp.,
numerous Diagrams, 10s. 6d. net.
Economic Journal.—“The London School of Economics has, since
its foundation, had systematic courses of lectures on the elements of
statistics, and the school therefore is entitled to share with Mr.
Bowley the congratulations which are due to him for supplying a
long-felt want. Without further ado it may be plainly stated that,
whatever its shortcomings, this book is the best on the Elements of
Statistics written in English, French, German or Italian.”
*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK EDUCATED
WORKING WOMEN: ESSAYS ON THE ECONOMIC POSITION OF
WOMEN WORKERS IN THE MIDDLE CLASSES ***
Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions will
be renamed.
1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also
govern what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most
countries are in a constant state of change. If you are outside the
United States, check the laws of your country in addition to the terms
of this agreement before downloading, copying, displaying,
performing, distributing or creating derivative works based on this
work or any other Project Gutenberg™ work. The Foundation makes
no representations concerning the copyright status of any work in
any country other than the United States.
• You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
the use of Project Gutenberg™ works calculated using the
method you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The
fee is owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg™ trademark,
but he has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to
the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty
payments must be paid within 60 days following each date on
which you prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your
periodic tax returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked
as such and sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
Foundation at the address specified in Section 4, “Information
about donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
Foundation.”
• You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
distribution of Project Gutenberg™ works.
1.F.
1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth in
paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you ‘AS-IS’, WITH NO
OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED,
INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF
MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
Please check the Project Gutenberg web pages for current donation
methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of
other ways including checks, online payments and credit card
donations. To donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate.
Most people start at our website which has the main PG search
facility: www.gutenberg.org.