Computer Maintenance Prac

Computer Maintenance(6th CE)
PRACTICAL :- 1
AIM:- STUDY OF MAINTENANCE KIT
List of various PC repair tools and the importance of each:
1).Standard screwdrivers (not magnetic):
High-quality Phillips screwdrivers are indispensable. At the very

least, you’ll need small and larger Phillips screwdrivers with
various shaft lengths. A few different sized flat-head screwdrivers
are very helpful to have. Do not use magnetic screwdrivers inside
computers.
2). Cordless rechargeable screwdriver:
Saves time and effort; especially useful when fixing multiple

computers
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3) Paper clips
Almost all tray-load disc drives have an external release button and a small hole in the door to access the
manual lock release. To open a tray-load drive, do the following steps.
1. Turn off and then restart the computer.
2. Insert the end of a paper clip into the

release access hole in the cover of the
drive.
3. Press in gently on the paper clip until the

tray is released. Releasing the lock will
allow the tray to only open a small
distance.
4. Remove and discard the paper clip, and

pull out the tray until it stops.
5. Remove the disc from the tray. Hold the

disc by the edges and avoid touching the
flat surfaces.
4) Multitester
A multimeter or a multitester, also known as a volt/ohm meter or VOM, is an electronic measuring

instrument that combines several measurement functions in one unit.
A typical multimeter may include features such as the ability to
measure voltage, current and resistance. Multimeters may
use analog or digital circuits—analog multimeters and digital
multimeters(often abbreviated DMM or DVOM.) Analog
instruments are usually based on a microammeter whose pointer
moves over a scale calibration for all the different measurements that
can be made; digital instruments usually display digits, but may
display a bar of a length proportional to the quantity measured.
A multimeter can be a hand-held device useful for basic fault finding

and field service work or a bench which can measure to a very high
degree of accuracy. They can be used to troubleshoot electrical problems in a wide array of industrial
and household devices such aselectronic equipment, motor controls, domestic appliances, power
supplies, and wiring systems.
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5). ATX power supply tester
A simple tool that indicates whether the power supply is indeed outputting power, and provides convenient
terminals that allow you to easily test the voltage using a voltmeter or
multitester.
6). Cable testers
A cable tester is an electronic device used to verify the electrical

connections in a cable or other wired assembly. Generally a cable
tester consists of:
1. A source of electric current,

2. A volt meter,
3. A switching matrix used to connect the current source and the volt meter to all of the contact
points in a cable.
In addition to these parts a cable tester may also have a microcontroller and a display to automate the
testing process and display the testing results.
A cable tester is used to verify that all of the intended connections exist and that there are no
unintended connections in the cable being tested. When an intended connection is missing it is said to
be "open" (as in Open circuit). When an unintended connection exists it is said to be a "short" (as
in Short circuit). If a connection "goes to the wrong place" it is said to be "miswired" (the connection
has two faults: it is open to the correct contact and shorted to an incorrect contact).
Generally, the testing is done in two phases. The first phase, called the opens test makes sure each of the
intended connections is good. The second phase, called the shorts test makes sure there are no
unintended connections.
There are two common ways to test a connection:
1. A continuity test. Current is passed down the connection. If there is current the connection is
assumed to be good. This type of test can be done with a series combination of a battery (to provide
the current) and a light bulb (that lights when there is a current).
2. A resistance test. A known current is passed down the connection and the voltage that develops is
measured. From the voltage and current the resistance of the connection can be calculated and
compared to the expected value.
There are two common ways to test for a short:
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1. A low voltage test. A low power, low voltage source is connected between two conductors that
should not be connected and the amount of current is measured. If there is no current the conductors
are assumed to be well isolated.
2. A high voltage test. Again a voltage source is connected but this the voltage is of several hundred
volts. The increased voltage will make the test more likely to find connections that are nearly shorted
since the higher voltage will cause the insulation of nearly shorted wires to break down.
7). Port-testing software
Used to determine whether various ports are working correctly.
8). Breakout boxes
A breakout box (BOB) is an electrical device, usually housed in a box, in which a compound electrical
connector is separated or "broken out" into its component connectors. Compound connectors (which are
often proprietary) are used where sufficient space for (or access to) connections is unavailable. If there
are only a few connections, then a breakout cable (also octopus cable) may be used, as is common on
smaller notebook computers.
9). Anti-static (ESD) wristbands or anklebands
An antistatic wrist strap, ESD wrist strap, or ground bracelet is

an antistatic device used to safely ground a person working on electronic
equipment, to prevent the buildup of static electricity on their body,
which can result in electrostatic discharge (ESD). It is used in the
electronics industry by workers working on electronic devices which can
be damaged by ESD, and also sometimes by people working around
explosives, to prevent sparks which could set off an explosion. It consists
of a stretchy band of fabric with fine conductive fibers woven into it. The
fibers are usually made of carbon or carbon-filled rubber, and the strap is
bound with a stainless steel clasp or plate. They are usually used in
conjunction with an antistatic mat on the workbench, or a special static-dissipating plastic laminate on the
workbench surface.
10) Anti-static (ESD) spray
Very effective in reducing static electricity on fabric and carpet.
11) Anti-static (ESD) mats
Provides a static-free surface. Can be used with anti-static wristbands. Includes anti-static floor mats.
12) POST card
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A card that can be plugged into an expansion slot and contains a small display to a show a problem
code, POST cards are timesavers that provide accurate and specific diagnoses.
13) Disk drive installation software
Software utilities that are provided by the drive manufacturers and from other sources, many of which
are available at no charge. These sometimes come with the drives, but can also be downloaded.
14) BIOS flashing utilities
Use these to flash BIOSs and to perform other rescue operations on BIOSs and CMOS chips with
problems.
15) USB network adapter
Allows for easy network access on a computer that has USB ports but no
internal network adapter. Used for data transfer and Internet access on networks
set up for it.
16) Internet access
Allows access to Web-based virus-scanning software and other utilities, and easy downloads of device
drivers.
17) Data transfer cables
Cables of various types such as serial (null-modem), parallel, and USB that allow for different methods
of data transfer. Very often, the best solution for a computer with serious OS trouble is to format the
hard drives (which erases all content), and reinstall the OS and all software. Data transfer is often the
most efficient method of saving data that will be erased by formatting the drive. Various software
utilities, some of which are supplied with Windows, allow for data transfer through these cables.
18) CD/DVD scratch repair kits
These can often save damaged software and data discs.
19) Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS)
An uninterruptible power supply, also uninterruptible power source, UPS or battery/flywheel

backup, is an electrical apparatus that provides emergency power to a
load when the input power source, typically the utility mains, fails. A
UPS differs from an auxiliary or emergency power system or standby
generator in that it will provide instantaneous or near-instantaneous
protection from input power interruptions by means of one or more
attached batteries and associated electronic circuitry for low power
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users, and or by means of diesel generators and flywheels for high power users. The on-battery runtime
of most uninterruptible power sources is relatively short—5–15 minutes being typical for smaller
units—but sufficient to allow time to bring an auxiliary power source on line, or to properly shut down
the protected equipment.
20) Data-recovery software
Software that can often recover data from damaged hard drives.
21) Infrared temperature sensor
Available from companies such as Raytek (raytek.com), this uses

a laser to point at an object such as a CPU to detect its
temperature. Can be very helpful in detecting bad connections or
heat-related problems.
22) Problem-solving software
Various software programs such as Norton Utilities™ and McAfee® Clinic that solve many different
computer problems and optimize performance.
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Practical :-2
Aim:-Introduction of Computer Peripherals
Input Devices
The foremost task of a computer is to accept data. An input device is used to
accomplish this task. An input device is used to enter the data and instructions
into the computer. Advancement in the computer technology has resulted in a
variety of input devices being available in the market. Keyboard and mouse are
the most commonly used input devices.
Keyboard: Keyboard is the most popular input device that allows users to type
alphabets, numbers, and operators, and also to control the cursor on the screen. A
simple keyboard layout is given below:
Mouse: Mouse is a pointing device that allows user to point to a specific position on
the screen. It has two or three buttons on top for selecting/executing different
operations. Pressing buttons of mouse is known as clicking of mouse. The mouse is
placed on flat surface and moved around to move its controlling arrow on screen.
The arrow showing the position of mouse on screen is known as mouse pointer. Left
button of mouse is used execute the operation associated with it. Right
button/Middle buttons are associated with special operations in different
situations.
Some of the other Input Devices are enlisted below:
Device Identification Usage
It is a device used to control

cursor on screen. Normally
Joy Stick
it is used in Games and
specially designed
simulation software
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It is a device used for

Light Pen drawing pictures and for
directlycontrolling screen
operations
Microphone It is a device used to accept

audio inputs from the user
It is a device used to capture

digital images of printed
Scanner
documents, graphics or other
printed media.
It is a display device, which

is touch-sensitive and allows
user to interact with the
Touch Screens
computer system by
touching an area on the
screen.
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It is used to accept barcode

inputs.A barcode is a series of
vertical bars representing
numbers and alphabets
printed on product labels.
One must have noticed
Bar Code Reader allstandard items like
perfumes, greeting cards,
books, cassettes available in
the market have similar lines
as shown in the figure, known
as bar codes. These can be
read with the help of bar code
readers.
It is an easy to connect low-

resolution digital camera
Web Camera normally e m p l o y e d f o r
transfer of images
on the web-based
conferencing
It is a high-resolution camera,
which captures images and
stores them in digital format.
Digital Camera
It has provision to connect to
the computer using special
computer communication
cables (such as USB cables).
Output Devices
It is a device used to provide the processed data from the computer to the user. Monitor
(VDU/Screen) and printer are the most commonly used output devices. The usage of
some of the commonly used output devices is below:
Monitor
A Monitor is an output device, very similar to the television

screen. It displays the information as it is
typed and also displays the processed result or the output. It is
available in many forms cathode ray picture tube based
display, liquid crystal based display(LCD),
plasma panel display, and touch panel display
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Printers
Impact Printers - These printers have a mechanism that touches the paper in
order to create an image. The Dot Matrix Printer is an example of this type.
Non-impact Printers - These printers do not touch the paper when creating
an image. The inkjet and laser printers are examples of this type
Dot Matrix Printer

Printers in this category print the characters / images using dots through inked ribbon.
These printers are very economic and require very less maintenance cost. The print
quality of the dot matrix printer is decided by the quantity of pins it has. The number of
the pins can vary from nine to twenty four, depending
on the kind of dot matrix printer. When compared to
the other kind of printers, like the laser printers or the
ink jet printer, the dot matrix printer is much more
expensive. The dot matrix printer has a tendency to
make a lot of noise when compared to the other kinds
of printers. This is why the dot matrix printer
is not very popular among customers. Quality of print
in this category is not very high but is highly suitable
for printing situations requiring multiple copies.
These printers can print through hammering pattern
of dots on the printing ribbon and can thus print
multiple copies of document if multiple papers separated by carbon papers are inserted in
it. Note that this feature is not available with any other category of printers.
Inkjet/Deskjet/Bubblejet Printer
Printers in this category are most popular. These printers are very
low priced with
high running/maintenance cost. These printers work on liquid ink
technology and print the image using circuit-controlled jet of ink.
An inkjet sprays the ink onto the paper in tiny droplets to form text
and graphics. Printing speed of these printers is not very high
compared to Laser Printers. These printers are suitable for people having less printing
jobs with a desirable print uality. These printers are available in 'Coloured' and 'Black &
White' options.
Different companies have branded their products using the

same technology with different names e.g.
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Hewlett Packard (hp) manufactures DeskJet Printers

Epson manufactures Inkjet Printers
Canon manufactures Bubble Jet Printers
Laser Printer
These printers use a technique, which is a combination of
laser and Xerox technology. The technology involves dry
powder based ink, which is adhered to a drum through
magnetic force, and when a paper is passed through the
drum it releases ink on that paper. These are the fastest
available printers in the category and are most suitable for
uses involving high-speed quality prints.
Storage devices
Storing data is an important part of a computer system. The main concern of all
computer designers is to create fast and efficient storage devices. As is commonly
known, the primary memory inside the computer (Random Access Memory or RAM) is
volatile i.e. whatever is stored in RAM is lost as soon as the computer is switched off.
So if there is a need to save data from getting lost, it can be put on a storage device
like floppy disk, hard disks and CD-ROMS before switching off the Computer.
Floppy Disk
It is a smaller capacity removable storage device. It is made up of thin and flexible
plastic material. This thin plastic film is coated with a magnetic material known as
iron oxide for recording data and is protected by a hard outer cover. It is very useful
in transferring data from one computer to another.
Plastic Jacket
Write Protect Notch
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Although technology has not changed substantially, floppy disks have certainly changed
considerably in order to meet the very demanding needs of the marketplace. From an 8
inch size they have evolved to a much smaller size with larger capacities. Today's
standard 3.5 inch diskettes hold a formatted capacity of about 1.44 megabytes. The
evolution of the personal computer acted as a catalyst primary for designers to reduce the
size and cost of floppies. Very quickly the floppy became the standard method of
exchanging data between personal computers. It also became the popular method of
storing moderate amounts of information outside of the computer's hard drive. Diskettes
are small, inexpensive, readily available, easy to store, and have a good shelf life if stored
properly.
Working of a Floppy Disk

Conventional floppy drives contain the following basic components:
1. A spindle clamping mechanism to hold the diskette in place as it spins
2. Either one or two magnetic read/write heads mounted on a mechanism that
moves the heads across the diskette's surface
3. A sensor that detects the rotational position of the diskette via an index hole
(or magnetic sensor in 3.5 inch drives) on floppy disks.
The floppy disk is divided into tracks and sectors. In the adjacent figure, the concentric
circles are tracks and the sliced parts of these tracks are called sectors. When the
computer system needs to access data on the diskette, the read/write heads are stepped by
signals generated by the computer system's floppy controller. These steps are along
invisible concentric cylinders, which are usually referred to as "tracks". The turning on
of the computer system's power results in the read/write heads of the drive being
automatically set to track 0 (the first track and starting position). In most drives, this
starting position is located by means of a sensor in the drive, which has been adjusted to
tell the floppy controller when the heads have reached the first track. If this sensor is not
in proper adjustment, then this initial starting calibration is also incorrect and the heads
are not properly positioned over track 0. In order to move the heads from this first track
to other tracks, the head positioner simply moves in or out one track for each step pulse
received from the computer's floppy controller.
Hard Disk Drive
It is a storage device with very large capacity, which ranges

from 1GB to Terabytes in the modernscenario. It is placed
in side the cabinet of CPU (Although external hard drives
are also available these days). It is not a removable drive in
normal circumstances. A hard disk has a much larger
storage capacity than a floppy disk. It is fitted inside the
computer and cannot be seen by us. There can be one or
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more hard disk in the system unit of a computer. They were originally called "fixed
disks" or "Winchesters". They later became known as "hard disks" to distinguish them
from "floppy disks." Hard disks have a hard platter that holds the magnetic medium, as
opposed to the flexible plastic film found in tapes and floppies. At the simplest level, a
hard disk uses magnetic recording techniques just like the floppy disk. Major benefits of
magnetic storage - the magnetic medium can be easily erased and rewritten, and it will
"remember" the magnetic flux patterns stored onto the medium for many years. The
working of a hard disk is similar to that of a floppy disk. In order to increase the amount
of information the drive can store, most hard diskshave multiple platters.
CD-ROM (Compact Disk Read Only Memory)
It is a storage device with medium capacity i.e. to hold 650 MB/700 MB (60/80
Min.Audio/Video). Computer has special drive known as CD-Drive to provide support
for placing and running CDs. It can store data, audio and video. It is made up of plastic
with special surface having optical sensitivity. CD-Drive has a laser light source that
reads data from the CD-ROM. The CD-ROM surface is a mirror covered with billions of
tiny bumps that are arranged in a long, tightly wound spiral track of data, circling from
the inside of the disc to the outside. The CD-Drive reads the bumps with a precise laser
and interprets the information as bits of data. CD-ROMs are economical and easily
available storage media. CDs are available in variations such as CD-R (Compact Disk
Recordable) and CD-RW(Compact Disk Rewritable). The data on CD-R media can only
be written once whereas CD-RW media allows multiple write/over-write operations on it.
There are two types of CD Drives, one known as CD-R Drive that performs only read
operation, and the other known as CD-RW Drive (or CD-Burner) that performs read as
well write operations.
Working of a CD-ROM Drive
When you play a CD, the laser beam passes through the CD's polycarbonate layer,reflects
off the aluminum layer and hits an optoelectronic device that detects changes in light.
The bumps reflect light differently than the flat parts of the aluminum layer, which are
called lands. The optoelectronic sensor detects these changes in reflectivity, and the
electronics in the CD-player drive interpret the changes as data bits
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DVD (Digital Versatile Disc)
Computer has special drive known as DVD-Drive to provide support for placing and
running DVDs. A DVD is very similar to a CD, but it has a much larger data storage
capacity. A standard DVD media holds about seven times more data than a CD media.
This huge capacity means that a DVD has enough room to store a full-length, MPEG-2-
encoded movie, as well as other information. A DVD can store data, audio and video. It
is made up of plastic with special surface having optical sensitivity denser as compared to
CDs. A DVD drive is capable of running a CD media also. The DVD media can store up
to 4.7 GB of data as compared to 650-700 MB storage capacity of CD-ROMs. DVDs are
of the same diameter and thickness as CDs, and they are made using some of the same
materials and manufacturing methods. Like a CD, the data on a DVD is encoded in the
form of small pits and bumps in the track of the disc
Pen Drive
This is a type of flash memory storage device of the size of a thumb and can plug into the
USB port of the computer. USB flash drives are more
compact, generally faster, hold more data, and are more
reliable (due to their lack of moving parts) than disk
storage. Most flash drives use a standard USB
connector, which is connected directly to the USB port
on a personal computer Flash drive is nearly free from
scratch and dust problems that exist in the other storage
media, such as floppy disks and compact discs. This makes it ideal for transporting data
or work files from one location to another, such as from home to school or office or work
places. It also allows one to perform multiple read-write operations. Flash drives are also
a relatively dense form of storage, where even the cheapest will store dozens of floppy
disks worth of data. Some can hold more data than a CD (700 MB). Top of the line flash
drives can store more data than a DVD. Flash drives often last for 500,000 or more
erase/write cycles. Optical storage devices are also slower than their flash-based
counterparts.
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PRACTICAL – 3
Aim : Disassembling computer system.
It you are a beginner and actually want to learn something then document well and learn
or re-atlim your knowledge about every thing you see inside given a screwdriver a 10
year old could probably have the computer apart in a halt hour or so. If you are using this
section as a laber learning assignment and you have your computer apart in the same time
as a 10 – year old than that’s the lerel you’ll be at but it you take a slow relaxed approach,
discuss, question and research each component as its removed you’ll learn a lot read the
section on what’s Inside and what you see fall back on your own knowledge use the
internet your books and resource material It’s impossible to retain all the information so
one of the most important computer skills you can learn it how to research and use your
resource to find what you need. Here’s an ex at some questions to think about or discuss
as you proceed.
- should I document everything I do or everything I remove?

- Am I thinking the best ESD precautions available to me right now.
- When you remove an expansion card what kind of card is it what kind of
expansion slot did it come from? How many bits wide is that slot? What is the bus
speed? What does the card do? If there’s any wires attached to card , what’s the
other end attached to and what are tie wires or cables for what kind of part is on
the end of the card?
- When removing a drive what k to and what are tie wires or cables for what kind
of part is on the end of the card?
- When removing a drive what kind of drive is it? Is there information documental
right on the drive itself? What kind of power connector does it use? Are there
jumper settings on the drive? What for? Are any drives connected together or do
they all have their own cable it matter which cable I look up when I reassemble?
What are some of the things I know about this particular type of drive?
- When removing wires or cables what are the cables for? Which connector are
actually being used and what could the other ones be for? Are they following the
PM-1 rule? Cable is attached to? It is designated in more then one way?
- Am I still taking prepare ESD precautions and is my antistatic strap still hooked
up?
- Look at the motherboard again when there’s not to so much in the way can you
point out the cpu? How about the BIOS chip the battery cache RAM keyboard
connector? Is it an AT, Baby AT or ATX format? Is the system for supplied on
SIMMS or module? How many memory slots are the for each bank of system
memory? Is the CPU installed in a If socket or a friction socket? Are there any
jumpers on the motherboard?
- This is just an ex of the questions you should be using your self tray to come up
with lots more even it you are not prepared to actually take your computer apart
of this time just take the over off and ask yourself these question as you visualize
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the various can be answered by a single resource look in your notes check out
your manuals and resource material ask question.
*ESD :
Read the section on electrostalie discharge and always take ESD precautions
remember it your can tell a statil shock its probably close to 3000 relts some its can
be attched by as little as 30 rolts.
- always use an antistatic wrist strap.

- Keep a supply of antistatic bars to place components in as they are removed.
- Hearing the computer plugged in is a reclaimed procedure however make sure its
switched off and remembers that the cable going to the remote switch on the front
of the case carries AC current at house voltage Also ATX motherboards have
power o them all the time.
 Before Beginning :
You want to make sure you have what you need your wrist strap is attached to the
computer you don’t want to have to run to the other side of the room or to another
room to get something forget about the strap and your computer may follow you.
Have a pen and paper ready documentation is read important after you have changed
a few jumper removed or replaced a few cables and cards you probably will have to
pay some back the way they where it you have documentation putting things back
together can be a simple reverse process this is true of slow troubleshooting as well.
- make sure you have the resource materials drivers or software that you may need.
- It possible enter the comes setup and record the information available at least
record the happy and hard drive configuration and any setting that may be
different from the default you want to be careful not to remove the battery
happens.
- Disassembly is major surgery do a full backup at the system programs that you
have the original disks for an always be replaced but any upgrades for those
programs and any programs that have been downloaded from the internet may or
may not still be suitable bookmarks phone and fax members and networking
protocols can be a real pain to replace.
- Close all programs shut down windows and turn of your computer then remove
the cable from the back of the case.
- One other thing you have to use a little common sense don’t necessarily follow
this information to the letter its only meant to be a guide if you think it could be
easier to remove some expansion but then do it.
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 Removing the Cover :
The standard way of removing tower cases used to undo 4-6 sarews on the back
of the case slide the cover back about an inch and life it off manufacturers are
beginning to come up with trickier and more intricate method of assembling there
cases all the time it there is no manual then a little time taken for careful
inspection may be in order there are some things to remember.
- Don’t force anything it has to be forced it will probably break it there are no
screws on the back of the case for the cover check the plastic face plate on the
front some pry off to saved screws or release layers.
- If you notice a separation between the sides and the top than they must come off
separately only favorite ATX was allows you to remove two screws from the back
then slide the side panel to the rear inch and remove it.
- Make sure any screws removed are for the cover you don’t want to unscrew the
power supply by accident and have it fall inside your computer.
- After the case is removed place it in a safe place where it want get knocked of a
table kicked or stepped on and bent.
 Removing Adapter Cards :
Again documentation is very important yes that 16-bit is a card will probably card
in any 16-bit is a slot but there may be a reason its in particular one.
- check the card for any cables or wires that might be attached and decide if it
would be easier to remove then before or after you remove the card.
- Undo the screw that holds the card in place.
- The card by its edges front and back and gently rock it lengthwise to release it to
not it side as you can break the card the stop or the solder sometimes it haps to
group the inside corner of the card with one hand and place a figure from the
other hand under the associated port out the back of the computer to pry up to the
one end of the card.
- Once the card is removed you may want to record any jumper setting you see just
in case one is dislodged.
 Remove Driver :
Removing drivers is not that difficult they usually have a power connector and a
data cables attached from the device to a controller on the motherboard CD
ROMs may have an analog cable connected to the sound card.
- The power will be attached using one of two connector or a large Molex
connector or a smaller berg connector may need to the Molex connector may need
to be wiggled slightly from side to side while applying gentle pressure out works.
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The data cable needs to be dominated remember the pin are one rule know where each
one gees before you pull it out and record its orientation pull data cables gently and
carefully.
Removing the memory modules :
- Memory module is one of the chips that can be damaged careful at ESO and
handle them only by edges SIMMS and DIMMS are removed differently.
- SIMM : gently push back the tabs holding the SIMM away from the tabs to about
a 45% angle .It should now lift out put each SIMM in its own protecting.
- DIMM : There are plastic tabs on the end of the DIMM socket push the tabs down
and away from the socket .The DIMM should lift slightly.
Removing the power supply :
- Make sure it’s unplugged.

- All power connector should be removed including the connection to the
motherboard and any auxiliary fans watch the little plastic tabs on the
motherboard and any auxiliary fans.
- Remove the connection to the remote power switch at the front the case
orientation of the colored wires at this switch is critical .If you remove them make
sure you document cell and during re-assembly plug the computer into a fused
surge protector before turning it on.
- Remove the four screws at the back of the case and gently the power supply out
of the case while removing the screws you don’t want it falling into the case.
Removing the motherboard :
- Document and remove all wire attached to the motherboard.

- Most case has a removable panel that the motherboard is attached to by removing
a couple of screws the panel can be taken off and you can gain much better access
to motherboard.
- There is usually 2or 3 screws holding down newer down motherboards make sure
you have get the right ones and remove them.
- Place the motherboard in antistatic bag.
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PRACTICAL :-4
Aim:- Reassembling computer system

When it comes time to put a computer back together it’s usually just a matter of reversing
the order in which you took it apart. Again you are going to ritualize each step because
there may be an easier way. IT is easier to install the motherboard of the power supply
first? Are the RAM DIMJS(or SIMMS) easier to access before or after the power supply
out the back on a tray then install the CPU and the RAM before replacing the tray.
TOOLS:-
When putting the computer back together there are some basic tools that you will
find handy of course you will need your ESD protection equipment and a Phillips
screwdriver A small flashlight and a magnifying glass may come in handy as well as
needle nose pliers. A useful device for any kind of computer work is a small screwdriver
with Phillips head on one and a flat head on the other .once again you are not in a race
and cuts once. When working on computers you want to double check everything you
install or connect.
The pourer supply:-
A fairly basic installation just lineup the holes and screw it on. Don’t plug it in yet.
Remember the cable going to the remote switch on the front of the case carries 110 volts
off the switch make sure you connect them just as they were before. A wrong connection
here can burn up your pc. After power supply is installed do not plug it in.
The RAM:-
DTP memory modules are the hardest to install. Luckily it’s not done much anymore
SIMMS are inserted at about a 45 degree angle then stoned up until they don’t clip into
place. IF they don’t clip improperly maybe you have them in backwards. They will
usually have them a key cut into one side DIMMS are keyed on the edge connector side
they can only be inserted one way. Once they are lined up push them down until the
locking tabs on the side come up. COAST modules are also keyed on the bottom and
insert much like an adapter card.
The CPU:-
Luckily, CPU sockets aren’t traction fit anymore. If you have a PGA central
processor it will fit into a ZIFF socket. Pin #1 on the chip has to be lined up with pin #1
on the socket. This can be indicated on the socket with an arrow, a #1 silk screened on the
board, or a flatted corner. Usually the CPU will indicate pin #1 with a flatted corner.
Unclip and lift the handle insert the chip lower, the handle and clip it in. If it’s a Pentium
2 or a Pentium 3 it will fit into a slot 1 socket.
The Motherboard:-
19
Most PC cases will allow you to re more the metal tray that the motherboard
attached to by re moving 2 or more screws. If you didn’t do that during dismally them
you should familiarize yourself with it now. The plastic standouts on the motherboard are
to keep the solder side of the board from touching the metal case and shorting out.
Usually it’s better to install the possibility of flexing the board and cracking solder
connections or traces. Orient the motherboard properly and either clip in or slide in the
standouts until the mounting screws that hold the board in place.
At this point, you can install the video card. Do a final check on everything
installed. RE check all installations and connections attach and plug in the monitor. Turn
the computer on. Watch for lights on the front panel. How far does the BIOS POST
routing get? Are there any error message? Is this expected?
One thing that I don’t like to do is to completely re-assemble a computer and then
just turn it on. If it doesn’t work at that point then you have to tear it all apart again to
find the problem. Once you are installed the power supply motherboard. CPU and RAM
install the video card hook up the keyboard and cables and start your computer of course,
there’s no drivers installed and some expansion cards are missing so you’re going to get
errors. But if it recognizes your video card count the memory and allows access to you
CMOS setup program then you know everything installed to that point is working. If you
get an unexpected error then it should be due to the last device you installed.
20
PRACTICAL :-5
Aim: Troubleshooting and Repairing of motherboard and Components

on Motherboard
If you open your computer, you’ll see a large board on the bottom or side of the case, into
which other boards are plugged. That large board is called the motherboard and is the
focus for the processor, memory, and buses. Many of the motherboard characteristics you
need to consider are prominently featured in computer system advertisements, including
processor type, clock speed, and bus. An equal number of key characteristics are often
omitted, such as onboard peripheral support, the range of processor speeds supported, the
maximum amount of memory, and the number of memory slots. These latter
characteristics strongly affect your ability to upgrade the machine in the future. Figure is
a typical example, showing the Intel D875PBZ motherboard annotated to identify the
major components. The features and layout of your motherboard will vary somewhat, but
the ideas are similar and the parts tend to look much the same.
21
Processor socket
This motherboard accepts Intel Pentium 4 processors. The ZIF (Zero-Insertion Force)
socket lets you easily insert and remove the chip. Be careful to seat the processor in the
socket firmly before closing the clamp. If you don’t, some of the pins may not make
contact properly and the machine won’t boot. The heat sink retention bracket surrounds
the socket.
DIMM memory sockets — This motherboard uses PC2700 or PC3200 SDRAM

memory on dual inline memory module (DIMM) strips, depending on the speed of the
processor’s front side bus (533 and 800 MHz, respectively). The faster memory works
with the slower bus, although the system won’t be any faster, letting you prepare for
future processor upgrades
ATX power connector — The ATX power supply output wires terminate in a single
relatively large connector, plus a smaller connector for added 12 V power.
Floppy connector — The floppy disk controller is on the motherboard. You run a
standard cable from the floppy disk drive in the case to this connector.
Disk drive connectors — If you use an IDE (parallel ATA) disk or CD-ROM, you’ll
plug those devices into the IDE connectors. Use the Serial ATA connectors for newer
disk drives.
Northbridge chip — Although
small, the support chip comprises the
bulk of the electronics surrounding
the processor, including support
for the AGP and PCI buses, the disk
controller, and other functions.
PCI connectors — Up to five PCI

adapter cards plug in here and are
secured to the back of the case with
a screw.
AGP connector — An AGP video
card plugs in here.
Ethernet connector — Plug the PC
into your local area network
(LAN) using this onboard RJ-45
connector.
Parallel port connector — You’ll
plug an older printer into this con-
nector. Newer printers use USB or
Ethernet.
USB connectors — Keyboards, mice, speakers, cameras, scanners, and other devices
plug into the USB ports. Unlike the PS/2 mouse, keyboard, and parallel ports, you don’t
have to turn off the computer to attach and detach USB devices.
Serial port connector — Serial ports let you plug in modems and other external devices.
PS/2 mouse and keyboard connector — These are standard mini DIN connectors that
match the one at the end of your mouse or keyboard cable. Look for drawings near the
22
connectors to determine which is for the mouse and which for the keyboard.
ATX connector panel — All the external I/O connections from the motherboard,
including sound, game, serial, parallel, USB, Ethernet, mouse, and keyboard ports, are
directly attached to the motherboard and mounted on the ATX connector panel.
Troubleshooting a Bad Motherboard
There are many bad motherboard signs. It is necessary that you identify the correct cause
of your bad motherboard to repair it. The most common causes of a bad motherboard are
always related to cabling and connections. Let us discuss the various causes of a bad
motherboard one by one. The first thing to check is whether the screen is live or dead. If
the screen is dead follow the steps given below:
1. Foremost, check whether the fans and lights on the motherboard are in a working
condition. Also, check whether the system is turning ON or not. If all these signs
are encountered, it indicates that you have to troubleshoot power supply of your
desktop computer. Usually, it is observed that the connections and wiring from
the power supply to the computer system are not properly done.
2. If the power supply is working fine, the next step is to troubleshoot the video. A
video failure may lead to a dead screen, which may be mistaken as failure in the
power supply.
3. The next step after a negative result of video failure troubleshoots is to check
whether the RAM is inserted in the given slot properly. Improper insertion of the
RAM modules must be checked. If the RAM is positioned properly and even then
your computer is not working, change the RAM.
4. The next step to be followed, if the RAM is positioned and working properly, is to
check that the CPU is inserted in its socket perfectly or not. It is possible that one
of the CPU leads is not inserted in the socket properly. This case is possible when
you have upgraded your CPU or installed a new one. The heat sink module inside
the cabinet is mounted upon the CPU, so it is quite possible that one of the leads
of the CPU are bent due to the weight of the heat sink. Check whether the CPU
leads are properly inserted in their respective sockets. If you cannot insert the
leads properly in the socket, it is likely that the socket is faulty or the CPU that
you have is not the correct one for your computer motherboard.
5. If you find no fault in the CPU connection, follow this step. Check whether the
fan and the heat sink is working properly. The fan must be powered by connecting
the correct power point on the motherboard, to connect the BIOS to the computer
monitor. Whenever the BIOS is turned ON, the heat sink and the fan must turn
ON. Ensure that the fan on the heat sink is working properly and replace the fan if
it is not working properly.
6. The next step after you find that the fan and heat sink are properly working is to
find whether you hear any beeps from the computer. The RAM of your computer
must be replaced if you hear a string of beeps. The next step is followed if beeps
are not heard.
7. Restore the motherboard settings to default. Lastly, if any of these steps are not
the reason for your motherboard failure, replace the CPU.
23
The next steps are to be followed in case you do not witness a dead screen.
1. When the computer turns ON properly and the screen freezes on the BIOS screen,
the computer must be disassembled and assembled again with only a few parts.
These parts are: power supply, motherboard, RAM, video adapter and CPU.
2. If your computer system still freezes, check whether the RAM is connected
properly.
3. Finally, set the CMOS setting to the default ones. When you over clock the
system, the computer system may heat up and lock the system. After this, you
may have to replace your heat sink and restore your default CMOS settings.
24
PRACTICAL:-6
Aim:- Troubleshooting and Repairing of Keyboard and Scanner
Keyboard
There are many types of keyboards, usually differentiated by the switch technology
employed in their operation. Since there are so many switches needed (usually about 80-
110) and because they have to be highly reliable, this usually defines the keyboard. The
choice of switch technology affects key response (the positive feedback that a key has
been pressed) and travel (the distance needed to push the key to enter a character
reliably). Newer models use hybrids of various technologies to achieve greater cost
savings.
QWERTY Keyboard
A standard computer keyboard is called a QWERTY keyboard because of the layout of

its typing area. This keyboard is named after the first six leftmost letters on the top
alphabetic line of the keyboard. A QWERTY keyboard might limit your typing speed.
Types:-
Membrane keyboard
Main article: Membrane keyboard
Membrane keyboards are usually flat. They are most often found on appliances like
microwave ovens or photocopiers. A common design consists of three layers. The top
layer (and the one the user touches) has the labels printed on its front and conductive
stripes printed on the back. Under this it has a spacer layer, which holds the front and
back layer apart so that they do not normally make electrical contact. The back layer has
conductive stripes printed perpendicularly to those of the front layer. When placed
25
together, the stripes form a grid. When the user pushes down at a particular position, his
finger pushes the front layer down through the spacer layer to close a circuit at one of the
intersections of the grid. This indicates to the computer or keyboard control processor
that a particular button has been pressed.
Generally, membrane keyboards do not have much of a "feel", so many machines which
use them issue a beep or flash a light when the key is pressed. They are often used in
harsh environments where water or leak proofing is desirable. Although used in the early
days of the personal computer (on the ZX80, ZX81 and Atari 400), they have been
supplanted by the more tactile dome and mechanical switch keyboards. However,
membrane keyboards with interchangeable key layouts, such as the Interlake’s and
Discover: board are still commonly used by people with physical, visual, or cognitive
disabilities as well as people who require assistive technology to access a computer.
Dome-switch keyboard
Dome-switch keyboards are kind of a hybrid of membrane and mechanical keyboards.

They bring two circuit board traces together under a rubber "dome" or bubble. The inside
of the top of the bubble is coated in graphite. When a key is pressed, it collapses the
dome, which connects the two circuit traces and completes the connection to enter the
character. The pattern on the PC board is often gold-plated.
This is a common switch technology used in mass market keyboards today. It is

considered very quiet, but purists tend to find it "mushy" because the collapsing dome
does not provide as much positive response as a hard closing switch. These are also a
good choice for office or consumer environments because they are generally fairly quiet.
This switch technology also happens to be most commonly used in handheld controllers,
such as those used with home video game consoles. Dome-switch keyboards are also
called direct-switch keyboards.
Capacitive keyboard
In this type of keyboard, pressing the key changes the capacitance of a pattern of
capacitor pads. Unlike "dome switch" keyboards, the pattern consists of two D-shaped
capacitor pads for each switch, printed on a printed circuit board (PC board) and covered
by a thin, insulating film of solder mask which plays the role of a dielectric. The
mechanism of capacitive switches is very simple, compared to mechanical ones. Its
movable part is ended with a flat foam element (of dimensions near to a tablet of Aspirin)
finished with aluminum foil below. The opposite side of the switch is a PC board with the
capacitor pads.
When a key is pressed, the foil tightly clings to the surface of the PC board, forming a
daisy chain of two capacitors between contact pads and itself separated with thin solder
mask, and thus "shorting" the contact pads with an easily detectable drop of capacitive
reactance between them. Usually this permits a pulse or pulse train to be sensed. The
26
keys do not need to be fully pressed to be fired on, which enables some typists to work
faster.
As of 2008 they are a rare find in generic PC keyboards Only vintage PCs are equipped
with this type of keyboard. There are also industrial makes of capacitive keyboards that
are inexpensive, and they resist wear, water, foreign objects and dirt.
Mechanical-switch keyboard
Mechanical-switch keyboards use real switches, one under each key. Depending on the
construction of the switch, these keyboards have varying responses and travel times.
Notable keyboards utilizing this technology are the Apple Extended II, and its modern
imitator, the Matias Tactile Pro. These two keyboards use ALPS switches. On PCs, the
Omni Key series from Northgate Computers was popular and the line is now carried by
Creative Vision Technologies under the Advant brand. Cherry Corporation of Germany
also makes mechanical switches used in special purpose and high end keyboards. In
India, the TVS Gold mechanical keyboard is very popular despite costing about five
times as much as a membrane keyboard.
Hall-effect keyboard
Hall effect keyboards use magnets and Hall effect sensors instead of an actual switch.
When a key is depressed, it moves a magnet, which is detected by the solid-state sensor.
These keyboards are extremely reliable, and are able to accept millions of keystrokes
before failing. They are used for ultra-high reliability applications, in locations like
nuclear power plants or aircraft cockpits. They are also sometimes used in industrial
environments. These keyboards can be easily made totally waterproof. They also resist
large amounts of dust and contaminants. Because a magnet and sensor is required for
each key, as well as custom control electronics, they are very expensive.
Laser keyboard
A laser projection device approximately the size of a computer mouse projects the outline
of keyboard keys onto a flat surface, such as a table or desk. This type of keyboard is
portable enough to be easily used with PDAs and cell phones, and many models have
retractable cords and wireless capabilities. However, sudden or accidental disruption of
the laser will register unwanted keystrokes. Also, if the laser malfunctions, the whole unit
becomes useless, unlike conventional keyboards which can be used even if a variety of
parts (such as the keycaps) are removed. This type of keyboard can be frustrating to use
since it is susceptible to errors, even in the course of normal typing, and its complete lack
of tactile feedback makes it even less user-friendly than the cheapest membrane
keyboards.
Debunking
When pressing a keyboard key, the key "bounces" like a ball against its contacts several
times before it settles into firm contact. When released, it bounces some more until it
27
reverts to the uncontested state. If the computer was watching for each pulse, it would see
many keystrokes for what the user thought was just one.
To resolve this problem, the processor in a keyboard (or computer) "debouches" the
keystrokes, by aggregating them across time to produce one "confirmed" keystroke that
(usually) corresponds to what is typically a solid contact. It could be argued that the dome
switch technology outlined above owes its popularity to the ability of the processor to
accurately debounce the keystrokes. Early membrane keyboards limited typing speed
because they had to do significant debouncing. This was a noticeable problem on the
ZX81.
Other parts of the PC keyboard
The modern PC keyboard also includes a control processor and indicator lights to provide
feedback to the user about what state the keyboard is in. Depending on the sophistication
of the controller's programming, the keyboard may also offer other special features. The
processor is usually a single chip 8048 microcontroller variant. The keyboard switch
matrix is wired to its inputs and it processes the incoming keystrokes and sends the
results down a serial cable (the keyboard cord) to a receiver in the main computer box. It
also controls the illumination of the "caps lock", "num lock" and "scroll lock" lights.
A common test for whether the computer has crashed is pressing the "caps lock" key. The
keyboard sends the key code to the keyboard driver running in the main computer; if the
main computer is operating, it commands the light to turn on. All the other indicator
lights work in a similar way. The keyboard driver also tracks the shift, alt and control
state of the keyboard.
Troubleshooting Keyboard:
Make sure the keyboard is plugged in. If it is plugged into the back of the
computer, the cord may have gotten jammed or knocked out accidentally. Wiggle
the cord around and reinsert back into the slot to see if the keyboard works.
Save any work in progress and restart the computer. Sometimes the computer may
get so overloaded that the keyboard just shuts down and is unable to function
without a reboot. The same thing can happen for a mouse too, but this only
usually happens on older computers that connect via a PS/2 connection rather than
a USB.
Switch the USB port where the keyboard is located. Sometimes USB ports fail to
load or read things components like keyboards so the keyboard must be moved to
another port in order to get read. Once it is plugged in, give it a few seconds and
try it out.
Press the "Caps Lock" key to see if the light appears on the keyboard. If the light
does not light up, then your keyboard currently has no power and is not
functioning. If the "Caps Lock" key does light up, then your keyboard is working
normally and the program you are trying to use it in is malfunctioning.
28
Check to see if anything has jammed in between or underneath the keys. A

keyboard may work fine, but a few buttons may not work properly. Food, dust
and other particles could have damaged the keys. Unplug the keyboard from the
computer and use a butter knife to gently remove the key and clean out anything
underneath it.
Purchase a can of compressed air. Spraying the compressed air into your
keyboard will ensure that it stays clean and dust-free, preventing most of the
problems from causing. The only thing it cannot remove are sticky stains that may
occur from beverages or candy.
Repairing Keyboard
Organize your tools and plug in the soldering iron. Detach any cables connected
to the keyboard.
While the soldering iron is warming up, turn the keyboard over and remove the 5
phillips-head screws holding the bottom of the keyboard case on. Remove the
bottom casing and set it aside, then lift out the keyboard assembly. Set the top
casing aside with the bottom casing.
Using a flat-blade screwdriver, pry up the key cap from the broken key and any
surrounding key caps that might get in your way.
Turning the keyboard over, locate the 2 pins coming out of the broken switch. (I
typically circle them with a pencil after I find them, just so I don’t have to search
for them several times.) Unsolder these connections, being careful not to overheat
the connection and lift the foil up off of the board.
Using a pair of needle-nose pliers, gently move the unsoldered pins to be certain
that they are completely free from the sides of the hole.
Turn the keyboard back over, so that the key caps are on top. Referring to Figure
2, press in on the 2 tabs at the top and the bottom of the switch. While you are
pressing these tabs inwards, lift out the switch. Please resist the temptation to use
pliers on the stem of the switch - you could break or damage the stem beyond
repair. Having a second person comes in handy here!
Now that you have the switch out, you can begin the repair. If the problem is a
“floating” keyswitch, then just glue the top and bottom halves of the switch
together (making sure that all of the pieces are inside, of course), and skip the
next step. If the problem is the more common “dead switch” type, then do the
following:
29
Using a pair of small screwdrivers (X-Acto #2 knife blades also work well), and
looking at Figure 3, insert the blade of the screwdrivers between the gray tabs and
the black upper body. Press the blade all the way down to the bottom of the case
on both sides and the two halves will pop apart. Pull the case halves apart, being
careful not to lose the small spring.
Stack 2 or three layers of self-adhesive paper labels together (I use a spare disk
label), and cut it to about 3/8” square - a little smaller than the back of the contact
assembly. Then, referring to figure 4, stick this paper “shim” to the back of the
contact assembly. When a keyswitch dies, it’s usually because the contact
assembly has nothing to press on behind it. The labels provide the necessary
backing.
Carefully re-assemble the switch. Because of the labels, it may take a little
pressure to get the top and bottom casings back together. Don’t forget to install
the spring!
Now it’s time to test your work. Using the 2 pieces of wire, solder one end of
each to each of the pins on the back of the switch. Solder the end of one wire to
one of the pads on the keyboard where the switch was soldered, and solder the
other wire to the other pad. Now plug in your keyboard, turn on your Macintosh,
and test out a few keys, including the one you just modified. If the modified key
fails, then take it apart and check your work. Re-assemble it again and try again.
Unsolder the wires from the keyboard and keyswitches. Then check that the pins
are sticking straight out from the back of the switch and straighten them if
necessary. Next, put the switch back into the hole in the keyboard where you
removed it. Make sure that the pins in the switch enter the holes in the circuit
board, and press the key in until the gray tabs snap into place.
Re-solder the switch into place and (optionally) spray a little flux remover on the
connection just to clean things up. If you use cleaner, be careful not to get any
inside the switch!
Re-assemble the keyboard, and you’re done!
30
Scanners
Scanners do a specific, direct thing — they convert a printed image into an image in your
computer. The image comes in as a bitmap — a rectangular array of pixels — from the
scanner itself, so it doesn’t matter if you’re scanning pictures, text, or a combination of
the two.
Mechanisms
Most digital still cameras use a rectangular sensor array so that they can capture the
entire picture at one time. Scanners are different — they use a line sensor in
conjunction with a mechanism that sequentially moves the sensor relative to the paper
to capture the entire image. Scanners used to use a variety of mechanisms to move the
sensor, but essentially all of them now hold the paper stationary on the scanner and
move the sensor (inside the scanner) past the paper, which is what’s called a flatbed
scanner. As long as the sensor mount and drive mechanism are designed well, this
approach results in precise, accurate scans. The ability to close a door over the
document retains a closed light environment during the scan, allowing the device to
control exposure to what the sensor needs.
31
If you’re feeding stacks of paper into the scanner to scan successive pages, you’ll want
to consider a document feeder. These are most often accessories for flatbed scanners,
usually holding 10 to 50 pages and supporting automatic scanning once you start the
operation
Number and accuracy of colors
Scanners report intensity for each of the red, green, and blue color channels. Even
inexpensive, low-end scanners now use 16 bits per pixel per color, so a color scanner
reports 48 bits per pixel (16 bits per color for each of three colors). That means the
color scanner can resolve to one of over 280 trillion colors. A color scanner can give
you better scans of black-and-white copy, too, because it can be used to drop out
colors. Suppose, for example, that you have copy that’s become discolored. If you can
set up your scanner to scan with only one color, then choosing a color that drops out
the discoloration helps to clean up the image even before you attack it with image
processing software
However, the number of colors a scanner resolves is independent of its color accuracy.
Matching colors from scanner to screen to printer is notoriously difficult. The first
time you scan a color image, you’re likely to be in for a nasty shock — the piece of
paper in your hand isn’t likely to look at all like what you get onscreen, and neither
one is likely to look like what comes out of your color printer. About that time you’re
going to understand exactly what that odd phrase “color matching” is all about.
From a hardware perspective, it’s not at all surprising that you get differing results in
fact, it’s nothing short of a miracle if you get matching colors without doing anything
to make that happen. All your devices have independent calibrations, use different
color technologies, and in some cases even represent colors using systems different
from the red-green-blue system Most products don’t include options supporting color
matching, largely because there’s been no industry standard for how to do this.
Windows 95 introduced Image Color Matching (ICM), but even now there’s been
little improvement in coordination among products.
Resolution
We sometimes think that scanners are a lot like used cars because there’s a very
peculiar sort of specification that’s become common for them, and you have to be
careful that you know what you’re getting. Specifically, scanner manufacturers report
one or both of two different resolutions:
Raw, or optical, resolution — This is the actual resolution produced by the
scanner sensor, in dots per inch. As with monitors and printers, scanners have
both vertical and horizontal resolution, and the two numbers don’t have to be
the same.
32
Interpolated resolution — This is the specification that may or may not give
you what you paid for. Many scanners process the scanned image, doing the
work either in the scanner or in your computer to compute more pixels than
you actually read off the scanner. They do it by assuming that the change
between one pixel and the next is linear.
Figures A and B show the problem interpolation can cause. In Figure A, the actual
image changes smoothly, and so calculating the interpolated pixels based on the linear
assumption works well — the added pixels correspond well to what’s in the image.
33
In Figure B, however, the assumption is a poor one because the real image has sharp
edges the interpolator doesn’t know about. Because the interpolator’s assumption is
bad, the “increased resolution” from the scanner does you no good because the
calculated data is bogus. Your scanned image doesn’t faithfully reproduce the actual
image at the enhanced resolution. At the minimum, you’ll want to be sure to find out
the raw resolution of the scanners you’re looking at. If you can’t find out, find another
scanner.
Interface — Scanners come with a variety of electronic interfaces, ranging from serial
and parallel ports to USB. The interface you use determines how fast the image can get
into your computer, and whether or not you have a suitable port on your computer.
Software — More so than many other devices, scanners require application software to
really be useful, to let you acquire, edit, crop, publish, and convert images to text.
34
PRACTICAL:-7
Aim: - Troubleshooting and Repairing of Printer
Computer printers for personal computers started out as adapted typewriters.

Instead of being driven by a keyboard (although some had them), they received
instructions from the computer. Operation notwithstanding, they remained typewriters
inside. The point of a printer isn’t to be a typewriter, of course; it’s to get ink on paper in
just the right amount and in just the right place. The same technology that created the
microprocessors that drive your computer created smaller microprocessors that could be
built into printers. When that happened, designers discovered that they could abandon the
typewriter-based approach and build printers based on the job that needed to be done.
When they started looking at how to do high-quality graphics along with text, they
noticed that copiers and monitors (that is, raster-based devices) were a better starting
point. The result was the laser and ink jet printers you have today.
Ink jet printers
Ink jet printers are really high-tech versions of the older dot-matrix printers, which used
small pins to impact a ribbon and make character images from a rectangular matrix of
dots. An ink jet printer cartridge squirts a matrix of dots a row at a time, using an ink
reservoir, some circuitry, and tiny nozzles down at the bottom of the cartridge
Ink reservoir — The reservoir has to

ensure a continuous, uninterrupted
supply of ink to the drivers and
nozzles. It has to prevent sloshing and
foaming as the head moves. The ink
composition is very important — it has
to flow smoothly out of the reservoir,
not clog the tiny holes in the impulse
drivers and nozzles, have enough
surface tension to avoid smearing as it
is ejected from the nozzle, dry soon
enough to maintain the image, and
avoid wicking out on the paper fibers
(which would make the image fuzzy).
Interface circuit and impulse drivers

— The printer electronics command the driver behind each nozzle independently,
35
so in a highresolution printer, you find a lot of separate circuits. Each is

terminated at a connecting point on the side of the cartridge that lines up with a
corresponding pin on the print head. The interface circuit (a flexible printed
circuit) routes these signals down to the impulse drivers and nozzles at the bottom
of the cartridge.
When activated, the impulse drivers force a small drop of ink

through the nozzle (one below each driver) and onto the paper that’s in contact
with the head. Impulse drivers work in two ways. Some companies use a small
piezoelectric crystal (one that expands when hit with an electrical impulse); others
use a small ball of vapor produced by heating a pocket of ink. Figure shows the
effect of the driver — forcing a small, precisely measured drop of ink down
through the nozzle and onto the paper. The operation of the drivers and nozzles is
shown by comparing the leftmost nozzle in Figure with the one next to it. In the
leftmost nozzle, the driver isn’t activated, so the surface tension of the ink keeps
it confined to the nozzle. In the next nozzle, the driver has activated, ejecting the
ink out of the nozzle and onto the paper.
Nozzles — The nozzles establish the precise position of the dots relative to one
another and form the physical interface between the print cartridge and the
paper.
The print head positions the cartridge laterally along the paper. The nozzle spacing
positions the dots the printer puts on the paper perpendicularly to the head movement,
while the printer electronics time the signals sent to the cartridge with the head motion
to position the dots laterally. The net result is that ink jet printers — the modern
version of the old dot matrix technology — can today achieve a resolution of
2,400*1,200 dots per inch, a resolution competitive with laser printers
36
Laser printers
Laser printers use fine, dry ink particles (called toner) to create an image on paper.
This is the same process used in copiers. The key laser printer components are shown
in Figure. The process starts at the point between the charging roller and the
photoconductor drum. The charging roller imposes an electrical charge on the drum,
which causes it to repel the toner particles. The drum rotates under the laser (which
sweeps back and forth in lines), and everywhere the laser illuminates the drum, the
charge dissipates. Those points attract toner from the toner roller — the laser
effectively draws black and gray areas on the drum. The drum continues to turn,
bringing the patterned toner image into contact with the paper. The transfer roller
attracts the toner to the paper, where it sticks. The combination of the fuser roller and
the backup roller heat the toner, bonding it to the paper and making a permanent
image.
37
The laser writes onto the photoconductor drum where the image should be dark, allowing
the drum to pick up black toner particles.
The laser is under the control of

the raster processor in the printer,
which has the responsibility of
turning the codes sent from your
computer into a bitmap of the
image to appear on the page.
The same arithmetic — counting

pixels — that causes your video
card to need a lot of memory
causes your printer to need
memory as well. The raster
processor generally can’t keep up
with the photoconductor drum as it
rotates, and the drum can’t stop in
the middle of a page (because the
image would end up distorted). That means that the entire image has to be in memory
when the drum starts to rotate to print the page. If we assume quarter-inch margins and
multiply out the number of pixels on a page at 600 dots per inch (a typical laser printer
resolution), we find that we have nearly 32 million dots on an 8.5-11-inch page. If each
pixel takes one bit in memory, we need nearly 4MB to hold the entire page (more if we’re
storing fonts as well).
Printers that enhance the apparent resolution of the image by controlling the darkness of
each dot may require even more memory — if the printer can store four levels of
intensity per dot, it needs nearly 8MB. Many printers are starting to compress the raster
image in memory, decompressing it on the fly as the laser scans the page. Using lossless
compression, this technique can reduce memory requirements by a factor of 1.5 or 2 to 1
or more.
You can get laser toner in different colors besides black (even for a black-and- white
printer). Color laser printers use four sets of toner to create the image, typically making
four passes around the photoconductor drum (one for each color) before imprinting the
image on the paper. Because the image has to be rasterized separately for each color, the
printer’s memory requirements go up drastically. It’s not unusual to require 32MB in a
color laser printer (which, along with the more complex mechanism and lower sales
volume, is why they’re expensive).
38
Troubleshooting:-
Printer does not have power indicator
First, make sure that the printer is on. When a printer is on it should have some
light (usually green) indicating it's receiving power and is on.
If you do not have any indicator light make sure the printer is connected to a
working power outlet by verifying each end of the power cable. Next, press the
printer power button.
Cables not connected properly
Your printer should have two cables connected to it. The power cable and the data
cable, the power cable should have already been verified as being connected if your
printer has a power indicator light as mentioned above. Make sure the data cable
(parallel cable or USB cable) is also connected from the printer to the computer.
Printer error (orange or blinking light)
After your printer has completed its initial startup you should have a solid green
light. If the light indicator is blinking or orange often this is an indication of a
printer error. For example, this could indicate a paper jam, issue with the ink or
toner cartridge, or other serious error.
Because there is no standard to what a blinking light or orange light means if you're
getting either of these we suggest referring to the printer documentation for
troubleshooting steps or methods of determining what the status indicator is
reporting.
No paper or paper jam
Without paper your printer will not be able to print. Make sure you have paper in
the paper loaded into the printer paper cartridge or tray. Next, verify that no printer
paper is jammed or partially fed into the printer. If you have one or more pieces of
paper stuck in the printer these will need to be manually removed before the printer
will print again.
Inkjet printer ink related issues
Often when you're encountering an ink related issue you're printer status indicator
light (mentioned above) should be flashing. If this is not occurring you may want
to simply skip to the next section. However, if you've recently inserted a new ink
cartridge you may want to try the below suggestions.
39
1. First, verify the tab protecting the ink from dispersing is not still on the cartridge.
2. Verify the the ink cartridges have been inserted properly.
3. If a lever has been changed from its original position allowing the ink cartridges
to be added / removed, ensure it is back into its original position.
4. Perform a head cleaning on printer if available.
5. Verify no software errors are occurring abd print a test page.
6. If you are installing non manufacturer authorized ink, attempt to use the
manufacturer's ink instead.
7. If any indication lights are flashing or are different, refer to your printer
documentation or printer manufacturer's web page for additional information on
what the lights are indicating.
Printer self tests
Most printers have a way of printing a test page. This page allows you to determine
if the printer is physically working or not. This test is usually accomplished by
holding down a series of keys..
In addition to testing the printer using the printer self-test Microsoft Windows users
can also perform a software self-test to determine if their computer is able to see
the printer and it's able to print. Follow the below steps to perform this test.
Microsoft Windows 98, 2000, ME, XP, 2003, and Vista users
1. Click Start, Settings, and open Control Panel.

2. Double-click the Printers or Printers and Fax icon.
3. Right-click on the Printer you wish to test and click Properties. If you do not
see your printer listed your printer is not installed.
4. In the Printers Properties window click the Print Test Page button.
5. If the printer is able to print a test page, you're printer is installed and setup
properly. However, if you're unable to print in other programs it's possible
that the program you're attempting to print from has issues.
Older versions of Windows with older printers
If you are running an older printer and MS-DOS, Windows 3.x, Windows 95,
Windows 98, or Windows NT, you can also attempt the below software test.
Get to a MS-DOS prompt - Additional information about getting an MS-DOS

prompt can be found on document CHDOS.
Get to the root directory - Type cd\
Reroute dir to printer - Type dir > lpt1
40
The above should take the directory listing and print to the printer. If this does not
print, refer to your operating system troubleshooting section. Extra Note: This will
not paper feed, therefore press your FF or PP, or manually eject the paper.
Printer drivers
If your printer does not have any flashing lights and is connected properly it's
possible you may be encountering a driver related issue. We suggest visiting our
printer driver listing, which links to all major printer manufacturer driver pages and
downloading the latest printer drivers for your printer.
Parallel (LPT) printers
If the printer you're connecting to the computer is an LPT (parallel port) printer we
also suggest verifying the below suggestions if your printer is not working.
Parallel port in CMOS
1. Enter the computers CMOS setup.

2. Once in CMOS verify that your parallel port is enabled or installed.
3. Next, verify the printer or parallel port mode. This option will often have
several different modes. If your parallel port is set to ECP mode, we suggest
trying a different mode.
Other parallel device
If you have a parallel printer with other parallel devices such as a parallel scanner
or zip drive, temporarily disconnect these devices to verify they are not causing
your issue.
41
PRACTICAL:-8
Aim: - Troubleshooting and Repairing of Hard Disk Drive
Many technologies go into building the high-performance disk drives we use. They
include the magnetic effects that pack data onto the platters, the design and construction
of the heads themselves, the precision with which the platters themselves are built, and
the electronics that turn small signals off the disk heads into data for your computer.
As interesting as they are, however, these don’t matter from the standpoint of choosing
the disk products you’ll put in your computer. What you really care about are capacity,
performance, reliability, and price. The large volume of disks manufactured and sold to
the personal computer market ensures that you can base your buying decisions on actual
field experience, not projections, so the underlying technology is less important than
what’s being delivered in users’ machines.
Disks all use a common geometrical layout, as in Figure A They record data on
magnetized platters at precisely defined head positions. At each position, each head traces
out a track as the disk rotates. Tracks are divided into units of data, called sectors, that
can be individually read and written. All the tracks at a single head position collectively
form a cylinder.
Capacity is reasonably straightforward: It’s how many gigabytes the disk holds. You
have to be careful to look at the capacity of the drive after it’s been formatted (which
is what most drive manufacturers specify). The formatting operation eats up space for
sector addresses, space between sectors, and the like, and that’s space you can’t get at
or use. Disk manufacturers most commonly specify capacity as the formatted capacity
of the drive, but divide by 1,000,000,000 to convert to gigabytes, not 1,073,741,824
do Windows and UNIX. A 200GB drive sold by the
42
manufacturer will report as 186.26GB when you look at it through the operating
system.
Disk Drive Performance
The most important factor in disk drive performance is throughput on and off the disk,
as measured in your PC. That’s not possible for manufacturers to measure, so they
specify a number of parameters you can use to estimate the performance you’ll see:
Sustained throughput — For reasonably large transfers, such as loading

programs from disk or reading/writing the swap file, disk performance is limited
by the sustained throughput onto or off the disk itself. The rotation rate of the disk
times the number of sectors per track determines the sustained throughput
.
Seek and rotational latency — For short transfers of data not in the disk cache,
the performance you get is determined by the time it takes to move the head to the
right cylinder and for the right sector to rotate under the heads. A faster rotation
rate reduces the rotational
latency.
Cache buffer size —

The cache buffer on the
drive can strongly affect
the performance you get.
Predicting the effect of
different cache sizes is
hard, but you can assume
in general that a bigger
cache is better as long as
you remember this is not
always true.
The sustained throughput in bytes per second is the number of bytes in a sector times
the number of sectors per track times the track rotations per second. The data sheet for
the 200GB Seagate Barracuda (which spins at 7,200 RPM) explicitly specifies the
average sustained transfer rate, listing it as greater than 58 megabytes per second. That
number is amazing when you consider that only a few years ago you had to exercise
care to get a disk fast enough for video recording at 4 to 8 megabytes per second.
43
Disk manufacturers sometimes don’t specify the sustained throughput of the disk
explicitly, but if some other specifications are available, you can calculate it. The
average sustained transfer rate equals the rotation rate times average sectors per track
times 512 bytes per sector. Disk manufacturers put more sectors on the outer tracks of
the platter (because they’re larger and have more space), so there’s no one number for
sectors per track. You can use the minimum number, the maximum, or the average. As
long as you compare rates you compute consistently, it doesn’t matter.
For small transfers, the time to get the heads positioned over the right sector is much
larger than the time to actually transfer the data. The drawing in Figure B shows the
timeline for a disk access and, by the length of the segment, indicates that the
positioning time can be enormously longer than the actual transfer time. The average
seek time is commonly specified by the disk manufacturer and depends on the
physical design of the heads and the actuator mechanism that mounts and moves the
heads. The lighter (and by implication smaller) the heads and mechanism, the faster
they can start and stop moving, and the smaller the seek time will be.
The rotational latency isn’t always specified, but if you know the rotation rate, you can
calculate the delay. On average, the disk is positioned one half of a revolution away
from the data you want, in which case the average rotational latency is one half of the
rotation time. For a typical 7,200 RPM drive, the rotation time is about 8.3 ms
(calculated as the reciprocal of the rotation rate), so the average rotational latency is
half the rotation time, or about 4.2 ms in our example. If the average seek time is 9 ms,
the total average access time — the time it takes from when the drive gets the
command to read to when it starts delivering data — is the sum of the two, or 13.2 ms.
44
Practical:- 09
Aim: - Troubleshooting and Repairing of CD-ROM drive CD Writer/Combo
Drive/DVD writer
45
The most basic and potentially most disastrous problem that can occur with a CD or DVD
drive is a stuck tray. Will the tray eject when you press the eject button? Press it once, like a
doorbell, and then move your finger away, or you may be sending it repeated open and close
commands. The drive won't pop right open if it is actively playing a disc, and the operating
system may be able to override the stop and open command. If you're trying to eject a music
CD or DVD using Media Player software (clicking on a software eject button on the screen)
and it doesn't work, try the manual button on the drive. If this is a newly installed drive, make
sure you used the short screws shipped with the drive and not longer screws which can jam the
mechanism. If there's a disc in the drive that can no longer be read, make sure the power supply
lead is still seated in the socket on the back of the drive.
1. Shut down, restart, and try again. If the tray still doesn't eject, reboot again and note
whether the BIOS registers the drive. Some brand name PCs don't report installed
hardware on a boot screen, so you'll have to access CMOS Setup to check. If the BIOS
doesn't registered the drive, it may have dropped dead. Proceed to ATA Drive Failure if
the BIOS no longer registers the drive.
2. Before you start tearing apart the machine, make sure that the tray isn't locked by
software. The easiest way to check is to reboot the PC and hit the eject button before
the operating system loads, but you can also check the properties under the drive icon
in Windows "My Computer." If the drive LED shows that it's trying to read a disc, and
the eject button doesn't interrupt the task, it won't be able to eject either. Some player
software may lock the eject button in hardware, but you can eject using the software
eject button on the player.
3. Assuming the drive is still registered by the BIOS and operating system, you really do
have a stuck disc. The next step is to look for a pinhole on the front of the CD or DVD
drive. Power down the system and unplug the power cord, then straighten out a couple
inches worth of paper clip, the heaviest gauge that will fit in the hole. Gently push the
paper clip straight into the hole, until you feel it depress the release mechanism. This
will sometime cause the tray to pop out a fraction of an inch, other times you will have
to pry it a little to get it started. Once you have enough tray sticking out to grab it with
your fingers, you should be able to pull it out. If the faceplate seems to be bulging as
you pull, the disc is hung up on it, and the best thing to do is remove the drive from the
PC and then remove the faceplate. .
4. Does the drive cause the whole PC to tremble when it spins up? Is it noisy? Make sure
that the drive, if internal, is mounted with four screws, and level. High speed drives will
vibrate like crazy if a disc is off balance, usually because the disc itself has some
weighting problem. Aside from obvious physical flaws (like the dog or the kid took a
bite out of the edge of the disc) a miss-applied label can create an unbalanced disc. Try
ejecting and reinserting the disc. I wouldn't keep running a drive that vibrates badly. It
could end up damaging the discs (discs have been known to shatter at high speeds) and
it doesn't do the other components in your system any good to be vibrated, which can
lead to connections working apart or worse. If the problem only occurs with some
discs, you can blame the discs. Otherwise, I'd look into a new drive.
5. Can you listen to music CDs through your speakers? The following assumes that you
can get operating system sounds to play from your speakers. If not, proceed to Sound
Failure. First, make sure that the CD isn't muted in the software mixer panel. Next, if
46
the drive is equipped with an audio jack on the front, stick in a cheap headphone (if you
have one) and see if the CD is playing. In any case, if the CD is spinning and the time is
advancing in whatever version of Media Player you have installed, the drive is actually
playing the CD. Newer drives support DAE (Digital Audio Extraction) and some
SATA drives don't support the old analog audio output at all. If you have a newer drive,
check the DAE settings in the drive properties.
Older drives, both SATA and PATA, required an analog patch cord inside the case. The
audio patch cord from the drive to the sound card or the sound port on the motherboard
may not be connected, or the device volume could be turned down in a software mixer
panel. The easy check for incorrect audio patch cable (3 or 4 wires) connection without
opening the PC is to try a multimedia disc, such as a game. Note also that in two drive
systems, the builder may only have patched the audio output of one of the drives through to
the sound card.
6. If you can't play movies in your DVD that you can play on a television DVD player, the
problem is usually with the software CODEC (Coder/DECoder). Test the movie on a
TV first to make sure the disc is good. The media player you are using may display a
specific error message, like telling you the screen properties must be set to a certain
resolution and number of colors for a movie to play. Or, the player may report that it
can't find a decoder (CODEC) to play the particular disc. Even if the movie worked last
night, your media player may have received an automated update the next time you
went online that rendered the installed CODEC obsolete. If you search the Internet,
you'll find plenty of people trying to sell you CODECs, but if you use Google and stay
away from the advertisements, you should be able to get the updated version for free.
You may also encounter new copy protection schemes that render some discs
unplayable on your PC even though you aren't trying to copy them. The only solution
for this again lays in software and Internet research for the specific failure. It may turn
out that the only way to render your DVD player compatible with a new type of copy
protection is to update the DVD drive firmware. If an update isn't available for your
particular model, you can end up out of luck when it comes to playing certain discs
from certain studios after a particular date.
7. Does your problem involve recording CDs or DVDs? If so, proceed to CD/DVD
Recording Problems. For a problem booting a factory CD in a recorder, stay here. It's
become increasingly difficult to tell factory pressed CDs from recorded CDs, due to the
highly polished labels that can be easily printed for recorded CDs and DVDs. Factory
produced discs are usually silver on the read surface, while recorded discs are often
gold or green.
8. Does the drive read discs? When you mount a disc, be it software or music, does the
drive acknowledge that a disc is present and let you view the contents? It doesn't matter
(at this point) whether or not you can get through installing the software on the disc or
read all of the information. The question is simply, can the drive see anything at all on
the disc?
9. Does your system refuse to boot known good boot CDs, like operating systems from
Windows 98 on up? Try setting the boot sequence in CMOS Setup to boot to the CD or
DVD first. This shouldn't really be necessary if the hard drive is uninitiated, but I've
47
seen it fix the problem. I've also seen some high speed drives which take too long to
spin up and report to the BIOS that there's a bootable disc present. Sometimes you can
get around this by opening and closing the tray, which should cause the drive to spin
up, and hitting reset right after you've done so. With any luck, you'll get the timing right
so that the BIOS checks for a bootable CD while the drive is still active.
10. Do you have CD and DVD drives installed? It's easy enough to mix up drives on a PC,
and a CD drive isn't going to going to have much luck reading a DVD. A CD recorder
along with a DVD player was a common two drive combination years ago, but the
DVD may not be able to read CDs recorded just two inches away. See Recording
Problems if you're having trouble reading a recorded disc. Some older systems have
both a CD ROM (reader) and a CDR (recorder).
11. Are you reading the right drive? If you have two physical drives, make sure the
operating system is actually looking at the drive the CD or DVD has been placed in.
Trust me, I've been fooled myself into opening up a machine by blind belief in the
wrong drive letter. Most drives have an activity LED that tells you when the drive is
active. Make sure the activity LED is lighting up on the drive you put the disc in when
you try to read it. See the new illustrated guide for how to install a CD drive.
12. Does the drive read other discs? Try another disc, a factory CD in CD ROMs or CDRs
or a factory DVD in DVD ROMs or DVDRs. If it works, the problem is with the media
and not the drive. Make sure the disc you can't read is the right type for the drive your
are trying it in, ie, CD, DVD, CDR, DVDR, noting that many of the recordable discs
won't be readable in other players. Clean the disc with a soft bit of flannel. The discs
are plastics, so don't use solvents. Scratches can render a disc unreadable, including
scratches on the surface (label), which cause distortions in the layer that is actually
being read from the bottom. Try the disc in another reader before chucking it out, it
could just have trouble with the device you were trying it in.
13. Does the drive show up in the operating system, on your desktop or in Device Manager
in Windows operating systems? If not, the first step is to reinstall the driver. Get the
latest driver from the manufacturer's website and install it. If you can boot an OS CD in
the drive, but the drive has disappeared from Device Manager, try reinstalling the OS.
Check if there's a firmware update for the drive itself, though flashing a drive, just like
flashing a motherboard BIOS, should be a last resort. Even though the BIOS registers
the drive's presence, you can still try swapping the ribbon cable. The laser lens in the
drive could be incredibly dirty, so if you can find an inexpensive cleaning kit, it's worth
a try.
14. If you're using a newer SATA DVD recorder/player, there aren't any jumpers to set or
cable sharing issues. If it's a new build, make sure that you don't have the data cable
attached to a dedicated SATA RAID controller. But the safest way to determine if
there's a problem with your SATA cable, or a compatibility issue with the BIOS, is to
try the drive in another PC, or mount it in an external USB shell and connect it
externally.
48
15. You could have a simple cabling problem or Master/Slave conflict. If the drive is the
Slave on primary IDE controller with the hard drive, move it to the secondary IDE
controller as the Master (requires another IDE ribbon cable). If you already have
another device installed as the secondary Master, try the drive as the secondary Slave or
temporarily replace the Master for the sake of seeing if it works.
49
Practical:-10
Aim : - Troubleshooting and Repairing of Pen drive
A USB flash drive consists of a flash memory data storage device integrated with
aUSB (Universal Serial Bus) interface. USB flash drives are typically removable and
rewritable, and physically much smaller than a floppy disk.
Flash memory combines a number of older technologies, with lower cost, lower power
consumption and small size made possible by advances in microprocessor technology.
The memory storage was based on earlier EPROM and EEPROM technologies.
These had very limited capacity, were very slow for both reading and
writing, required complex high-voltage drive circuitry, and could
only be re-written after erasing the entire contents of the chip.
Design and implementation
One end of the device is fitted with a single male type-A USB connector. Inside the
plastic casing is a small printed circuit board. Mounted on this board is some power
circuitry and a small number of surface-mounted integrated circuits (ICs). Typically, one
of these ICs provides an interface to the USB port, another drives the onboard memory,
and the other is the flash memory.
Drives typically use the USB mass storage device class to communicate with the host.
Essential components
There are typically four parts to a flash drive:
 Male type-A USB connector – provides a physical interface to the host computer.
 USB mass storage controller – implements the USB host controller. The
controller contains a small microcontroller with a small amount of on-chip
ROM and RAM.
 NAND flash memory chip – stores data. NAND flash is typically also used
in digital cameras.
50
 Crystal oscillator – produces the device's main 12 MHz clock signal and controls
the device's data output through a phase-locked loop.
Additional components
The typical device may also include:
 Jumpers and test pins – for testing

during the flash drive's manufacturing
or loading code into the
microprocessor.
 LEDs – indicate data transfers or data
reads and writes.
 Write-protect switches – Enable or
disable writing of data into memory.
 Unpopulated space – provides space to
include a second memory chip. Having
this second space allows the manufacturer to use a single printed circuit board for
more than one storage size device.
 USB connector cover or cap – reduces the risk of damage, prevents the ingress of
fluff or other contaminants, and improves overall device appearance. Some flash
drives use retractable USB connectors instead. Others have a swivel arrangement
so that the connector can be protected without removing anything.
 Transport aid – the cap or the body often contains a hole suitable for connection
to a key chain or lanyard. Connecting the cap, rather than the body, can allow the
drive itself to be lost.
 Some drives offer expandable storage via an internal memory card slot, much like
a memory card reader
1 USB connector
2 USB mass storage controller device
3 Test points
4 Flash memory chip
5 Crystal oscillator
51
6 LED
7 Write-protect switch (Optional)
8 Space for second flash memory chip
File system
Most flash drives ship preformatted with the FAT or FAT 32 file system. The ubiquity of
this file system allows the drive to be accessed on virtually any host device with USB
support. Also, standard FAT maintenance utilities (e.g. Scandisk) can be used to repair or
retrieve corrupted. However, because a flash drive appears as a USB-connected hard
drive to the host system, the drive can be reformatted to any file system supported by the
host operating system.
Defragmenting: Flash drives can be defragmented, but this brings little advantage as
there is no mechanical head that moves from fragment to fragment. Flash drives often
have a large internal sector size, so defragmenting means accessing fewer sectors.
Defragmenting shortens the life of the drive by making many unnecessary writes.[18]
Even Distribution: Some file systems are designed to distribute usage over an entire
memory device without concentrating usage on any part (e.g. for a directory); this even
distribution prolongs the life of simple flash memory devices. Some USB flash drives
have this functionalitybuilt into the software controller to prolong device life, while
others do not; therefore the end user should check the specifications of his device prior to
changing the file system for this reason.
Hard Drive: Sectors are 512 bytes long, for compatibility with hard drives, and the first
sector can contain a Master Boot Record and a partition table. Therefore USB flash units
can be partitioned as hard drives.
52
Troubleshooting and Repairing: -

1. Computer Does Not Detect Pen Drive:
This kind of problem is faced due to some bad registry settings. After you fix up the registry,
the USB drive will work fine. To fix this issue
Method 1:
This could be due to no free drive letter has been assigned to your pen drive.
Still, if you don’t see your pen drive under device manager or if you see some question mark
suddenly on your drive in device manager then there could be problem with your registry
also,
Read method 2 given below

Method 2:
If none of your USB devices detect ,this could be due to wrong registry entries. i.e you need to
deleteUpperFilters and the LowerFilters registry values.
Follow the procedure listed below to correct your registry:
1. Open Start >> Run, and type "regedit" (without double quotes), and click OK.
2. Locate UpperFilters registry value. it resides in the following registry subkey:
HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE\SYSTEM\CurrentControlSet\Control\Class\{4D36E
980-E325-11CE-BFC1-08002BE10318}
3. Click on Edit menu, and select Delete and click OK.
Note: If you receive an error when you try to delete the registry subkey, you may not have
correct permissions to edit the subkey.
4. Locate LowerFilters registry value. It resides in the following registry subkey:
HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE\SYSTEM\CurrentControlSet\Control\Class\{4D36E
967-E325-11CE-BFC1-08002BE10318}
5. Click on Edit menu, and select Delete and click OK.
6. Exit Registry Editor and restart your system.
Pen Drive or USB Mass storage device disabled at office or college or

school:
At many offices and colleges, the IT people disable or block the use of pen drives.
To enable the USB drive when it is blocked
We have observed this problem at may places
that you need some data on your pen drive
53
but the USB drive or pen drive does not work. Windows gives a notification
Windows will now show a New Hardware Wizard to install the drivers. Lets see in
details how we can fix this problem.
Fix:
There are more than one ways in which the USB drives are disabled by
Administrators at offices or colleges or schools. These methods are:
1. By Disabling USB Ports from Device Manager.
2. By Tweaking Registry values for USB Mass Storage Devices.
3. By Un-installing the USB Mass Storage Drivers.
We will see how to fix all these

situations one by one. But
before you begin, you must
have administrator rights on
that computer to fix the issue.
UNLOCK USB PORTS

FROM DEVICE
MANAGER:
i) Go to Start > Run, in run
prompt type “devmgmt.msc”
and press enter. This will
open device manager.
ii) Go to Universal Serial bus

Controller. See if there are
any red colored cross? If yes,
right click and enable those
USB Ports.
Now try and use the pendrive.
54
If it works fine, then great, else read the next two steps also.
CORRECT REGISTRY VALUE FOR USB MASS STORAGE

DEVICE
i) Go to Start > Run , type “regedit” and press enter, this will open registry
editor.
ii) Navigate to the key

HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE\SYSTEM\CurrentControlSet\Services\US
BSTOR
iii) Double-click on the “Start” key to
modify its value, change the value to 3
and press OK.
Now remove and connect the pen drive
again, it should work fine, if it does not,
then it means the drivers are missing.
Follow the steps below to solve the issue.
INSTALL USB MASS STORAGE

DEVICE DRIVERS
In case the USB Mass Storage drivers are not installed, windows will prompt you
to install the driver. In such a case, windows will launch Hardware Update
Wizard. If you have USB Mass storage drivers, you can install it and restart the
computer, it should work. If
not, you can download the USB
Mass Storage drivers
here. Download and uznip the
driver files on your desktop.
i) In hardware update wizard,

select the option to install the
driver from a specific location and
click next.
ii) Now on this screen, click browse

and select the path on which you
have un-zipped the drivers and press ok.
55
Practical:-11
Aim: - Troubleshooting and Repairing of Speaker and Web camera.
Speaker
Computer speakers, or multimedia

speakers, are speakers external to a
computer, that disable the lower fidelity
built-in speaker. They often have a low-
power internal amplifier. The standard
audio connection is a 3.5 mm
(approximately 1/8 inch) stereo jack
plug often colour-coded lime green
(following the PC 99standard) for
computer sound cards. A plug and socket for a two-wire (signal and ground)
coaxial cable that is widely used to connect analog audio and video components.
Also called a "phono connector," rows of RCA sockets are found on the backs of
stereo amplifier and numerous A/V products. The prong is 1/8" thick by 5/16"
long. A few use an RCA connector for input. There are also USB speakers which
are powered from the 5 volts at 500 milliamps provided by the USB port, allowing
about 2.5 watts of output power.
Computer speakers range widely in quality and in price. The computer speakers
typically packaged with computer systems are small, plastic, and have mediocre
sound quality. Some computer speakers have equalization features such as bass
and treble controls.
The internal amplifiers require an external power source, usually an AC adapter.

More sophisticated computer speakers can have a 'subwoofer' unit, to enhance
bass output, and these units usually include the power amplifiers both for the
bass speaker, and the small 'satellite' speakers.
Some computer displays have rather basic speakers built-in. Laptops come with
integrated speakers. Restricted space available in laptops means these speakers
usually produce low-quality sound.
56
For some users, a lead connecting computer sound output to an existing stereo
system is practical. This normally yields much better results than small low-cost
computer speakers. Computer speakers can also serve as an economy amplifier
for MP3 player use for those who wish to not use headphones although some
models of computer speakers have headphone jacks of their own.
Troubleshooting and Repairing of Speaker
 Make sure your speakers are plugged in, turned on, and properly
connected to the computer.
 Plug the speakers in to another computer, if possible. If the speakers

work with the other computer, proceed to the next step. If they don't,
you've probably got a problem within the speakers themselves.
 Check your sound drivers.

o Open your start menu (right-click on the "Start" button and choose
"Explore"), and find the "My Computer" icon. Right-click on it and
choose "Properties" from the submenu. Click on the "Hardware" tab
and then the "Device Manager" button.
o Expand the "Sounds, video, and game controllers" heading to find
your sound card. The name will depend on what sound card is
installed on your PC. It will most likely have a name containing
57
"audio." It should look something similar to the example above.

You'll know immediately if there is a major driver error because an
exclamation point (!) will show over the card's icon.
o Double-click on the name of the sound card to open a new window.
In the new properties window click on the "Drivers" tab. If there is
no "Drivers" tab then you chose the wrong sound device. Go back
and try again. On the "Drivers" tab, click the "Driver Update" button.
Follow the Wizard's onscreen instructions to update your driver.
You can also contact the manufacturer of your PC for the most
recent audio drivers. They can usually be found online.
o If you already have the most recent driver, click the "Uninstall
Driver" button. Then restart your computer. When you restart your
computer, the driver should reinstall automatically. If it does not,
install it manually with software (or a download) from the
manufacturer.
 Check the sound card itself. Properly shut down your PC and then
disconnect all cables on the back of your PC, including the power cable.
Open up the CPU, making sure to touch a grounded metal object (a doorknob
or metal desk will work, for example) before opening up the case. This will
discharge any static electricity you have built up, which could damage your
computer.
o Locate the audio plug on the back of your PC. The sound card
should be in the corresponding location on the inside of the PC.
Remove the sound card and put it back in. The Microsoft site has
detailed directions for installing a sound card; to remove one, simply do
the reverse. Once you have the sound card back in, reattach the
cables you unplugged earlier and boot your PC.
Web camera
A webcam is a video camera which feeds its

images in real time to a computer or computer
network, often via USB, ethernet or Wi-Fi.
Their most popular use is the establishment of video

links, permitting computers to act
asvideophones or videoconference stations. This
common use as a video camera for the World Wide
Web gave the webcam its name. Other popular
uses include security surveillance andcomputer vision.
58
Webcams are known for their low manufacturing cost and flexibility,making them
the lowest cost form of videotelephony. They have also become a source of
security and privacy issues, as some built-in webcams can be remotely activated
via spyware.
Technology
Webcams typically include a lens, an image sensor, and some support

electronics. Various lenses are available, the most common in consumer-grade
webcams being a plastic lens that can be screwed in and out to set the camera's
focus. Fixed focus lenses, which have no provision for adjustment, are also
available. As a camera system's depth of field is greater for small imager formats
and is greater for lenses with a large f-number (small aperture), the systems
used in webcams have sufficiently large depth of field that the use of a fixed
focus lens does not impact image sharpness much. Image sensors can
be CMOS or CCD, the former being dominant for low-cost cameras, but CCD
cameras do not necessarily outperform CMOS-based cameras in the low cost
price range. Most consumer webcams are capable of providing VGA-resolution
video at aframe rate of 30 frames per second. Many newer devices can produce
video in multi-megapixelresolutions, and a few can run at high frame rates such
as the PlayStation Eye, which can produce 320×240 video at 120 frames per
second.
Support electronics are present to read the image from the sensor and transmit it
to the host computer. The camera pictured to the right, for example, uses a Sonix
SN9C101 to transmit its image over USB. Some cameras, such as mobile phone
cameras, use a CMOS sensor with supporting electronics "on die", i.e. the
sensor and the support electronics are built on a singlesilicon chip to save space
and manufacturing costs. Most webcams feature built-in microphonesto
make video calling and videoconferencing more convenient.
The USB video device class (UVC) specification allows for interconnectivity of
webcams to computers even without proprietary drivers installed.
Microsoft Windows XP SP2, Linux[10] andMac OS X (since October 2005) have
UVC drivers built in and do not require extra drivers, although they are often
installed in order to add additional features
59
Troubleshooting and Repairing of Web camera
 Make sure your webcam is firmly plugged into a free and working USB
port on your computer. If your computer isn't recognizing your webcam,
try plugging it into a different USB port or a different computer altogether.
If it works in a different port or on a different computer the USB port you
were trying to use is not functioning.
 Ensure that you have installed any necessary software. Often webcams
will come packaged along with a CD-ROM filled with necessary software
like drivers. This software is required for your webcam to work with
Windows XP. Install any software that may be required and restart your
computer.
 Confirm that the program you are attempting to use your webcam with
supports it and is configured properly. Using a webcam with a program
like Yahoo! Messenger doesn't just automatically work. Go into the
settings of the program and make sure it is configured properly to work in
conjunction with a webcam.
 Make sure Windows XP is updated with the newest software and drivers.
Click on the "Start" menu and then the "Windows Update" icon to
download and install the newest possible updates for Windows. Without
these updates certain external devices, like webcams, may not work
60
Practical:-12
Troubleshooting and Repairing of Mouse and SMPS
Mouse
In computing, a mouse is a pointing device that functions by detecting two-dimensional motion
relative to its supporting surface. Physically, a mouse consists of an object held under one of the
user's hands, with one or more buttons. It sometimes features other elements, such as "wheels",
which allow the user to perform various system-dependent operations, or extra buttons or
features that can add more control or dimensional input. The mouse's motion typically translates
into the motion of a cursor on a display, which allows for fine control of a graphical user interface.
Troubleshooting and Repairing of Mouse
Verify that there is no mouse movement at all. If your computer mouse has stopped moving
completely, check the obvious. Make sure the computer mouse is plugged in completely. If it is,
remove the plug and examine for pins that may be damaged.
See that the mouse stops while you're using it. If the mouse is working perfectly and suddenly
stops, check the connection to see if it is loose. If the connection is fine, open up the trackball and
check for any fuzz or residue trapped in the trackball chamber. Remove any residue with a cotton
swab and alcohol. Remove the trackball and clean it with the cotton swab and alcohol as well.
Observe that the pointer is not working correctly. If the computer mouse pointer is working in an
odd way, check for a virus. Some computer viruses cause the mouse to not work properly.
Download a free anti-virus program at Free-AV to run a virus scan on the computer.
Check the computer mouse driver. Go to "Control Panel" and open the "System" folder. Choose
"Device Driver Tab" and arrow down to "Mouse." Look and see if the driver is installed. If there is
a yellow icon, the mouse has a problem. Un-install the mouse and reboot the computer. Reinstall
the mouse driver and reboot the computer.
61
SMPS
A switched-mode power supply (switching-mode power supply, SMPS, or simply switcher)

is an electronic power supply that incorporates a switching regulator in order to be highly efficient
in the conversion of electrical power. Like other types of power supplies, an SMPS transfers
power from a source like the electrical power grid to a load (e.g., a personal computer) while
converting voltage and current characteristics. An SMPS is usually employed to efficiently provide
a regulated output voltage, typically at a level different from the input voltage.
Unlike a linear power supply, the pass transistor of a switching mode supply switches very quickly
(typically between 50 kHz and 1 MHz) between full-on and full-off states, which minimizes wasted
energy. Voltage regulation is provided by varying the ratio of on to off time. In contrast, a linear
power supply must dissipate the excess voltage to regulate the output. This higher efficiency is
the chief advantage of a switch-mode power supply.
Switching regulators are used as replacements for the linear regulators when higher efficiency,
smaller size or lighter weight are required. They are, however, more complicated, their switching
currents can cause electrical noise problems if not carefully suppressed, and simple designs may
have a poor power factor.
A: input EMI filtering; A: bridge rectifier; B: input filter

capacitors; Between B and C: primary side heat sink;
C: transformer; Between C and D: secondary side heat sink;
D: output filter coil E: output filter capacitors.
62
Theory of operation
Input rectifier stage

If the SMPS has an AC input, then the first stage is to convert the input to DC. This is
called rectification. The rectifier circuit can be configured as a voltage doubler by the addition of a
switch operated either manually or automatically. This is a feature of larger supplies to permit
operation from nominally 120 V or 240 V supplies. The rectifier produces an unregulated DC
voltage which is then sent to a large filter capacitor. The current drawn from the mains supply by
this rectifier circuit occurs in short pulses around the AC voltage peaks. These pulses have
significant high frequency energy which reduces the power factor. Special control techniques can
be employed by the following SMPS to force the average input current to follow the sinusoidal
shape of the AC input voltage thus the designer should try correcting the power factor. An SMPS
with a DC input does not require this stage. An SMPS designed for AC input can often be run
from a DC supply (for 230 V AC this would be 330 V DC), as the DC passes through the rectifier
stage unchanged. It's however advisable to consult the manual before trying this, though most
supplies are quite capable of such operation even though nothing is mentioned in the
documentation. However, this type of use may be harmful to the rectifier stage as it will only use
half of diodes in the rectifier for the full load. This may result in overheating of these components,
and cause them to fail prematurely.
If an input range switch is used, the rectifier stage is usually configured to operate as a voltage
doubler when operating on the low voltage (~120 V AC) range and as a straight rectifier when
operating on the high voltage (~240 V AC) range. If an input range switch is not used, then a full-
wave rectifier is usually used and the downstream inverter stage is simply designed to be flexible
63
enough to accept the wide range of DC voltages that will be produced by the rectifier stage. In
higher-power SMPSs, some form of automatic range switching may be used
Inverter stage
This section refers to the block marked chopper in the block diagram.
The inverter stage converts DC, whether directly from the input or from the rectifier stage
described above, to AC by running it through a power oscillator, whose output transformer is very
small with few windings at a frequency of tens or hundreds of kilohertz (kHz). The frequency is
usually chosen to be above 20 kHz, to make it inaudible to humans. The output voltage is
optically coupled to the input and thus very tightly controlled. The switching is implemented as a
multistage (to achieve high gain) MOSFET amplifier. MOSFETs are a type of transistor with a low
on-resistance and a high current-handling capacity.
Voltage converter and output rectifier

If the output is required to be isolated from the input, as is usually the case in mains power
supplies, the inverted AC is used to drive the primary winding of a high-frequency transformer.
This converts the voltage up or down to the required output level on its secondary winding. The
output transformer in the block diagram serves this purpose.
If a DC output is required, the AC output from the transformer is rectified. For output voltages
above ten volts or so, ordinary silicon diodes are commonly used. For lower voltages, Schottky
diodes are commonly used as the rectifier elements; they have the advantages of faster recovery
times than silicon diodes (allowing low-loss operation at higher frequencies) and a lower voltage
drop when conducting. For even lower output voltages, MOSFETs may be used as synchronous
rectifiers; compared to Schottky diodes, these have even lower conducting state voltage drops.
The rectified output is then smoothed by a filter consisting of inductors and capacitors. For higher
switching frequencies, components with lower capacitance and inductance are needed.
Simpler, non-isolated power supplies contain an inductor instead of a transformer. This type
includes boost converters, buck converters, and the buck-boost converters. These belong to the
simplest class of single input, single output converters which use one inductor and one active
switch. The buck converter reduces the input voltage in direct proportion to the ratio of conductive
time to the total switching period, called the duty cycle. For example an ideal buck converter with
a 10 V input operating at a 50% duty cycle will produce an average output voltage of 5 V. A
feedback control loop is employed to regulate the output voltage by varying the duty cycle to
compensate for variations in input voltage. The output voltage of a boost converter is always
64
greater than the input voltage and the buck-boost output voltage is inverted but can be greater
than, equal to, or less than the magnitude of its input voltage. There are many variations and
extensions to this class of converters but these three form the basis of almost all isolated and
non-isolated DC to DC converters. By adding a second inductor the Ćukand SEPIC converters
can be implemented, or, by adding additional active switches, various bridge converters can be
realised.
Other types of SMPSs use a capacitor-diode voltage multiplier instead of inductors and
transformers. These are mostly used for generating high voltages at low currents (Cockcroft-
Walton generator). The low voltage variant is called charge pump.
Regulation
A feedback circuit monitors the output voltage and compares it with a reference voltage, which
shown in the block diagram serves this purpose. Depending on design/safety requirements, the
controller may contain an isolation mechanism (such as opto-couplers) to isolate it from the DC
output. Switching supplies in computers, TVs and VCRs have these opto-couplers to tightly
control the output voltage.
Open-loop regulators do not have a feedback circuit. Instead, they rely on feeding a constant
voltage to the input of the transformer or inductor, and assume that the output will be correct.
Regulated designs compensate for the impedance of the transformer or coil. Monopolar designs
also compensate for the magnetic hysteresis of the core.
The feedback circuit needs power to run before it can generate power, so an additional non-
switching power-supply for stand-by is added.
Troubleshooting and Repairing of SMPS

• Switch on power supply and conduct necessary measurement. If overvoltage is the cause, then
you'll see increments in the 5 and 12 volts line.
• Remove the casing. The components are likely covered with linen and dust. Get rid of those
using a brush and mini vacuum.
• Examine the power supply fan. This is fairly obvious, but some folks might overlook it. Always
check the fan when conducting ATX smps troubleshooting. Overheating is one of the leading
causes of smsp failure.
• Dual Schottky barrier rectifiers are found in many ATX power supplies. AC wave is changed to
DC volts via this barrier rectifier so you should examine this as well. Use an analog meter with the
setting at X10K ohms.
65
• Examine components carefully. The cause of failure can be attributed to common

component issues like decayed glue, components damaged/dislodged etc.
• Once you've detected the problem - let's say one or more capacitors are not working then
replace them according to specification. The capacitors are easy to replace.
• As for decayed glue, you should gently scrape them off the components and clean using
quality thinner solution.
• Connect the SMPS to an unused motherboard (to be on the safe side) along with hard disk to
measure the overall performance including output voltages.
66

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Computer Maintenance(6th CE)

AIM:- STUDY OF MAINTENANCE KIT

List of various PC repair tools and the importance of each:

1).Standard screwdrivers (not magnetic):

High-quality Phillips screwdrivers are indispensable. At the very

2). Cordless rechargeable screwdriver:

Saves time and effort; especially useful when fixing multiple

1. Turn off and then restart the computer.

2. Insert the end of a paper clip into the

3. Press in gently on the paper clip until the

4. Remove and discard the paper clip, and

5. Remove the disc from the tray. Hold the

A multimeter or a multitester, also known as a volt/ohm meter or VOM, is an electronic measuring

A multimeter can be a hand-held device useful for basic fault finding

5). ATX power supply tester

6). Cable testers

A cable tester is an electronic device used to verify the electrical

1. A source of electric current,

7). Port-testing software

Used to determine whether various ports are working correctly.

8). Breakout boxes

9). Anti-static (ESD) wristbands or anklebands

An antistatic wrist strap, ESD wrist strap, or ground bracelet is

10) Anti-static (ESD) spray

Very effective in reducing static electricity on fabric and carpet.

11) Anti-static (ESD) mats

12) POST card

13) Disk drive installation software

14) BIOS flashing utilities

15) USB network adapter

16) Internet access

17) Data transfer cables

18) CD/DVD scratch repair kits

These can often save damaged software and data discs.

19) Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS)

An uninterruptible power supply, also uninterruptible power source, UPS or battery/flywheel

20) Data-recovery software

21) Infrared temperature sensor

Available from companies such as Raytek (raytek.com), this uses

22) Problem-solving software

Some of the other Input Devices are enlisted below:

Device Identification Usage

It is a device used to control

It is a device used for

Microphone It is a device used to accept

It is a device used to capture

It is a display device, which

It is used to accept barcode

It is an easy to connect low-

A Monitor is an output device, very similar to the television

Dot Matrix Printer

Different companies have branded their products using the

Hewlett Packard (hp) manufactures DeskJet Printers

Write Protect Notch

Working of a Floppy Disk

Hard Disk Drive

It is a storage device with very large capacity, which ranges

CD-ROM (Compact Disk Read Only Memory)

Working of a CD-ROM Drive

DVD (Digital Versatile Disc)

Aim : Disassembling computer system.

- should I document everything I do or everything I remove?

- always use an antistatic wrist strap.