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Fundamentals of Entrepreneurial Finance Full Chapter PDF
Fundamentals of Entrepreneurial Finance Full Chapter PDF
Fundamentals of Entrepreneurial Finance Full Chapter PDF
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About the Authors
To Anne and Sophie, whose love and support made all the difference.
Acknowledgments
We are indebted to numerous people for the support and feedback we received in
writing this book. We are particularly grateful for the insightful feedback we re-
ceived from Alex Brabers, Wendy Bradley, Jim Brander, Brian Broughman, Geraldo
Cerqueiro, Paul Cubbon, Carolina Dams, Qianqian Du, Gilles Duruflé, Gary
Dushnitsky, Frank Ecker, Chuck Eesley, Ed Egan, Shai Erel, Michael Ewens, Andrea
Fosfuri, Rik Frehen, Tim Galpin, John Gilligan, Martí Guash, Deepak Hegde, David
Hsu, Anne Lafarre, Kelvin Law, José Liberti, Laura Lindsey, Richard MacKellar,
Sophie Manigart, Gordon Murray, Ramana Nanda, Oliver Hart, María Fabiana
Penas, Ludovic Phalippou, David Robinson, Christoph Schneider, Paul Schure,
Merih Sevilir, Veikko Thiele, and Justin Tumlinson.
We are particularly thankful for the excellent research assistance provided by
Neroli Austin, Vin Dogre, Carolyn Hicks, Dunhong Jin, Adrian Johnson, Anantha
Krishna, Che Mitchell, Alexander Montag, and Joanna Stachowska.
We are thankful to the many investors and entrepreneurs with whom we had
the privilege of interacting in numerous ways. We also greatly benefited from
suggestions and encouragements from the students we had the pleasure of teaching
all around the world. Unbeknownst to them, we professors learn as much from our
students as they (hopefully) learn from us.
Preface for Students
of sectors and countries. Finally, the book provides numerous practical learning
tools, including summaries, review questions, and spreadsheets. These are available
on the book’s website (www.entrepreneurialfinance.net).
Entrepreneurial finance operates in a fast-moving environment, where invest-
ment models frequently change over time. Crowdfunding, for example, did not
exist a decade ago but is becoming an established part of the entrepreneurial ec-
osystem. A decade from now, we expect that new models will have developed and
that current ones will have evolved, too—hence the importance of understanding
the fundamental drivers of the entrepreneurial finance process. Are you ready?
Preface for Instructors
We believe this approach is appropriate for both U.S. and non-U.S. audiences.
U.S. audiences will look for U.S. practices as their initial reference point but will
want to know more about other parts of the world too. Non-U.S. audiences un-
derstand that the U.S., and especially Silicon Valley, is the epicenter of entrepre-
neurial finance and thus constitutes a useful benchmark for other countries. They
will therefore be eager to understand the U.S. model and then relate it back into
their own institutional context.
Fourth, we provide a comprehensive overview of the entire fundraising pro-
cess, with particular attention to the diversity of investor types. We strive to pro-
vide an understanding of why things are done in certain ways and how the various
steps in the process are interconnected with each other. For this reason, the first
chapter introduces two overarching conceptual frameworks that structure the con-
tent of the book. The first framework, called FIRE, describes how entrepreneurs
and investors interact over the fundraising cycle. The second framework, FUEL,
explains in detail how different types of investors themselves function.
Fifth, we conceived the story of a fictional start-up (WorkHorse) to create a com-
prehensive illustration of key concepts. The story unfolds through a sequence of
boxes that are weaved into the main analysis. It is an educational tool that vividly
illustrates and applies all the core concepts with a simplified, yet realistic, story. Its
dynamically consistent storyline also allows students to appreciate how the nu-
merous aspects of entrepreneurial finance are interconnected.
This book assumes very little prior knowledge of entrepreneurship and finance.
Students will benefit from understanding basic business vocabulary (e.g., what mar-
keting is), and it helps to have a basic understanding of finance fundamentals, such
as risk and returns. The remaining concepts are introduced if and when needed.
Importantly, however, this book has not been “dumbed down” to make it more ap-
pealing to a mass audience. Our approach is instead to take the reader step by step
through material of increasing complexity.
We enrich the main text with analysis of data and practical examples that are
placed into boxes, tables, and figures. While the academic foundations inform all
of our analysis, we choose to keep the main text uncluttered. Consequently, all aca-
demic references are put into endnotes.
The book is accompanied by several additional materials freely available on-
line at the book’s website (www.entrepreneurialfinance.net). These include chapter
appendices and all of the spreadsheets discussed in the book, several of which
contain novel material not available anywhere else. For instructors, separate on-
line materials available through OUP contain a complete set of slides, a test bank
including some advanced numerical exercises, suggestions on how to configure
different types of courses of different length, suggested case studies, and other addi-
tional materials.
The Structure of the Book
The book starts with a conceptual introduction in Chapter 1, which includes the
FIRE and FUEL frameworks for understanding the entrepreneurial finance pro-
cess and the nature of investors. The material from Chapter 2 to Chapter 11 covers
the entire entrepreneurial finance process, from the initial contacts between
entrepreneurs and investors, all the way to the time of exit when investors get their
returns. The material in Chapter 12 to Chapter 14 covers the main types of investors
and how they interact with each other within an entrepreneurial ecosystem. Here
we provide a brief overview of each chapter.
In Chapter 2 we explain how investors evaluate opportunities. We introduce the
Venture Evaluation Matrix, a framework for analyzing the business fundamentals
of entrepreneurial companies. This framework guides entrepreneurs in how to
pitch their businesses, and investors in how to evaluate a venture’s appeal and risks.
In Chapter 3 we discuss how entrepreneurs craft financial plans. This includes
generating financial projections that address two key questions: (1) how finan-
cially attractive is the business opportunity? and (2) how much money does it need,
and when?
In Chapter 4 we explain the relationship between investment amounts, own-
ership fractions, and valuation. In addition, we examine various measures of
investor returns. We also discuss the economic determinants of ownership and
returns and take a look at how founders can agree on the internal split of owner-
ship shares.
In Chapter 5 we review the main valuation methods used in entrepreneurial fi-
nance. We introduce the widely used Venture Capital Method and compare it to
several alternatives, including the standard Discounted Cash Flow Method, as well
as other more advanced methods that explicitly model uncertainty.
In Chapter 6 we examine the contractual relationship between entrepreneurs and
investors. We analyze the main clauses used in a term sheet. The chapter examines
their rationale and their implications for entrepreneurs and investors, and speci-
fies under what circumstances they are used. The focus is on understanding how
different financial securities implement different cash flow rights. We also ex-
amine convertible notes, which are increasingly used for very early-stage deals. The
chapter also explores compensation and a variety of other contractual rights.
In Chapter 7 we study how entrepreneurs and investors structure deals. We iden-
tify the challenges of finding a good match in the first place. We then consider how
investors involve their peers in syndication. The chapter examines the negotiation
process of how entrepreneurs and investors move from initial meetings to closing a
xviii The Structure of the Book
deal. A bargaining framework is used to explain how deals are closed. Special em-
phasis is given to the important role of trust.
In Chapter 8 we explore how investors get actively engaged with their companies
after the deal has been signed. We explain the need for active investor involvement,
and we examine investors’ control rights and the role of the board of directors. We
also show the importance of informal control and discuss how corporate govern-
ance takes place in practice.
In Chapter 9 we explore the staged financing process, where companies receive
equity financing over several rounds. We explain how staging allows investors to
reap the option value of waiting. In later rounds, old and new investors can play
different roles and can have different preferences. The chapter examines term sheet
provisions that regulate the resulting conflicts. We also consider investors’ decisions
about providing additional funding to struggling companies.
In Chapter 10 we examine how entrepreneurial companies can use debt fi-
nancing. We explain why banks rarely finance entrepreneurs. We then examine
other forms of debt financing that play an important role for entrepreneurial
companies.
In Chapter 11 we look at exit, the final stage of the investment process. The more
profitable routes of exit are Initial Public Offerings (IPOs) and acquisitions. The
chapter also reviews sales to financial buyers and buybacks and discusses what
happens when companies fail. We explain the economic interests of the various
parties involved in the exit transaction, the process by which exit decisions are
made, and the consequences for entrepreneur, investor, and the company itself.
In Chapter 12 we examine the structure of VC firms. We consider why and
how institutional investors put money into VC funds. The chapter then examines
the internal organization of VC firms. We explain the challenges of devising and
implementing an investment strategy and of managing a portfolio of investments.
The chapter also studies different measures of investment returns.
In Chapter 13 we look at a large variety of early-stage investors. We start with
founders, families, and friends, and then we consider angel investors and the ways
they organize themselves into networks and funds. The chapter further considers
the role of corporate investors, focusing on their strategic motives. We then look at
crowdfunding and Initial Coin Offerings (ICOs). We conclude by discussing sev-
eral types of seed investors, such as accelerators, technology transfer funds, and so-
cial impact investors.
In Chapter 14, we take an ecosystem perspective, asking how the various actors
of the financing environment interact with each other. The chapter examines how
ecosystems work and what factors contribute to creating a vibrant ecosystem. We
study the various ways governments try to support entrepreneurial ecosystems and
the hurdles they face. Finally, we take a global perspective and look at how capital
and talent move across borders.
About the Companion Website
www.oup.com/us/entrepreneurialfinance
Summary 456
Review Questions 456
12. Venture Capital 461
12.1 The Venture Capital Model 461
12.2 Institutional Investors (LPs) 463
12.2.1 Portfolio Allocation Choices 465
12.2.2 Building a VC Portfolio 467
12.3 Limited Partnership Agreements 469
12.3.1 Fund Structure 470
12.3.2 Fund Rules 472
12.3.3 GP Compensation 473
12.3.4 GP Incentives 476
12.4 VC Firms (GPs) 477
12.4.1 Internal Structure 477
12.4.2 Fundraising 480
12.4.3 Networks 480
12.4.4 Alternatives to the Partnership Model 481
12.5 Investment Strategies 482
12.5.1 The Investment Strategy 482
12.5.2 Investment Strategy Styles 486
12.5.3 Implementing the Investment Strategy 487
12.5.4 An Example 489
12.6 Risk And Return in VC 493
12.6.1 Gross Returns to the VC Fund 493
12.6.2 Net Returns to Limited Partners 495
12.6.3 Assessing VC Fund Performance 498
Summary 502
Review Questions 502
13. Early-Stage Investors 507
13.1 Founders, Family, and Friends 507
13.1.1 Reasons for Investing 507
13.1.2 How Family and Friends Invest 509
13.2 Angel Investors 510
13.2.1 Different Types of Angel Investors 510
13.2.2 How Angels Invest 512
13.3 Corporate Investors 513
13.3.1 The Motivation of Corporate Investors 514
13.3.2 The Structure of Corporate Investors 519
13.3.3 How Corporates Invest 522
13.4 Crowdfunding 524
13.4.1 The Structure of Crowdfunding Platforms 524
13.4.2 Motivations in Crowdfunding 526
13.4.3 Crowdfunding Campaigns 528
13.4.4 Returns from Crowdfunding 530
13.5 Initial Coin Offerings 531
13.5.1 The Blockchain and Cryptocurrencies 531
13.5.2 The Structure of Initial Coin Offerings 534
13.5.3 The Current Debate About Initial Coin Offerings 536
Contents xxvii
Bibliography 585
Index 617
1
Introduction to Entrepreneurial Finance
Learning Goals
new and big might come out of it. Combining the perspectives of entrepreneurs
and investors may reveal new horizons. The result can be the creation of innovative
companies that disrupt industries and business models, generate wealth, and im-
prove people’s lives. Besides, what bigger challenge can there be than combining the
left and right sides of the brain? Welcome to entrepreneurial finance!
The main goal in this book is to provide an understanding of how entrepre-
neurial companies are funded. We define entrepreneurial finance as the provision
of funding to young, innovative, growth-oriented companies. Entrepreneurial
companies are young, typically being less than 10 years old. They introduce in-
novative products or business models. The younger among those companies are
called “start-ups” and are typically less than five years old. A study by Koellinger
and Thurik documents the importance of entrepreneurial companies for gener-
ating business cycles.2 Of central importance is that entrepreneurial companies
are growth-oriented. This sets them apart from small businesses or small and
medium-sized enterprises (SMEs).3 Even though entrepreneurial companies
typically fall within the statistical definitions of small businesses (e.g., businesses
with fewer than 250 employees), in practice they have little in common with
their statistical peers. Most small businesses are created to remain small: think
of corner shops or business services. Hurst and Pugsley’s study of U.S. small
businesses finds that less than a quarter wanted to grow big.4 When asked about
the expected number of employees working in a firm by the time it becomes five
years old, the median response was four employees. Instead, entrepreneurial
companies have the ambition to grow much larger by pursuing some innovation.
Put simply, small businesses represent the status quo, whereas entrepreneurial
businesses challenge it.
In this book, we consider a wide variety of start-ups. Some commercialize tech-
nology based on scientific breakthroughs, such as in artificial intelligence or bi-
otechnology. In many cases, the technical advance enables the introduction of
new products or services, such as with electronic commerce or digital health.
Other start-ups leverage new technologies without developing any innovations
per se. They innovate in terms of product varieties, marketing approaches, or
business models. For instance, start-ups like Uber, Didi, Grab, and Lyft have
used geopositioning technology and mobile telephony to challenge the decade-
old business model of the taxi industry. Similarly, Pandora’s Box, Spotify, Beats,
or Tidal have taken advantage of Wi-Fi internet, cloud storage, and data compres-
sion technology to deliver high-quality music without needing a physical medium
and to disrupt the music distribution business. Finally, there are start-ups that
do not rely on technology at all, but instead introduce new products or services.
Throughout the book we will use the terms start-ups, entrepreneurial company, and
ventures interchangeably to denote this kind of young ambitious growth-oriented
companies.
On the finance side of the intergalactic collision, there is a bewildering variety of
investors who can finance entrepreneurial companies. Family and friends provide
Introduction to Entrepreneurial Finance 3
some initial money to get the company started. So-called business angels are wealthy
individuals who invest in start-ups. Venture capital (VC) firms are partnerships
of professional investors who manage investment funds on behalf of institutional
investors such as pension funds, insurance companies, and university endowments.
Established corporations invest for strategic reasons. Entrepreneurs can also use
crowdfunding platforms to reach out to the general public (the crowd). Throughout
the book we examine these and other investors, which we collectively call “venture
investors.” Each type of investor has a different motivation for investing, ranging
from helping a friend to achieving a high financial return to accessing new technol-
ogies to fostering the local economy. Investors also differ in their funding potential
and in the way they make decisions.
At the core of entrepreneurial finance there is an exchange between an en-
trepreneur and an investor, where the entrepreneur receives money and in re-
turn gives the investor a claim on the company’s future returns. This claim is
embedded in a funding contract between entrepreneurs and investors, which
requires a well-functioning legal system, as well as trust among the parties. Some
investors take equity, others provide loans, and still others use a variety of al-
ternative arrangements. Entrepreneurs need to understand the consequences of
these contracts. This complex world can be confusing, especially to inexperi-
enced entrepreneurs. This book will examine all these issues and clarify them.
We also provide several practical tools and additional materials on the book’s
website: www.entrepreneurialfinance.net.
To make sense of these seemingly mysterious worlds, we need to consider
the whole entrepreneurial process through which entrepreneurs turn ideas into
businesses. This is a long and risky process: success takes many years, and failure
is always lurking around the corner. The process starts with a decision to become
an entrepreneur in order to develop a business idea.5 Initially, there are one or
several founders who perceive an opportunity that suggests a novel solution to
an unmet need (see Section 2.2). The founders pursue their vision by structuring
their intuition into some kind of a business plan and implementing its initial
steps. This typically requires convincing customers, suppliers, employees, and
investors of the merits of the opportunity. During the process of assembling re-
sources, entrepreneurs learn about the underlying opportunity and the numerous
challenges of implementing it. They often alter their course to adjust to chan-
ging circumstances and respond to the new information obtained. Over time a
typical start-up hires employees, builds prototypes, acquires initial customers,
gains market share, strikes strategic alliances, develops further products, and
enters additional markets. Along the way the start-up typically needs consider-
able amounts of funding (see Section 1.5). The entrepreneurial process comes to
its conclusion when the company fails, when it gets acquired, or when it grows
into an established corporation. To properly understand the challenges of the en-
trepreneurial process, Box 1.1 establishes three fundamental principles that we
will return to throughout the book.
4 Fundamentals of Entrepreneurial Finance
Entrepreneurs start planning their ventures long before they approach investors
for funding. To properly understand entrepreneurial finance, we therefore need
to understand the underlying entrepreneurial process. Every entrepreneur
has her own story, so it is impossible to accurately define a general entrepre-
neurial process. Still, we can identify three general principles that describe how
entrepreneurs build their businesses, the particular challenges they face, and the
kind of progress they achieve. These principles are resource-gathering, uncer-
tainty, and experimentation.
The first principle is based on the work of the Austrian economist Joseph
Schumpeter, who described entrepreneurship as a recombination of existing
resources to create something new.6 The entrepreneurial process therefore
consists of gathering resources from a variety of owners and combining them
in a novel and valuable way. Financing is one of the most important resources
that entrepreneurs need to gather. It plays a special role because money allows
entrepreneurs to acquire other resources. Fundraising is therefore a crucial step
in the entrepreneurial process.
The second principle reflects the fact that the entrepreneurial process is in-
herently uncertain. The American economist Frank Knight argued that there is
an important difference between risk and uncertainty.7 Risk refers to situations
where the outcome of a process is not known in advance but there is reliable
information about the underlying probability distribution of outcomes. For
example, when we throw a dice, we do not know which side will show, but we
know it can be only one of six. Uncertainty, by contrast, means that the range of
outcomes and their probabilities are themselves unknown. For example, no one
knows the probability of finding extraterrestrial life, let alone what it will look
like. The entrepreneurial process fits the latter category. Entrepreneurs lack reli-
able information about the range or likelihood of outcomes, let alone about the
relationship between their actions and those potential outcomes. This ambiguity
is not coincidental. We call an opportunity “entrepreneurial” when there is con-
siderable uncertainty. By the time the outcomes are well understood, the busi-
ness opportunities are no longer entrepreneurial but managerial.8
The third principle is based on the pioneering work of the American soci-
ologist James March and concerns experimentation.9 His work is mostly con-
cerned with how organizations make decisions and how they learn over time.
March introduced the distinction between “exploitation” and “exploration” as
two opposite organizational models. Exploitation is common among established
firms, which focus on leveraging their current market position. Exploration is
more useful to younger, more agile organizations, including start-ups. Even if
entrepreneurs pursue some long-term vision, they are unsure about the path and
Introduction to Entrepreneurial Finance 5
out of money. Most important of all, investors worry about whether they will ever
get their money back.
To some extent, both entrepreneurs and investors worry about the same
challenges: finding a good match, striking a good deal, surviving the ride, and
finding their way to a successful exit. However, their experiences with handling these
challenges can be very different, especially when they are not equally familiar with
the process. Most entrepreneurs go through the process for the first time, whereas
most investors accumulate considerable experiences from making numerous deals.
Entrepreneurial finance is not only exciting and challenging, it is also important: for
entrepreneurs, for investors, and for the economy at large.
From the entrepreneur’s perspective, obtaining financing is vital for the success of
her business. Most entrepreneurs do not have the resources to fund their ventures, so
they need to raise money from outside investors. Funding is essential to pay for many
of the other required resources, such as employees and equipment. The amount
of money raised determines the level of investments and thus the speed of prog-
ress. Having less funding also shortens a company’s planning horizons. The choice
of investor also plays a significant role in development of the venture. A good in-
vestor supports the venture by mentoring and providing strategic advice, by making
introductions to business partners and future investors, by helping to hire talented
managers, or by attracting a knowledgeable board of directors. Some investors are
better than others at supporting their ventures. Moreover, some have more expertise
in specific areas that may be important to some but not other start-ups. Investors
also want to actively protect their investments and to exercise influence and control
over strategic decisions. In some cases, they can even go as far as firing the founders
from their own company. Clearly, it matters which investors the entrepreneur picks.
From the investor’s perspective, funding the right ventures is crucial for gen-
erating high returns, as start-ups are risky and sometimes opaque.11 This delicate
choice is sometimes delegated to professional VC firms, whose core business is
funding start-ups. Institutional investors allocate some money to VC firms as a way
of diversifying their portfolio and seeking out high returns. Established corporations
also fund entrepreneurial ventures, as part of their innovation strategies. It gives
them a window on new technology and a chance to engage with promising ventures
in their industries. Finally, for private investors, financing entrepreneurs is not only
a personal passion, it can also be an efficient way of applying their skills and exper-
tise to make money.
Entrepreneurial finance matters also for the economy and society at large.
Entrepreneurial companies are an important driver of economic growth since they
advance new technologies, products, and business models. To understand their role
properly, we introduce “Nobel Insights,” a feature that we will encounter once per
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Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions will
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