MICROBIAL PHYSIOLOGY

DR. MARY JOCELYN V. BATTUNG

DOCTOR OF PHILOSPHY IN BIOLOGY
Physiology is the study of the vital life processes of
organisms, especially how these processes normally
function in living organisms.

Microbial physiology concerns the vital life

processes of microorganisms. Microorganisms,
especially bacteria, are ideally suited for use in
studies of the basic metabolic reactions that occur
within cells.
Bacteria are inexpensive to maintain in the
laboratory, take up little space, and reproduce
quickly. Their morphology, nutritional needs,
and metabolic reactions are easily
observable.

Scientists can learn a great deal about cells—

including human cells—by studying the
nutritional needs of bacteria, their metabolic
pathways, and why they live, grow, multiply, or
die under certain conditions.
 Microbial Nutritional Requirements

Studies of bacterial nutrition and other aspects

of microbial physiology enable scientists to
understand the vital chemical processes that
occur within every living cell, including those of
the human body.
All living protoplasm contains six major
chemical elements: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen,
nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur. Other
elements, usually required in lesser amounts,
include sodium, potassium, chlorine,
magnesium, calcium, iron, iodine, and some
trace elements.
To build necessary cellular materials, every
organism requires a source (or sources) of
energy, a source (or sources) of carbon, and
additional nutrients. Those materials that
organisms are unable to synthesize, but are
required for the building of macromolecules and
sustaining life, are termed essential nutrients.

Essential nutrients (e.g., essential amino acids

and essential fatty acids) must be continually
supplied to an organism for it to survive. Essential
nutrients vary from species to species.
 Categorizing Microorganisms According to
Their Energy and Carbon Sources

Since the beginning of life on Earth,

microorganisms have been evolving, some in
different directions than others. Today, there
are microbes representing each of the four
major nutritional categories: photoautotrophs,
photoheterotrophs, chemoautotrophs, and
chemoheterotrophs
Chemotrophs can be divided into two categories:

(1) chemolithotrophs (or simply lithotrophs) are

organisms that use inorganic chemicals as an
energy source and

(2) chemoorganotrophs (or simply organotrophs)

are organisms that use organic chemicals as an
energy source.
Terms Relating to an Organism’s Energy Source

Phototrophs - use light as an energy source.

The process by which organisms convert light
energy into chemical energy is called
photosynthesis.

Chemotrophs - use either inorganic or organic

chemicals as an energy source.
Chemotrophs can be subdivided into two
categories:

Chemolithotrophs - (or simply lithotrophs) are

organisms that use inorganic chemicals as an
energy source.

Chemoorganotrophs - (or simply organotrophs)

are organisms that use organic chemicals as an
energy source.
Terms Relating to an Organism’s Carbon Source

Autotrophs - use carbon dioxide (CO2 ) as their

sole source of carbon.
examples :
Photosynthetic organisms, such as plants,
algae, and cyanobacteria,
Heterotrophs- are organisms that use organic
compounds other than CO2 as their carbon
source.(Recall that all organic compounds contain
carbon.)
examples :
Humans, animals, fungi, and protozoa
are of heterotrophs. Both saprophytic
fungi, which live on dead and decaying
organic matter, and parasitic fungi are
heterotrophs. Most bacteria are also
heterotrophs.
The terms relating to energy source can be
combined with the terms relating to carbon
source, thus yielding terms that indicate both an
organism’s energy source and carbon source.

For example:

photoautotrophs are organisms (such as plants,

algae, cyanobacteria, and purple and green sulfur
bacteria) that use light as an energy source and
CO2 as a carbon source.
Photoheterotrophs - such as purple nonsulfur
and green nonsulfur bacteria, use light as an
energy source and organic compounds other than
CO2 as a carbon source.

Chemoautotrophs - (such as nitrifying,

hydrogen, iron, and sulfur bacteria) use
chemicals as an energy source and CO2 as a
carbon source.
Chemoheterotrophs - use chemicals as an
energy source and organic compounds other
than CO2 as a carbon source. All animals, all
protozoa, all fungi, and most bacteria are
chemoheterotrophs. All medically important
bacteria are also chemoheterotrophs.
 METABOLIC ENZYMES

The term metabolism refers to all the chemical

reactions that occur within any cell. These
chemical reactions are referred to as
metabolic reactions.

The metabolic processes that occur in

microbes are similar to those that occur in
cells of the human body.
Metabolic reactions are enhanced and
regulated by enzymes, known as metabolic
enzymes.

A cell can perform a certain metabolic reaction

only if it possesses the appropriate metabolic
enzyme, and it can possess that enzyme only
if the genome of the cell contains the gene that
codes for the production of that enzyme.
 Biologic Catalysts (Enzymes)

Enzymes are proteins that catalyze (speed up

or accelerate) the rate of biochemical
reactions. In some cases, the reaction will not
occur at all in the absence of the enzyme.

Thus, a complete definition of a biologic

catalyst would be a protein that either causes
a particular chemical reaction to occur or
accelerates it.
Controlling Microbial Growth In Vitro
FACTORS THAT AFFECT MICROBIAL GROWTH

Microbial growth is affected by many different

environmental factors, including the ff:

availability of nutrients , moisture, temperature,

pH, osmotic pressure, barometric pressure, and
composition of the atmosphere.
 Moisture

On Earth, water is essential for life, as we know

it. Cells consist of anywhere between 70% and
95% water.

All living organisms require water to carry out

their normal metabolic processes, and most will
die in environments containing too little moisture.
There are certain microbial stages (e.g., bacterial
endospores and protozoan cysts), however, that
can survive the complete drying process
(desiccation).

The organisms contained within the spores and

cysts are in a dormant or resting state; if they
are placed in a moist, nutrient-rich environment,
they will grow and reproduce normally.
 Temperature

Every microorganism has an optimum growth

temperature —the temperature at which the
organism grows best.

Every microorganism also has a minimum

growth temperature, below which it ceases to
grow, and a maximum growth temperature,
above which it dies.
The temperature range (i.e., the range of
temperatures from the minimum growth
temperature to the maximum growth
temperature) at which an organism grows can
differ greatly from one microbe to another.
.
To a large extent, the temperature and pH
ranges over which an organism grows best are
determined by the enzymes present within the
organism
Microorganisms that grow best at high
temperatures are called thermophiles (i.e.,
organisms that love heat).

Thermophiles can be found in hot springs,

compost pits, and silage as well as in and near
hydrothermal vents at the bottom of the ocean.

Thermophilic cyanobacteria, certain other types

of bacteria, and algae cause many of the colors
observed in the near-boiling hot springs found
in Yellowstone National Park
Organisms that favor temperatures above 100°C
are referred to as hyperthermophiles (or
extreme thermophiles).

The highest temperature at which a bacterium

has been found living is around 113°C; it was an
archaeon named Pyrolobus fumarii
Colorful thermophiles living in a geothermal feature at
Yellowstone National Park, WY. (Provided by Biomed Ed,
Round Rock, TX.)
Microbes that grow best at moderate
temperatures are called mesophiles.

This group includes most of the species that

grow on plants and animals and in warm soil and
water.

Most pathogens and members of the indigenous

microbiota are mesophilic because they grow
best at normal body temperature (37°C).
Psychrophiles prefer cold temperatures. They
thrive in cold ocean water. At high altitudes,
algae (often pink) can be seen living on snow.

Biologists studying microbial life in the Antarctic

have reported finding bacteria in a lake that has
been iced over for at least 2,000 years. These
microbes thrive in an environment that is
−13°C, has 20% salinity, and contains high
concentrations of ammonia and sulfur.
Ironically, the optimum growth temperature of
one group of psychrophiles (called
psychrotrophs) is refrigerator temperature (4°C);
perhaps you encountered some of these
microbes (e.g., bread moulds) the last time you
cleaned out your refrigerator.

Microorganisms that prefer warmer

temperatures, but can tolerate or endure very
cold temperatures and can be preserved in the
frozen state, are known as psychroduric
organisms.
 pH

The term ―pH‖ refers to the hydrogen ion

concentration of a solution and thus the acidity or
alkalinity of the solution.

Most microorganisms prefer a neutral or slightly

alkaline growth medium (pH 7.0–7.4), but
acidophilic microbes (acidophiles), such as those
that can live in the human stomach and in pickled
foods, prefer a pH of 2 to 5.
Fungi prefer acidic environments. Acidophiles
thrive in highly acidic environments, such as
those created by the production of sulfurous
gases in hydrothermal vents and hot springs as
well as in the debris produced from coal mining.

Alkaliphiles prefer an alkaline environment (pH >

8.5), such as that found inside the intestine (pH
~9), in soils laden with carbonate, and in the so-
called soda lakes. Vibrio cholerae—the bacterium
that causes cholera—is the only human pathogen
that grows well above pH 8.
 Osmotic Pressure and Salinity

Osmotic pressure is the pressure exerted on a

cell membrane by solutions both inside and
outside the cell. When cells are suspended in a
solution, the ideal situation is that the pressure
inside the cell is equal to the pressure of the
solution outside the cell.
Substances dissolved in liquids are referred to as
solutes. When the concentration of solutes in the
environment outside a cell is greater than the
concentration of solutes inside the cell, the
solution in which the cell is suspended is said to
be hypertonic. In such a situation, whenever
possible, water leaves the cell by osmosis in an
attempt to equalize the two concentrations.
Osmosis is defined as the movement of a
solvent (e.g., water), through a permeable
membrane, from a solution having a lower
concentration of solute to a solution having a
higher concentration of solute.

If the cell is a human cell, such as a red blood

cell (erythrocyte), the loss of water causes the
cell to shrink; this shrinkage is called crenation,
and the cell is said to be crenated
If the cell is a
bacterial cell, having
a rigid cell wall, the
cell does not shrink.
Instead, the cell
membrane and
cytoplasm shrink
away from the cell
wall. This condition,
known as
plasmolysis, inhibits
bacterial cell growth
and multiplication.
Salts and sugars are added to certain foods as a
way of preserving them. Bacteria that enter such
hypertonic environments will die as a result of loss
of water and desiccation.
When the
concentration of
solutes outside a cell is
less than the
concentration of
solutes inside the cell,
the solution in which
the cell is suspended is
said to be hypotonic.
In such a situation,
whenever possible,
water enters the cell in
an attempt to equalize
the two concentrations.
If the cell is a human cell, such as an
erythrocyte, the increased water within the cell
causes the cell to swell. If sufficient water
enters, the cell will burst (lyse). In the case of
erythrocytes, this bursting is called hemolysis.
If a bacterial cell is placed in a hypotonic solution
(such as distilled water), the cell may not burst
(because of the rigid cell wall), but the fluid
pressure within the cell increases greatly.

This increased pressure occurs in cells having rigid

cell walls, such as plant cells and bacteria. If the
pressure becomes so great that the cell ruptures,
the escape of cytoplasm from the cell is referred to
as plasmoptysis.
When the concentration
of solutes outside a cell
equals the
concentration of solutes
inside the cell, the
solution is said to be
isotonic. In an isotonic
environment, excess
water neither leaves
nor enters the cell, and
thus, no plasmolysis or
plasmoptysis occurs;
 Barometric Pressure

Most bacteria are not affected by minor

changes in barometric pressure. Some thrive
at normal atmospheric pressure (about 14.7
psi). Others, known as piezophiles, thrive
deep in the ocean and in oil wells, where the
atmospheric pressure is very high. Some
archaea, for example, are piezophiles,
capable of living in the deepest parts of the
ocean
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