Introduction

Evaporites are sedimentary rocks composed of minerals produced by precipitation

from a brine; usually the brine is produced by the solar evaporation of a surface or
near-surface water, frequently in the midst of biological influences. Evaporites
include both rocks formed by the mechanical transport of evaporite precipitates, and
(at the other end of the diagenetic spectrum) rocks formed by metamorphic
processes. Examples include gypsum, anhydrite, halite, some limestones and
dolomites, and the bittern salts (see Table 1, below):

anhydrite CaSO4 leonhardtite MgSO4 4H2O

aphthitalite leonite MgSO4 K2SO4 4H2O

(glaserite) K2SO4.(Na,K)SO4 loewite 2MgSO4.2Na2SO45H2O

antarcticite CaCl2 6H2O magnesian (MgxCa1-x)CO3

aragonite CaCO3 calcite

bassanite CaSO4.1/2H2O mirabilite Na2SO4 lOH2O

bischofite MgC12 6H2O nahcolite NaHCO3

bloedite Na2SO4.MgSO4.2H2O natron Na2CO3 1OH2O

(astrakanite) pentahydrite MgSO45H2O

burkeite Na2CO3.2Na2SO4 pirssonite CaCO3 Na2CO3 2H2O

calcite CaCO3 polyhalite 2CaSO4.MgSO4 K2SO4 2H2O

carnallite MgCl2 KCl6H2O rinneite FeC12.NaCI.3KCI

dolomite CaCO3.MgCO3 sanderite MgSO4.2H2O

epsomite MgSO4 7H2O schoenite

gaylussite CaCO3.Na2CO3.5H2O (picromerite) MgSO4.K2SO4.6H2O

glauberite CaSO4.Na2SO4 shortite 2CaCO3.Na2CO3

gypsum CaSO4.2H2O sylvite KCl

halite NaCl syngenite CaSO4.K2SO4 H2O

hanksite 9Na2SO4.2Na2CO3.KCI tachyhydrite CaC12.2MgC12.1 2H2O

hexahydrite MgSO4 6H2O thernadite Na2SO4

kainite MgSO4.KCl.11/4H2O thermonatrite NaCO3.H2O

kieserite MgSO4H2O trona NaHCO3Na2CO3

inngbeinite 2MgSO4.K2SO4 van'thoffite MgSO4.3Na2SO4

Table 1. Major Evaporite minerals and their compositions.

In many hydrocarbon accumulations, evaporites play an essential role as potential

hydrocarbon sources, reservoirs, traps and seals.

Economic Significance of Evaporitic Settings

Many explorationists consider the study of evaporites an erudite pastime, but these
same explorationists worry about seal continuity and capacity, the timing of trap
formation and source potential. In a basin containing evaporites, the answer to some
of these problems lies in a study of the evaporites themselves: why they occur where
they do, how dolomitization can be intimately associated with evaporites, and how
salt can flow to generate giant traps in subadjacent and overlying sequences.

Evaporites overlie carbonates that contain an estimated one-half of the world's

known petroleum reserves (Kirkland and Evans, 1981). About 70% of the world's
giant oil fields in carbonate rocks are related in some way to evaporites (Zhang Yi-
gang, 1981) and all of the giant gas fields in thrust belts have an evaporite seal
(Downey, 1984). This association among evaporites, carbonates and hydrocarbons is
more than just luck, since evaporites constitute less than 2% of the world's platform
sediments ( Figure 1 , Distribution of evaporites as a percentage of the sediments on
the world's platforms from Cambrian to the present).
 Figure 1

The association exists for many reasons:

· Beds of ancient evaporites overlying or up-dip from porous sediments

set up impressive seals for any underlying potential reservoirs.

· Thick, buried halite units are often remobilized into salt domes which,
in turn, create potential reservoirs in the surrounding sediments.

· The subsurface movement of pore waters can leach evaporites in

carbonate and siliciclastic matrices, creating areas of secondary
porosity.

· Evaporite diagenesis can release large quantities of magnesium-rich

brine, forming sucrosic dolomite-an excellent potential reservoir-in
adjacent limestones.

An association may even exist between evaporite depositional settings and source
rock formation. Evaporites and evaporitic carbonates are, by definition, deposited in
arid environments lacking fresh water. As a result, these sediments do not contain a
high proportion of organic matter derived from higher plant debris. Instead, the
elevated salinities and general environmental stress means that the organic matter
present is often derived from algae and zooplankton. Most modern evaporites are
deposited adjacent to, or within, areas of high algal productivity and accumulation.
Thus, evaporitic source rocks often laminated carbonates-are more likely to be oil-
prone than gas-prone. The diagenetic settings of some ancient evaporitic sites, such
as rifts, intrashelf basins and collision basins, are conducive to the preservation of
this organic matter until it reaches the zone of catagenesis (Warren, 1986a, b).

History of Evaporite Research

The first serious study of the depositional origin of evaporites began with the work of
the Italian chemist Usiglio (1849). He was the first to establish the order of
crystallization of salts from concentrating seawater (as we will see below in Table
1), and for the less soluble salts such as gypsum and halite, his observations have
yet to be improved.

Mineral Concentration % Water Loss Brine Density

Factor

K, Mg Salts 63x 98.7% 1.29

Halite 11x 90% 1.214

Gypsum 5x 80% 1.126

(anhydrite)

CaC03 2-3x 50% 1.10

Seawater 1x 0% 1.04

Table 1. Mineral sequence from the evaporation of a simple seawater solution.

(After Usiglio,1849)

The idea that thick evaporites were formed by the evaporation of ponded seawater in
a barred basin located behind a restricting sill was advanced by Bischof (1854) and
further expounded by Ochsenius (1877). This barred-basin model held sway well into
the 1960s, when studies of modern sabkha (salt flat) sediments convinced many
geologists that tidal flats were the key to interpreting many ancient evaporites. Our
improved understanding and modelling of evaporite deposition and diagenesis in the
last three decades is based on studies of Quaternary depositional settings, and
began in the 1960s with detailed studies of sabkhas in the Arabian (Persian) Gulf
(Illing et al., 1965) and bedded salts in the Dead Sea (Neev and Emery, 1967).
Modern subaqueous gypsum was described from Western and South Australia
(Arakel, 1980; Logan, 1981; Warren, 1982a, b) and shallow-water evaporite
pseudomorphs in rocks 3.45 billion years old in Western Australia (Dunlop, 1978).

In the 1970s and '80s, geological models began to move away from a pure sabkha
interpretation, as more and more complexity was perceived in ancient evaporites and
the importance of subaqueous deposition began to be recognized in modern and
ancient sequences. For example, the Deep Sea Drilling Program (DSDP) discovered a
two-km-thick sequence of Late Miocene shallow-water evaporites beneath the
Mediterranean Sea. The unit is sandwiched between deepwater carbonates and
extends across large portions of the Mediterranean. The basin floor was covered by
brine only a few meters deep, yet it was situated thousands of meters below sea
level . Textural analysis of cores showed them to be a mixture of shallow subaqueous
and sabkha evaporites, which led to the novel idea of a desiccated deep basin.

This innovative hypothesis was not widely accepted by land-based geologists, who
preferred a deepwater/deep-basin origin for the evaporite unit. Then came
confirmation of its shallow-water origin, based on onshore work by Schreiber and
coworkers in the Late Miocene evaporites of the Sicilian and Italian basins (Schreiber
and Decima, 1976, 1978).

Today, we realize that there is no all-encompassing model for evaporite deposition,

and that models based solely on the scale of Holocene counterparts are limiting, and
sometimes misleading, in the interpretation of ancient sequences . All current
evaporite deposition occurs in sabkhas and sea-marginal subaqueous lakes, with
thicknesses measured in tens of meters and areas measured in hundreds or
thousands of square kilometers. But at various times in the past, evaporites were
deposited in depositional settings ranging from continental to platform to basinal,
with thicknesses measured in hundreds of meters and areal extents measured in
thousands or millions of square kilometers.

Still, much of the progress in evaporite studies in the last two decades has been due
to the selective application of Quaternary depositional systems to ancient evaporitic
sequences. Depositional models are derived by combining aspects of modern
evaporitic sedimentation in areas as widespread as Africa, Antarctica, Australia, the
Middle East and the southwestern United States. The result is a composite suite of
vertical sequences and lateral facies associations which can be used to interpret
similar features in ancient depositional successions.

Evaporite Mineralogy

Most ancient evaporites are composed of salts originally formed by the concentration
of brines derived from seawater (Table 1, below). Modern seawater is a well-mixed
aqueous solution with salinities averaging 35±2 per mille. The salinity of seawater is
given as parts (by weight) of dissolved salts per mille (i.e., parts per thousand). A
salinity of 35 per mille corresponds to a specific gravity of 1.026 at 16° C. Over most
of the Pacific, Atlantic and Indian Oceans, salinity lies between 34 and 36 per mille,
but in tropical latitudes, a progressive increase occurs as we move toward the
centers of the permanent anticyclonic areas.

Mineral Concentration % Water Loss Brine Density

Factor

K, Mg Salts 63x 98.7% 1.29

Halite 11x 90% 1.214

Gypsum 5x 80% 1.126

(anhydrite)
CaC03 2-3x 50% 1.10

Seawater 1x 0% 1.04

Table 1. Mineral sequence from the evaporation of a simple seawater solution.

(After Usiglio,1849)

The salinities of ancient epeiric seaways were far more variable, especially in arid
settings, where salinities ranged into-and stayed at-halite- and gypsum-precipitating
levels for extended periods. This led to the deposition of widespread shallow
subaqueous evaporite units extending over hundreds of square kilometers (e.g., the
San Andres Formation on the northern shelf of the Permian Basin, Texas). These
epeiric seaway evaporites have no modern counterpart.

Modern seawater chemistry is dominated by Na+ and Cl-, with lesser amounts of
SO42-, Mg2+, Ca2+, K+, CO32- and HCO3-. Using the classification of Eugster and
Hardie (1978), seawater is a Na-(Mg)-Cl-(S04) water. The chemical makeup and the
proportions of major ions of seawater are constant in all the world's oceans. When
seawater evaporates, it deposits a predictable suite of minerals (as in Table 1,
above). The first mineral to precipitate is CaCO3, usually as aragonite; this begins
when the solution reaches twice the concentration of seawater (40 to 60 per mille).
Next to precipitate is gypsum (CaSO4.2H20), which occurs when the brine is about
five times the concentration of seawater (130 to 160 per mille). At 11 to 12 times
the concentration of seawater (340 to 360 per mille), salt or halite (NaCl) drops out
of the brine. After halite, the bittern salts (potassium and magnesium salts)
precipitate at concentrations more than 60 times that of the original seawater. The
types of bittern salts and the salinities at which they precipitate from concentrated
seawater vary according to the temperature and levels of organic matter in the
remaining brine.

In a continental setting, rivers and groundwaters are the source of ions deposited in
the evaporite basin; seawater takes little or no part in supplying the ions. The
chemistry of continental waters is far more variable than seawater; consequently, a
more diverse suite of evaporite minerals is found in continental evaporite basins
(Hardie et al., 1982). As continental waters flow into a basin, they pass over and
through many different lithologies. Their dissolved load is derived by the leaching of
more soluble minerals along the flow path into the evaporative basin. Flow through
limestones produces waters rich in Ca2+ and HC03-; dolomites also generate Mg2+,
and both igneous and metamorphic rocks yield silica-rich Ca-Na-HC03 waters.
Sulfides will contribute sulfate ions, whereas basic and ultrabasic rocks often produce
alkaline Mg-HC03 waters.

Minerals such as glauberite, polyhalite, epsomite, bloedite, sylvite and tachyhydrite

can occur in either marine or continental settings (see Table 1, above). On the other
hand, seawater is dominated by Na+, Cl- and S042- ions, so saline carbonates never
form in a evaporite setting fed by seawater. All the carbonate ions are used up early
in the seawater precipitation series. Trona, gaylussite, pirssonite, burkeite,
northupite, hanksite and similar phases are restricted to saline continental settings,
where ample bicarbonate remains in solution after most of the calcium has been
precipitated as alkaline earth carbonates.

Brine Composition Major Saline Minerals Key Minerals

And Its Source

I.
Na-K-CO3-Cl-SO4 alkaline earth carbonates, Na2CO3 minerals

Non-marine waters gaylussite, pirssonite,

(particularly meteoric) thenardite, trona, nahcolite,

natron, thermonatrite, shortite,

burkeite, aphthitalite, halite,

sylvite, hanksite, mirabilite

II.
A) Na-K-Mg-SO4- Cl Seawater and non-marine MgSO4 minerals or

waters (meteoric/ SO4 minerals

volcanogenic) or Mixed

marine and non-marine waters

alkaline earth carbonates,

gypsum, anhydrite, mirabilite,

thenardite, glauberite,

polyhalite, epsomite,

hexahydrite, kieserite,

bloedite and other Na-Mg

sulfates leonite and other

-Mg sulfates, kainite,

carnallite, halite, sylvite,

ischofite

B) Na-K-Mg-Ca-Cl alkaline earth carbonates, KCl±CaCl2 minerals in

gypsum, anhydrite, sylvite, the absence of Na2SO4

carnallite, bischofite, and MgSO4 minerals

tachyhydrite, antarcticite

on-marine waters

particularly hydrothermal)

Table 2. Saline minerals and their parent brines (After Hardie, 1984).

The lack of saline carbonate minerals in most ancient evaporites seems to indicate
that there has been little change in the chemical makeup of the world's oceans for
the last billion years (Holser, 1979). The occurrence of calcite pseudomorphs after
saline carbonates in organic-rich Cambrian limestones in South Australia is due to
the continental setting of this ancient saline playa (White and Youngs, 1980).
Sodium carbonate mineral pseudomorphs and Magadi-type cherts also occur in
organic-rich laminites in lacustrine rocks of Middle Devonian age in the Orcadian
Basin of Scotland (Parnell, 1986).

Evaporite units are usually defined by the dominant mineral in the bed. For example,
a halite unit is usually one with a mineral composition of more than 50% halite.
Holser (1979) argued that it is better to define an evaporite unit by the appearance,
in any proportion, of a critical new mineral or its pseudomorphs. Using his method, a
rock does not need to contain 50% halite to be in the halite facies; it need only
contain halite in any amount. The very fact that halite could precipitate at all is the
critical factor in the appearance of a new facies. The advantage of this usage is that
it can define salinity and pore fluid changes much better than a system that defines
units based on the proportions of their dominant minerals.

The disadvantage of Holser's method is that it is of less use in the subsurface, where
massive evaporite beds are seldom cored. Often, all we have available are chips or
cross-plots from the wireline logs. Mineralogy determined from wireline data and
chips reflects the dominant mineralogies or the least soluble salts in a unit.

To date, no consistent classification exists for evaporites; most workers (including

myself) describe the unit based on its dominant mineral. For anhydrite, the best
nongenetic classification is that of Maiklem et al. (1969), but their classification is not
widely accepted. For evaporite beds dominated by minerals other than anhydrite,
there simply is no widely-accepted nongenetic classification.

Diagenesis

Evaporites are difficult sediments to use for interpreting depositional setting, due to
pervasive diagenesis; primary textures are often altered by recrystallization and
replacement during late, early and even syndepositional diagenesis ( Table 1, below,
Hardie, 1984). Pseudomorphs and reaction rims are common, as are relict mineral
cores encased in the mineral that replaced it. Documented examples include
pseudomorphs of anhydrite after subaqueous gypsum, reaction rims of polyhalite
around earlier gypsum or anhydrite, relicts of carnallite in secondary sylvite, and
pseudomorphs of sylvite plus kieserite after earlier langbeinite.
Other examples include gypsum, deposited at the surface, converting to anhydrite
with burial and back to gypsum with reemergence. During the dewatering associated
with burial, other salts (such as halite and the bittern salts) can recrystallize or
transform to other mineral phases. The deformation and recrystallization associated
with rheotropic flow can also alter texture. Buried gypsum can develop enterolithic
folds as it converts to anhydrite. Buried salt can flow and fold into intricate salt
structures on scales ranging from millimeters to kilometers. Some salts flow more
readily than others; in bedded evaporites a layer composed of carnallite and halite
can be isoclinally folded, yet sit between two relatively undeformed anhydrite layers
(as we see in the Realmonte Mine, which is located in Miocene potash salts in Sicily).

Thus, if a geologist is to understand the depositional setting of the evaporites, he or

she must keep in mind that the mineralogy present is often a replacement of an
earlier mineral phase. When core material is available, it should closely scrutinized
for pseudomorphs.

Mineral Syndepositional Origin

anhydrite (CaSO4) dehydration of early-formed gypsum as aH20

of evaporating brine decreases

glauberite (CaS04.Na2S04) back-reaction of evaporating Na2S04-brine

with early-formed gypsum or halite

polyhalite (2CaS04.MgS04.K2S04.2H20) back-reaction of evaporating K-Mg-SO4

brine with early-formed gypsum, anhydrite or

glauberite

kieserite (MgSO4.H2O) dehydration of early-formed hexahydrite as

aH20 of evaporating brine decreases

sylvite (Kcl) incongruent dissolution of carnallite in

undersaturated waters

gaylussite (CaCO3.Na2CO3.5H20) back-reaction of evaporating alkaline brine

with early-formed aragonite or calcite

Table 1. Diagenetic evaporite minerals that can grow syndepositionally at

temperatures below 300 C (after Hardie, 1984).

Gypsum Anhydrite and Dewatering

In many reservoir seals, the calcium sulfate minerals gypsum and anhydrite are
important-and often puzzling-phases, with mineralogies that can change according to
prevailing temperatures, pressures and salinities (Kinsman, 1974; Holser, 1979).
Gypsum formation is favored by lower temperatures, lower pressures and relatively
lower salinities; anhydrite is favored by higher temperatures, pressures and salinities
( Figure 1 ,

Figure 1

Stability of the calcium sulfate minerals in terms of temperature and salinity) and (
Figure 2 , Stability of the calcium sulfate minerals in terms of temperature and depth
showing the importance of the salinity of pore fluids to the gypsum/anhydrite
transition).
 Figure 2

At earth surface conditions, gypsum is by far the most common calcium sulfate
phase. Kinsman (1974) concluded that, under present conditions, gypsum will be the
stable mineral phase precipitated from a standing body of brine, but that both
primary anhydrite and penecontemporaneous anhydrite can form under the extreme
conditions found in some sabkhas.

Anhydrite can precipitate and grow by capillary evaporation in the high salinities and
temperatures of the Arabian Gulf sabkhas, or it can replace gypsum already present
in the sabkha. Sometimes, after a heavy rainstorm, the partially hydrated form of
gypsum (bassanite-CaS04.1/2H20) is as common as anhydrite on the sabkha
surface. Anhydrite is less likely in many other modern coastal evaporitic areas where
temperatures are lowered by the coastal setting; in these settings, gypsum is the
more likely sulfate.

Penecontemporaneous anhydrite is more common under the extreme temperature

regime found in continental deserts. Even there, in many near-surface settings,
gypsum not only grows but persists at temperatures and brine concentrations where
primary anhydrite should be a stable phase. In this respect, anhydrite is an
exceptional mineral: it is easier to make in the laboratory under conditions
equivalent to natural surface settings than it is to find in nature. The presence of
some types of organic matter and the high relative humidity of many evaporitic
settings probably discourage the surface formation or preservation of
penecontemporaneous anhydrite.
When bedded crystalline gypsum is buried and the temperature rises above 60º C, it
is transformed to nodular anhydrite ( Figure 2 ). In a hydrologically-open freshwater
system, the process is complete by a depth of 1,000 m (3,000 to 4,000 ft),
corresponding to a pressure of about 300 atm. In a brine-saturated system, the
transformation from gypsum to nodular anhydrite can occur at depths of only few
tens of meters. If the unit is overpressured, as in an evaporite bed encased in shale,
the conversion can be delayed until depths of 2,000-3,000 meters. The reverse
process-the alteration of anhydrite back to gypsum-occurs during erosion and
exposure, as the bed reenters the meteoric realm and is bathed in cooler and fresher
pore fluids.

The conversion reaction is:

CaSO4.2H2O -> CaSO4 + 2H20 (1.1)

CaSO4—saturated water is released upon burial as the gypsum is transformed to

anhydrite, adding a water-filled volume of 38% to the porosity of the sulfate unit.
The water produced by this dehydration must have some influence on its
surroundings. The most likely effect is a decrease in strength of the anhydrite unit,
due to increased lubrication and, perhaps, overpressuring. If the water cannot drain
freely from the dewatering gypsum, the bed converts to a quicksand-like consistency
subject to flow and distortion.

Dewatering explains much of the deformation, flattening and enterolithic texture

observed in many ancient bedded anhydrites. Contrary to the popular notion that
enterolithic structures form only in a sabkha tidal flat, enterolithic anhydrite can form
in several different ways:

· in the supratidal zone of an Arabian Gulf sabkha,

· during burial, as gypsum dehydrates to anhydrite,

· as a near-surface, soft sediment slumping into a basin,

· by crumpling, as diagenetic anhydrite hydrates back to gypsum, with

a 64% increase in volume.

Enterolithic anhydrite formed tectonically-or as slumps in bedded, dewatering

gypsum-tends to show constant vergence of the fold axes. Thus, constant vergence
can be used to distinguish some forms of burial anhydrite from sabkha anhydrite. In
the latter case, the orientation of the enterolith crests is almost always random.
However, nodular anhydrite formed from crystalline gypsum under isostatic burial
conditions can also show random alignment.

Subaqueous gypsum was (and is) often deposited as large, nearly vertically aligned,
gypsum crystals up to 30-40 cm long. Sometimes these crystals were outlined by
clay, carbonate or organic matter impurities. When these crystals were buried and
dewatered, much of their original structure was lost in the conversion to nodular
anhydrite. However, occasional remnants of the original crystals may remain as
aligned, elongate anhydrite nodules (gypsum ghosts). Recognizing these structures
is extremely useful in defining the depositional setting of ancient sulfate deposits .
The factors controlling the occurrence of gypsum outlines preserved as "ghosts" are
poorly understood. If, during burial, the water of dehydration drains a little slower
than it does when enterolithic structures form, the sediment can retain enough
rigidity to form aligned, nodular anhydrite pseudomorphs, or ghosts, after gypsum. (
Figure 3 , Schematic showing how some of the various types of subaqueous gypsum
are converted to characteristic types of aligned anhydrite nodules.

Figure 3

The presence of a mantle of carbonate, clastic or organic mud seems to control

whether subaqueous gypsum textures will be partially preserved as anhydrite
"ghosts".)(Warren and Kendall, 1985.)

One of the most important factors leading to excellent preservation seems to be

conversion to nodular anhydrite in the shallow-burial, brine-saturated realm
(Shearman, 1985; Hovorka, 1988). There, at depths of a few meters to tens of
meters, the temperatures are relatively low and the sediments sufficiently porous to
allow the free escape of water during dehydration. As a result, the sediment matrix
maintained sufficient rigidity to preserve the impurity-outlined gypsum as nodular
anhydrite. It is an environment that is also conducive to the shallow brine reflux that
allows finely-detailed pseudomorphing by halite or other more saline minerals
(Lowenstein, 1982; Hovorka, 1987, 1988; Warren, 1988). The escaping water is
saturated with respect to CaSO4, but undersaturated with respect to other evaporite
minerals, including any nearby carbonates (Sass and Ben-Yaakov, 1977), as well as
halite and the bittern salts. As it flows through the surrounding rocks, it can leach
minerals to create secondary porosity or bring about mineralogical transformations.
During brine reflux in the shallow subsurface of the Palo Duro Basin, the flow of such
waters dissolved marine carbonate to form anhydrite-filled molds (Bein and Land,
1982).

The water of crystallization also affects units subjacent to the dewatering gypsum
unit, especially if dehydration does not occur until depths of a few hundred meters.
As it drains out of the sulfate unit, the water lubricates nearby growth faults and
other relatively shallow slippage features, including nappes. With dewatering, a
gypsum bed 10 m thick will convert to a 6.2-m anhydrite bed. This releases 4.9 m3
of water per square meter of cross-sectional area. At 30º C, this volume of CaS04-
saturated water can dissolve 0.8 m3 of halite or 5.4 m3 of carnallite, or convert 8.1
m3 of carnallite to sylvite (Blatt, 1982, p. 354).

KMgCl3.6H20 + 4H20 —> KCl + Mg2+ + 2Cl- + 10H20 (1.2)

carnallite sylvite

If these waters are also relatively hot, they can carry and transform immature,
shallow hydrocarbons (Warren, 1986a).

Dewatering a thick gypsum unit causes a decrease in sediment volume and thickness
as the unit compacts, with a loss of 38% water (and associated porosity). Usually,
this compaction will occur evenly across the whole evaporite; if the unit is
widespread and of equal thickness, the end result is not all that noticeable. But in
certain depositional settings, dewatering can enhance hydrocarbon migration
pathways by differential compaction.

Consider the example of a carbonate buildup capped and surrounded by a CaS04-

rich evaporite unit. ( Figure 4 ,
 Figure 4

Depositional setting with sabkha (matrix-rich evaporites) formed as the ephemeral

water facies above a buildup, and subaqueous evaporites (pure evaporites) as the
off-buildup facies and Figure 5 , Burial compaction has created a new reservoir due
to the greater volume loss in the regions of pure subaqueous sulfate.
 Figure 5

Evaporites off this structure would most likely be thick sequences of subaqueous,
relatively pure gypsum and halite; the on-structure cap would most likely be an
anhydritic, matrix-dominated sabkha succession ( Figure 4 ). When evaporite
deposition ceased in the basin, the upper surface would have been a nearly-
horizontal plane. As the succession was buried, the gypsum-rich, off-structure
evaporite sequence would dewater to around 60% of its original thickness. The
matrix-rich, on-structure sabkha sequence would also compact, but not to the same
extent as the off-structure succession ( Figure 5 ). The result would be a
differentially compacted sequence draping over the buildup, with excellent migration
pathways into the region above the buildup. Even if the underlying carbonates were
tight, the differential compaction of an evaporite unit above the buildup could create
potential reservoirs above the reef—a bonus if the reef were to be drilled.

Analysis from Wireline Logs and Seimic Lines

Evaporites, are rarely cored. Chips of the more soluble minerals are easily dissolved
in most drilling muds, so only a small portion of an evaporite bed can be studied
directly. However, many evaporite properties can be ascertained from studying a
suite of wireline logs, since many bedded evaporites contain only one or two
dominant minerals, lack free pore fluids and have negligible porosity. This greatly
simplifies log interpretation and enhances reliability. Thick, clean evaporites will
show the same characteristic set of log responses, not only locally but, according to
some authors, worldwide (Serra, 1984, p. 173). The most commonly available logs
for the study of evaporites are those measuring hole diameter, electrical properties
and bulk density, neutron porosity logs, gamma and multi-spectral logs, and sonic
logs.

Well logs are a continuous recording of a geophysical parameter along a borehole

where the value of the measurement is continuously plotted against depth (Rider,
1986). For a comprehensive discussion of the geological applications of well logs,
many logging-company manuals are available, as well as excellent books and
articles, including those by Rider (1986), Doveton (1986), Dewan (1983), Nurmi
(1978), and Alger and Crain (1966). Much of the information presented here comes
from these sources.

Electrical Properties

Electrical resistivity, the reciprocal of electrical conductivity, is the degree with which
a formation opposes the flow of electrical current. Usually, a log of the spontaneous
potential of a formation is run at the same time as a resistivity log. in reality, the
measured resistivity depends on the combined resistivity of both the rock matrix and
any fluids contained. Most rock materials are insulators, while their enclosed fluids
are conductors. Hydrocarbons are the exception to fluid conductivity; they are
infinitely resistive. Most evaporite units contain little if any free water, and so have
very high resistivities compared to other, more porous, units (see Table 1 below).

When the evaporite unit is relatively pure, it creates a distinctive blocky log; when it
contains beds of thin, more porous, lithologies containing brine, we see a much
spikier log. The actual signature depends on the content of brine, sand, clay and
other variables. Although it does not allow us to give a first indication of lithology
within a local area in a basin, the resistivity log can subsequently confirm it.

Mineral Resistivity ( m2/m)

Anhydrite 1 0,000- to infinity

Gypsum 1,000

Salt 10,000- to infinity

Sylvite 1014-1015

Tight limestone 80-6,000

Tight dolomite 60-7,000

Porous carbonate(brine-filled pores) 1

Sandstone moderate-low

Shale Variable; 0.5-1000

Table 1: Typical resistivity values.

Gamma Ray and Spectral Gamma Ray Lags

The gamma ray (or gamma) log is a record of the formation's radioactivity. The
radiation emanates from uranium, thorium and potassium, which occur naturally in
the formation. The simple gamma ray log measures the radioactivity of the three
elements combined, while the spectral gamma log shows the amount of each
individual element contributing to the radioactivity.

As a first indicator of lithology, the gamma log is extremely useful in suggesting

where shale may be expected in a formation; elevated gamma readings typically
indicate shaliness.

Species Formula % Potassium (by wt.) Typical gamma (API)

Sylvite KCl 52.5 500

Carnallite KCl.MgCl2.(H2O)6 14.1 200

Polyhalite K2S04.2CaSO4. 12.9 190

MgSO4.2H20

Anhydrite CaS04 — 0-12

Gypsum CaS04.(H20)2 — 0

Halite NaCl — 0

Clean

dolomite CaMg(C03)2 — 10-20

Clean

limestone CaCO3 — 10-20

Clean sand variable — 10-20

Shale variable — 24-1,000

Table 2. Potassium content and typical gamma values of evaporites.

It is true that clays can contain elevated levels of potassium-containing minerals,

that thorium is often fixed in shales, and that clays "fix" uranium into the sediment
in three main ways:

· chemical precipitation in acid (ph 2.54.0) or reducing environments.

· adsorption by organic matter in the clays.

 · adsorption by phosphates in the clays.

However, high gamma readings can also be due to glauconite-rich sands, the
secondary movement of uranium to form "hot" cements and fissure fills, or (more
importantly for our purposes) the presence of some types of evaporites-specifically,
those evaporites which contain high proportions of potassium salts, such as sylvite,
carnallite and polyhalite. In these salts, the potassium content is between 10% and
50% by weight ( Table 2, above).

When we consider that the average shale contains only 2.7% potassium, the very
strong radioactivity of these potassium salts is understandable and allows us to
easily distinguish these deposits from the high uranium-derived kicks of a marine
shale. In contrast to halite units containing potassium salts, the more common
evaporites (such as salt and anhydrite) give very low readings on the gamma log
scale (see Figure 1 , Potassium salts giving high peaks of radioactivity in an
evaporite sequence from the Permian of the North Sea).

Figure 1

When logging the potassium salts we can estimate percentage of K2O from the
gamma response. Using calibrated logs tied back to core material, Edwards et al.
(1967) showed that, for a 6.25-inch, liquid-filled hole, there was a correlation of 12.6
API units per 1% K2O.

Bulk Density Logs

The bulk density log is a measure of the degree of scattering or attenuation of

gamma rays by electrons in the formation (Compton scattering). Also known as the
density log, it is numerically equivalent to specific gravity, indicates the average
density of the formation, and includes the solid rock matrix as well as the fluids
enclosed in the pores. The electron density of a formation (electrons/cm3) is closely
related to the common density (gm/cm3), and is used as indicator of common
density. Unfortunately, some minerals, including halite and sylvite, have electron
densities that are not directly proportional to their specific gravities. These minerals
require the use of apparent bulk density for interpretation. Fortunately, many of the
evaporite minerals can be recognized by the differences in their bulk densities
(see Table 3 below).

Many evaporite units are relatively pure and often mono- or bimineralic. Because of
this, their lithological composition can be suspected, if not positively identified, from
the density log. However, when impure, the densities will fluctuate. Fortunately,
most evaporites tend to give intervals of constant density with little or no variation.
When this occurs along with densities near the expected value, a clean evaporite unit
can be easily identified and correlated using the bulk density log.

Species Formula Actual density Tool-derived Tool difference

(gm/cm3) (gm/cm3) (g./cm3)

Anhydrite CaSO4 2.96 (2.89-3.05) 2.89-3.05 +0.01 to -0.02

Carnallite KCl.MgCl2.6H20 1.60 1.51 +0.03

Gypsum CaSO4.2H20 2.32 (2.30-2.35) 2.33-2.40 -0.01 to -0.05

Halite NaCl 2.16 2.03-2.08 +0.13 to +0.12

Polyhalite K2S04.2CaSO4. 2.80(2.11-3.00) 2.19 +0.12 to -0.02

MgS04.2H20

Sylvite KCl 1.98 1.86-1.99 +0.12 to +0.06

Dolomite CaMg(C03)2 2.81 (2.80-2.99) 2.85-2.88 +0.02 to +0.01

Limestone CaC03 2.11 2.11 zero

Quartz SiO2 2.654 2.642.66 +0.06

Table 3. Density and electron-derived density of some common minerals

Neutron Porosity Logs

The neutron porosity index, or neutron log, provides a continuous record of a

formation's reaction to fast neutron bombardment. It is primarily a measurement of
the hydrogen concentration in the formation, whether from water of hydration, as in
the case of hydrated salts such as gypsum and carnallite, or from water or oil in the
more commonly understood geological situation. Quantitatively, the neutron log is
used to measure porosity; qualitatively, it is a good discriminator between oil and
gas; geologically, it can be used to identify gross lithology, evaporites, hydrated
minerals and volcanic rocks. Crossplots of formation bulk densities versus neutron
log measurements are extremely valuable tools for identifying subsurface lithologies.

The neutron log can distinguish between various evaporites based on the water of
crystallization (Rider 1986). Gypsum is the most common of the evaporites
containing water of crystallization. However carnallite, polyhalite and kainite also
contain the water radical (Table 4, below). All these minerals have a high neutron
log value; this separates them from other (anhydrous) evaporites, such as salt or
anhydrite, which contain no water and, hence, have a log value of zero .

Mineral Composition Neutron-log value

(Neutron Porosity)

Cornallite KCl.MgCl2.6H2O 60

Gypsum CaSO4.2(H20) 60

Kainite 4KCl.4MgSO4.1 1 H20 60

Polyhalite K2SO4.2CaSO4. 25

MgS04.2H20

Holite NaCl -3

Anhydrite CaS04 -2

Sylvite KCl -3

Table 4: Neutron log values of some evaporites.

Sonic or Acoustic Logs

The sonic, or acoustic, log shows a formation's interval transit time, designated t,
measured in microseconds/ft (t is the reciprocal of sonic velocity). It is a measure
of a formation's capacity to transmit sound waves. Geologically, this capacity varies
with lithology and rock texture, most notably porosity. Because most subsurface
evaporites have extremely low porosities and are often relatively pure, the sonic log
can be used to identify evaporites once an initial identification has been made by
some other means
(see Table 5, below). The seeming precision of the figures given in the table
arillusory, as the actual transit times are strongly influenced by compositional
variation, temperature and confining pressure.

Lithology Vma(ft/set) ma (µsec/ft) Commonly

used tma

Anhydrite 20,000 5O.O 50.0

Gypsum 19,000 52.0-53.0 52.0

Halite 15,000 66.7-68.0 67.0

Polyhalite 17,200 57.5-58.0 58.0

Sylvite 13,500 74 74

Dolomite 22,20-26,000 45.0-38.5 43.5

Limestone 19,00-23,000 53-47.6 47.6

Sandstone 18,00-19,500 55.5-51.0 55.5-51.0

(compacted)

Shale 5,000-16,000 167-62.5 variable

Lignite ~6,500 140-180 variable

Brine 5,290 - 189

(20% NaCl)

Oil (40°API) 4,200 - 238

Gas (methane) 1,600 - 625

Table 5 Some diagnostic mineral velocities

Rock salt is formed mainly from the mineral halite and is a lithology whose density is
effectively constant with depth. Since density is the probably the most important
factor in determining acoustic velocity, the tma of a thick halite unit tends to be
relatively constant over a wide depth range (Jenyon, 1986a, p.5). For pure halite,
the interval transit time is 68 µsec/ft (14,625 ft/sec). However, most halite units
contain some impurities (usually anhydrite), either as interbeds or disseminated
throughout the sequence. Anhydrite has an interval transit time of 50 µsec/ft
(20,000 ft/sec). The velocity variations in a binary system of halite and anhydrite are
related in a linear fashion (either by weight or volume) to the densities of the various
mixtures of the end member values, allowing semiquantitative determinations of the
purity of the units.
Sonic logs are widely used for correlation and the construction of synthetic
seismograms. When considering representative velocities in interpreting seismic
lines, we must remember that the presence of bedded anhydrite and carbonate units
within the total rock salt interval will have an appreciable effect on the average
seismic velocity through the salt interval.

Identification Technique

Sonic, density and neutron logs are used both individually and in combination to
estimate the porosity of potential reservoir strata. These logs are generally referred
to as the porosity logs. Although they do reflect porosity, they also reflect variations
in composition. In fact, there is very little porosity in most subsurface evaporites,
and the "porosity logs," in combination with each other or with a spectral gamma
log, are often used to identify evaporite mineralogies.

I have used the following procedure to identify various major anhydrite and halite
units in the Permian Basin of west Texas:

· Tentatively define anhydrite as the lowest gamma ray tracing.

· Confirm anhydrite using.

· Sonic-t of 50 microseconds.

· Bulk density Log value of 2.98.

· Caliper-Tracing of nominal bit size confirms anhydrite. (Tracing much

larger than normal indicates borehole washout; low gamma in this
case is probably salt, not anhydrite.)

· Gamma-ray neutron-Highest peaks on the neutron track coinciding

with lowest gamma implies anhydrite.

· Sidewall neutron porosity (SNP) Distinguishing between porosity and

evaporites that also have low gamma is difficult. In zones of nominal
borehole diameter, the apparent porosity of clean salt and anhydrite
are both nearly zero (any clay content will increase the apparent
porosity). Where wash-out has increased borehole diameter in salt
beds, apparent porosity increases greatly. SNP values of 0-2%,
coinciding with nominal borehole diameter, confirm anhydrite.

· Compensated neutron log (CNL™) This measurement is very similar

to SNP, but has greater penetration and is borehole-compensated.
Borehole enlargement has little effect on CNL™, making salt and
anhydrite virtually indistinguishable. [™ of Schlumberger Limited]

· Compensated formation density (FDC™) -Where gamma values are

g. low, high FDC™ values correspond to anhydrite and low FDC™
values correspond to salt. [™ of Schlumberger Limited]
 · Resistivity logs-No confirmation is possible without hole washout. In
holes with wash-out, anhydrite is confirmed where resistivities at or
near infinity coincide with low gamma and nominal diameter.

· Draw a zero baseline.

· Draw a line (line 1) tangential to the minimum gamma values

identified as anhydrite in steps 1 and 2.

· If no anhydrite can be determined from steps 1 and 2, draw a line

(line 1) tangential to the lowest values of gamma tracing.

· Draw a second line (line 2) at a somewhat higher gamma value, to

distinguish salt (principally halite) from shale and shaley salt.

· Assign "potential salt" to gamma ray tracing that lies between the
two lines.

· Assign "non-salt or poor quality salt" to gamma ray tracings that

extend beyond lines 1 and 2.

· Confirm salt by using the following procedures in various logs.

· Sonic (BHC) log Inspect t values at intervals between lines 1 and 2

corresponding to low gamma values. Pure salt will have a t = 67 µs/ft
and most relatively pure salt falls in the range of 64-70 µs/ft.

· Bulk density log-Inspect t values at intervals between lines 1 and 2

corresponding to low gamma values. Identify clean salt by a bulk
density of 2.03 gm/cc. Impurities will increase or decrease values.

· Sidewall neutron porosity (SNP) Does not provide much information

on how to differentiate one low-gamma mineralogy from another.
Sometimes salt appears to have higher porosity, due to wash-out.

· Compensated neutron formation density (CNL™-FDC™)-Salt

sometimes appears to have higher porosity, due to wash-out. [™ of
Schlumberger Limited]

· Resistivity logs Salt-like anhydrite has a high resistance to current

flow, but salt often shows lower apparent resistance, due to wash-out.

Most nonporous, relatively monomineralic, evaporite units can be readily identified

using wireline logs, and the proportions of minerals can be reliably determined using
crossplots. However, any mineralogical interpretation based on wireline logs is just
that-an interpretation. Whenever possible, it should be checked against rock
evidence, such as chips or core. The interpreter should, again, remember that chips
composed of the more soluble evaporite minerals are often completely dissolved in
the drilling mud before they reach the shale shaker. In this case, the wireline logs
can give a better indication of true mineralogy than the mud chips.
Using Seismic Lines

A seismic section contains information which can be interpreted in geological terms.

Since current data processing and presentation yield seismic sections that resemble
geological cross sections, explorationists not experienced in seismic interpretation
are often tempted to read geology more or less directly from the seismic time
section. If the geology is simple, this will not present a problem. But serious errors
may result from the literal interpretation of seismic sections in areas of complex
structure, such as a salt structure province , with their associated rapid changes in
velocity and irregular near-surface conditions. The principle tool available to the
geophysicist is time. The geologist is interested in depth, thickness, size and
porosity. The key to this transformation from the time domain to the depth domain is
velocity which, in itself, can be a significant indicator of lithology; hence, the
importance of synthetic seismics and Velog plots (Table 1).

Table 1: Some diagnostic mineral velocities.

Lithology Vma (ft/sec) tma (µsec/ft) Commonly used tma (µsec/ft)

Anhydrite 20,000 50.0 50.0
Gypsum 19,000 52.0 - 53.0 52.0
Halite 15,000 66.7 - 68.0 67.0
Polyhalite 17,200 57.5 - 58.0 58.0
Sylvite 13,500 74 74
Dolomite 22,200 - 26,000 45.0 - 38.5 43.5
Limestone 19,000-23,000 53 - 47.6 47.6
Sandstone 18,000-19,500 55.5 - 51.0 55.5 - 51.0
Shale 5,000-16,000 167 - 62.5
Lignite 6,500 140 - 180
Brine (20% NaCl) 5,290 - 189
Oil (40°API) 4,200 - 238
Methane 1,600 - 625

Information on a Seismic Section

On an optimally recorded and processed section, a seismic event corresponds to a

geological interface (depositional or diagenetic): its termination may indicate faulting
or pinching out; the amplitude of the reflection is significant information with respect
to lithology, hydrocarbons and structure; anticlines and synclines are readily evident;
faults are indicated by bed termination or overthrusting and are usually accompanied
by artificial events known as diffraction umbrellas (hyperbolae); reefs, salt structures
and shale diapirs have characteristic signatures; and stratigraphic traps can
sometimes be identified. The thinnest bed we are able to map seismically is given by
the equation:
Two-way temporal resolution (Tr) = 1/(1.4 * fmax)

where fmax is the maximum frequency of the seismic wave let. The higher the
frequency, the finer the resolution. Converting the temporal resolution to thickness
requires a knowledge of the velocity of the unit of interest; then we can use the
simple empirical formula (Easton Wren, personal communication, Nov. 1984):

Velocity = thickness/one-way time

Combining the two equations, we find:

Thickness = velocity/(2.8 * fmax)

From this formula, it is obvious that the faster the velocity, the more likely it is that
the seismic wavelets will interfere, and the thicker the unit we can resolve. The
higher the frequency, the better the resolution. In this case, Mother Nature favors
the explorationist, as hydrocarbon-charged reservoirs are typically slower than their
water-filled counterparts, especially if the reservoir is gas-charged. It is easier to
resolve a thin hydrocarbon-filled unit than its water-filled equivalent.

As an example of the use of the formulas, can we resolve an anhydrite bed 30 ft

thick with a velocity of 20,000 ft/sec using a seismic wavelet with a maximum
frequency of 80Hz (1Hz = 1 cycle/sec)? Feeding the numbers into the equation
shows the thinnest bed that can be resolved is 89 ft.

Eighty-nine feet is thicker than most Holocene evaporite deposits, and gives an
indication of the scale of resolution possible using the seismic method. It can resolve
the larger-scale depositional signatures, but cannot resolve the fine detail of the
depositional system we can see in wireline logs or cores, where the individual porous
units within or beneath sabkha and subaqueous cycles can be identified. Today,
through better processing, we can detect the presence of a 30-foot-thick unit in a
seismic section by anomalous interference effects, but the upper and lower contacts
of a thin anhydrite bed cannot be resolved directly. The great advantage of the
seismic method lies in the fact that a seismic study can outline the position of the
major features in a sedimentary basin without the drill ever entering the ground.

Recognizing Structures Sealed by Bedded Evaporites

Bedded evaporites often form a seal for reefs and other carbonate buildups; these
are stratigraphic traps, but we usually recognize them seismically by certain
structural criteria. The criteria used include:

· draping over the structure;

· the presence of a velocity pull-down (or in some cases, a velocity

pull-up) directly below the carbonate buildup;

· spurious events;

· basin architecture.
The draping of the overlying evaporitic sediment is a result of the early cementation
of the buildup which, with burial, creates a compactional drape in the overlying,
more mobile, evaporites . Draping occurs independently of whether the buildup is a
framework or stratigraphic reef.

The creation of a velocity pull-down or pull-up depends on the velocity of the buildup
relative to the surrounding sediments. When a hydrocarbon-filled carbonate buildup
(=16,500 ft/sec) is surrounded by an acoustically faster sequence, such as a thick
anhydrite-rich sequence (=19,000 ft/sec), the strong velocity contrast between the
acoustically slower carbonate buildup and the faster evaporite is characterized by a
velocity pull-down beneath the carbonate buildup. ( Figure 1 , Schematic showing
how "real earth" thickening leads to "pull-up" and "push-down" anomalies in reflector
beneath the unit showing "real earth" thickness changes.

Figure 1

The lower surface of this unit is a flat bedded plane, but in the time section it is seen
as either a pull-up or push-down, depending on the velocity contrast between the
carbonate unit and the overlying seal.)

If a buildup is surrounded by a shale, then the strong velocity contrast between the
acoustically faster carbonate buildup (=16,500 ft/sec) and the slower shale (=12,000
ft/sec) means the seismic wavelet travels faster through the carbonate buildup, and
so creates a velocity pull-up. It was the discovery of the productive Devonian reefs
at Leduc, Alberta in 1947 that subsequently led to the use of pull-up seismics in the
discovery of many productive reefs in west Texas, Alberta and Illinois. The
association of a drape and an underlying velocity pull-up is still used to explore for
reefs in the Alberta region.

Seismic Recognition of Traps Generated by

Salt Structures

Bedded halite units can flow and deform into salt structures, including ridges, walls,
pillows and diapirs. ( Figure 2 , Seismic section across a salt swell which has been
breached at its crest.

Figure 2

The thickening of the salt, its velocity being faster than the adjacent overburden, has
created a velocity pull-up beneath the salt swell, and Figure 3 , A salt wall diapir (D)
from the North Sea with some of the possible trap positions also shown.
 Figure 3

Diapir D developed from salt interval BZ-TZ. A major unconformity, U occurs in the
section, above which there is a well-developed secondary syncline, S. Base tertiary is
at T, and base Rotliegende at R below the Zechstein salt interval. Trap types shown
are: 1 and 7, truncation traps against the diapir flanks; 2, unconformity trap related
to major unconformity at U; 6 and 8, unconformity traps related to a shallower
unconformity; 3, pinchout trap due to thinning of secondary rim syncline sediments
away from the diapir; 4, pinchout trap due to relative uplift and thinning during time
of salt flow; 5, fault trap due to peripheral faulting near the diapir crest; 9, half of a
possible turtle structure trap in primary rime syncline).

The seismic recognition of salt structures is usually based on a combination of

features (Jenyon, 1986a, b; Lohmann, 1979):

· Thickening and thinning of the salt unit to form various salt structure
geometries, including pillow, diapir and post-diapir.

· Folding of more competent reflectors (anhydrite and carbonate beds)

with the salt unit during the early stages of deformation, and a virtual
absence of similar internal reflectors during the later, more intense,
stages of deformation and piercement.

· A halokinetic relationship with adjacent overlying sediments, which

are often folded and faulted in sympathy with the salt-e.g., grabens,
dissolution and collapse at the crest, and syndepositional facies
changes in the overlying sediments.

· A characteristic salt base reflection showing pull-up and pushdown of

the salt base reflector; these structures should not be confused with
 real discontinuities in the salt base, which may form hydrocarbon
traps.

· Lateral diffraction patterns.

· Seismic interval velocities.

· Salt dissolution features over the crest of the structureThe edges of a

salt structure are often marked by the termination of surrounding
beds, or abrupt changes in the internal bedding geometries. These
terminations can be caused by both depositional facies transitions and
diagenetic cementation; they cannot be differentiated seismically. The
important effect is that the edges act as sites for the development of
diffractions or odd events. Care must be exercised when interpreting
local seismic anomalies in an evaporite province. Salt removal can
cause seismic anomalies which have been mistaken for reefs. In
southern Alberta, the local removal of salt from the Wabamun has
been known to create seismic discontinuities which have been drilled
as probable Nisku and Leduc reefs.

However, not all the apparent piercement structures seen on a seismic section are
salt structures. Other features giving a similar seismic signature include:

· differential compaction plus defocusing effects;

· igneous stocks;

· shale diapirs;

· water circulation in sediments;

· buried hills or reefs;

· gas coning;

· remnant salt pillars in areas of bedded salts subject to dissolution or

collapse.

Today, the use of seismics is moving beyond the recognition of structure and into the
interpretation of the likely occurrence of hydrocarbons within the structure, typically
through the recognition of amplitude anomalies "bright" spots and "dim" spots. A
bright spot forms when the velocity contrast between two formations is greater than
usual. Most explorationists unfamiliar with the use of seismics in recognizing
hydrocarbons immediately associate bright spots with the presence of hydrocarbons.
Bright spots are a prominent gas diagnostic in unconsolidated sand/shale sequences
in Tertiary basins such as the Gulf of Mexico. They are due to strong amplitude
anomalies (strong troughs)-a result of the effect of gas saturation on the
incompressibility of unconsolidated sands.

A dim spot, not a bright spot, indicates the presence of hydrocarbons in lime-stones
and most consolidated rocks beneath evaporite or shale seals. Consider a porous
water-filled limestone layer with an average velocity of 16,500 ft/sec sealed beneath
a relatively pure halite unit (velocity = 15,000 ft/sec). When the saline pore fluid
(velocity = 5,000 ft/sec) in the upper part of the limestone layer is replaced by gas
(velocity = 2,000 ft/sec), the effect is to lower the velocity contrast at the contact
between the limestone and the salt to create a dim spot-an area of poorer
reflectivity. The reflectivity of the contact between a limestone and an evaporite seal
decreases with further increases in limestone porosity, and decreases still further
with increasing gas saturation. Not much gas is required to change the velocity of a
rock, so an amplitude anomaly may indicate very little gas-maybe as little as 2% of
the volume of the rock.

This discussion of amplitude anomalies has been primarily about gas, as it has a
much slower velocity than water. Oil has a velocity only slightly slower than water so
it does not make as big a change in the velocity of the rock. Not all velocity
anomalies are the result of a lateral transition into a hydrocarbon-filled lithology, as
other facies changes (e.g., into coal or into an igneous sill) also generate bright
spots.