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FromDasarajfiato Kuru~etra
KAN.AD SINHA
I f
• I
' 1, J
,, j • ,.
OXFORD
\JNIVBRSITY PRESS
,Contents
'I
Foreword ix
Romila Thapar J l .,: • r. : I•
Preface · , xvii
List of DiacriticalMarks'Used xxiii
List of Abbreviations XXV
I
I .
1.' The Mahabharataand the End of an Era I
1.1 Where the 'Past' Ends, Where the 'Future' Starts:
The Journey from Dasarajfia to Ku~etra I
1.2 Understanding an Itihiisa:A HistoriographicalSurvey 11
2. Bharatas, Purus, Kurus, and'the Vedas: A Poiitico-textual
, ,, I I ' '
History · 43
· 2.1 The ~gvedic Poets and Their World 43
2.2 Visviimitra'sPoetry 49
2.3 Thus SpakeVasiHha 52
2.4 Sudiisand the Ten Tribes:Reflectionson the Dasarajfia '
57
2.5 'The Kurus and the Later Vedas 63
2.6 From Saudiisasto SunaJ:isepa: Visviimitraand Vas~µia in
the Later VedicWorld 66
3. The Great Saga of the Bharatas 81
3.I Searching for a Lost History of 'Time': Layeringthe .
Mahabharata 81
3.2 Heroes, Forest, and the VedicDeities: Revisitingthe
Khai:,qavadahana Ill
3.3 Dice, Duel, and Dharma:ContextualizingYudh~r}lira's
Rajasuya 129
3.4 When the BhupatiSought the Gopati's
Wealth:Locating the
MahabharataEconomy 152
3.5 Cousins, Clans, and Kingdoms:Studyingthe
Kur~etra War 159
3.6 Constituting the 'Fifth Veda':The VoiceofVyiisa 179
Bibliography 475
Index 499
..
I •
,
' '
• I
'.
Ut I'
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X FOREWORD
that comes to mind is that such instances would have resulted in, to some
1 extent, the interface of cWtures. What ,were the likely changes that this
might have brought about in either of ~e two societies? .
Epic literature of earlier times frequently focuses on conflict between
the important clans in a region, and this encapsulates much of their pat-
tern ofliving-that is, their culture. In the Mafa.abharata, the Kurus and
the Pandavas battle for land rights in the Doab. The actual area that each
comes.'t~ control· is.not extensive but with the listing of allied and hos-
tile clans on each side, whether actually present or not, the strife in the
epic t*es bn a 1biggerdimension thari what might have been involved
in "realisticterms.::rhis is another characteristic of ~e epic form: a small
conflict can,easily,be enlarged into a far bigger confrontation with par-
ticipants from eveny,part of the known geography. How this geography
is expanded is of inuch hist~rical1interest. A dramatic illustration is pro-
vided in the Qdysseyof Homer, where a large part of the Mediterranean is
inqu'cted into the narrative.· . , , . , ·,
The other way of extending the geography is to send the protagonists
into exile for,a period. The location of the exile need not be too distant
but preferably should have the potential of being culturally alien so as
to,introduce expanded geographies and multiple cultures.'This gives
scope tc:rthe •imagination of the bard to invent diverse societies with
aliicense to colour realism•with·fantasy where needed. The ostensible
purpose of this is to entertain the audience, but it can also be used as
expressing a commen,t on·the society of the protagonists. Exile to the
forest in both the Indian epics is to a'place where the pattern ofliving,
the culture, is different from that ofrthe protagonists. The latter may
be sympathetic to this pattern or may treat it as antithetical. If it is the
former, the people of the forest become allies, but if it is the latter, 'they
have to be subdued, , , , . 1, .:· • ,
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xiv FOREWORD
been a pillar of support and my·go-to person over the past decade. He
was the first person to listen to the initial draft of my PhD proposal, and,
till the submi~sion, his suggestions and guidance have been invaluable
in shaping up this thesis as well as several aspects of my life. I am ex-
tremely grateful to Prof. Kumkum Roy for guiding me in preparing my
historiography, and sections of this book grew out of two seminar papers
I had done with her. At every stage of my research, I have benefitted from
the feedback and comments of Prof. Ranabir Chakravarti regarding aca-
demics,literature, and beyond. I am thankful to Prof. Vijaya Ramaswamy
for introducing me to the idea of reading devotion as dissent and for her
thoughtful insights about shaping up my research proposal; I mourn her
untimely demise before this book materialized. Dr. Supriya Varma had
kindly guided me through the reports of the excavations at Hastinapur
and Atranjikhera. Many of my teachers at the Centre for Historical
Studies, including Profs R. Mahalakshmi, Aditya Mukherjee, Janaki Nair,
Neeladri Bhattacharya, Raj at Datta, Najaf Haider, Indivar Kamtekar, and
Heeraman Tiwari, have been ready to help always, and I have gained a lot
from their valuable comments in the formal setting of seminars and con-
ferences as well as in informal discussions. Prof. Romila Thapar, whose
writings had oriented me towards the methodological approach adopted
in this thesis, has always been kind enough to offer her comments and
lead me towards new research questions; she most graciously agreed to
write the foreword for this book. As she is introducing the book, any fur-
ther attempt o,n my part to introduce it will be redundant.
t would have been an
The preface, therefore, could end here, b u t th a .
c . hD th · turned into a book 1s
un,rur and incomplete story. After all, a P esis .
· b t also about the culm1-
not only about the work done over a few years, u al
. tful ,·ourney where sever
nation of a long journey. It has been an even
downs, highs and lows, satisfactions and disappointments. Yet, the dis-
appointments seem too meagre in front of the immense amount of help,
goodwill, love, and affection I received in the journey and scarcely de-
served, For.what I did'not get, I would like to repeat the words ofTagore:1
Whatyouhavegivenmewithoutasking: · t,,,. · , ,, ·
The sky,the light, the mind, body and life- 1 • ,., •• ·,.
·Dayby day you are·turning Irie into worthy of that great gift,· · 1 , ,
Savingme from tlie danger ~~ wishing for.t~o much., . ·1
I ask wholeheartedly in extreme desire, you have saved me, through
deprivation. .J .. I,, ,,.
. ..., '
-ir!
I l 'I H
I . I I
! ) ,,
',.
'
• J l ,r
I I
:,ti ., r'
I,
..!J .
'
' ..
,t
3TT
3l Jfl~ t-~-;,;:tt:?ft'C!'~ 3ftat 3l:
a a_iiu u r f e ai O au atµ a}:i
cf, ~ lf ~ .s
ka kha ga gha tia
~ ~ ~ ~ ";51"
c 0 s '. "?; ur
ra rha 4a 4ha l).a
a ~ ~ ~ -;r
ta tha da dha na
-q ~ GI" 'if lf
pa pha ha bha ma
<l" ~ ~ q
ya ra la va
ltT ~ ({ ~
sa ~a sa ha
/"
AB AitareyaBrahma,;,a
ASS AsvalayanaSrautaSutra
AV Atharva VedaSarrihita
AGS AsvalayanaGrhyaSutras
BGS BaudhayanaGrhyaSutra
BSS BaudhayanaSrautaSutra
BU Brhadara,;,yaka Upaniiad
cu ChandogyaUpaniiad
GB GopathaBrahma,;,a
iu IsaUpaniiad
JB JaiminiyaBrahma,;,a
JUB JaiminiyaUpaniiadBrahma,;,a
KB KausitakiBrahma,;,a
KS Ka{hakaSarrihita
KU Ka{haUpaniiad
MS Maitraya,;,iSarrihita
MSS Manava Sra~taSutra
MU Mu,;,qakaUpaniiad
PB PaficavirrisaBrahma,;,a
~v ~g VedaSarrihita
SB SatapathaBrahma,;,a
sss SaitkhayanaSrautaSutra
Su SvetijsvataraUpaniiad
TA TaittiriyaAra,;,yaka
TB TaittiriyaBrahma,;,a
TS TaittiriyaSarrihita
E KanadSinha
1
1.1 Wherethe 'Past Ends,Wherethe 'Future>
Starts:
TheJourneyfromDasariijnato Kur~etra
Fromlllsarojna
toKuru~etra.
Kanad
Sinha,
OX!ord
University
Press.
C Oxford
University
Press
2021.
DOI:
10.1093/oso/9780190130695.003.0001
'..JC • •I ., '
Hitherto opinions about ancient India have been oased on a study of the
Veda and Vedic literature without much regard for historical tradition
outside that,,.,. To make the former the chief and more authoritative
basis ofhistorical reconstruction is much the same as to write European
history maihly from theological works-an undertaking $at would not
•.receive amoment'sac'ceptance. 31. , , r· • · nil
f J'• l 1 J.. .Jtl• -: d1
1
"" 1. I •' t
' The way' Pargifer and some othe� scholars uncritically accept the en
tire Ptirat_tic 'tradition..:...against niany verifiable historical facts an
d
without separating the different layers of. the composition pf th
e con
cerned texts-is not fully acceptable/I ,Pargiter's 1 the
sis ,depended' on
the conviction· that Vedic tradition represented
the Brahinanical tra
dition, which lacked historical consciousness,
while the P uranic tradi
tion (at least the genealogies and ballads abou
t kings) contai�ed more
historically oriented /qatriya traditions
preserved by the suta bards.
However, despite acknowledging that the
J4atriya tradition was 'even
tu�y Brahmanized, he did not consider
_ that the presently available
Purar.uc texts, produced not earlier than
mid-first millennium CE, are as
I I ; '
Iri all the large and ,varied literatures of the Brahmans, Jains and
Buddhists, there is not to be found'a single work which.can be com-
paredrto the Historiesin which Herodotus recounts the struggle be-
tw~en the Greeks and the Persians or to the Annals in which Livy traces
the growth and progress of Roman power ... But this is not because the
people of India had no history ... We know from other sources that the
ages were filled with stirring events; but these events found no system-
atic record. 12
J
It is a well-known fact th .
.. . . _ at with the single exception of the
Ra1atarang11J1
... there is no historica) text in Sanskrit dealing with the
'•JP a .It/
n
not need to conform to any particular model. It begins with a society
showing consciousness of both past and future and starting to record the
past. 24 She rightly says:
I
Nafyafii5fra, for instance, almost defines
it as a dialogue between t he
� _st _and the present by saying that itihasa is the past being visualized as
a
(/
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THE MAHABHARATA AND THE END OF
AN ERA 9
as �omprehensive discipline which not only cont
ains the accounts of
the past but can provide.guidelines for social duti
es political economy,
pleasure,•and salvation:
dharmarthakamamolqa�1a,r, upadesasamanvitam/
purav(ttakathayuktam itihasa,r, pracalqate. 37 1
The Nirukta of Yaska shows that the truth-claim in itihasa had been a
source of lively debate from a ·very early time. The school called the
aitihiisikas focused on historicil)j while the nairuktakas insisted that the
itihiisas should be interpreted figuratively.38 Though the discipline called
it11iiisa was not exactly a part of the Sramat).ic tradition, its truth-claim
"!as. so well known that the Jaina scholar Jinasena defined it as relating
that which actually happenecP9 Thus, itihiisa had a claim of authenticity
but not the lgn.,d of factual authenticity around which Positivist histori-
o graphy was formed. As Sibesh Chandra Bhattacharya has p inte�Wu
� ""- ,,_.
(J
itihasa is much more explicitly didactic in nature than history. It teaches, � �
and it teaches by example. Itihasa is not interested in the past for its own
sake, it i s not interested in the whole of the past, but in what is exemplary.
Th_,f past that is devoid of didactic value is not given a place in itihasa.40
Therefore, the histo�ical tradition named itihasa narrated what it believed
tobe authentic account of the pa st, but the claim to authenticity l�ot
in factual or chronolo gical ac;curacy but in the lesson to be learnt a�u
--·
dharma, arfha,•kama, and molqa from an exemplary and comprehensive
account of the past. . .. , .. ,
, The only co!llplete text de�cribed jn India� tradition as an itihasa is the
Mahabharata.41 In fact, the Mahabharata has a central position within
early I�dian historical tradition. It revolves around an event which
marks the culmination of the Vedic historical tradition and the starting
point of the Puranic one. A s mentioned earlier, the Early Vedic per,i,Qd
witnessed the establishment of Bharata hegemony. The Bharatas an.cl
their allies the Purus gradually evol_ved in the Kuru tribe. Jhe Kuru s an�
ilieir P�dominated the Later Vedic landscape. The MahabhijfJl!a
isine'Ttihiisa of the K�s in the period between the reigns of Samtanu
(the last Kum chief known to the �g Veda) and Pariksit the
Kuru chief
celebrate as a contem orary in the Athar vq Veda) . Two o f the promi
nent Vedic akhyanas known as itihasa, those of Purii.
ravas-Urvas i and
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16 PROM D.HAR.AJNA TO KURUK~ETRA·
they claim any objective singular fact· but because they present specu-
lations.regarding earlier versions of the text without any corroborative
evidence from any existent,manuscript or external sources. But there is
ample scope, and necessity, to historically enquire into the coming into
being of a massive tradition like the Mahabharataand the process of its
textualization, which is in no way in contradiction with literary criticism
of the existent t~xt·as a whole: After all, the Critical Edition itselfis a hypo-
thetically constructed text that never existed before its coming into being
in the twentieth century. That the 'Analyticand Synthetic methods are not
mutually exclusive is best illustrated by,the fact that Alf Hiltebeitel,a big
supporter of the hermeneutical .model, himself made different attempts
to historicall~ontextualize.the time andpiocess of the Mahabhardtg's
creation. 80 -: •'
If we now shift our attention to ,the studies which viewed the
Mahabharataas a unified text, much attention has been paid to the myth-
ical and religious aspects of the epic. Stig Wikander and Georges Diimezil
view the , epic' as reminiscent of •ani old 'lndo-European mythology.
YudhiHhira, Bhima and, ·Arjuna, an'd Nakitla and Sahadeva, respec-
tively, represent,the three niajor aspects oflndo-European religion and
society: the sacerdotal-legislative (Mitra/Dharma), the martial-kingly
(Indra and Vayu), and the fertile-popular (the Asvins), which later as-
sumed the shape of the duties of the brahmalJllS,lqatriyas,and vaisyas.
DraupadI is the primeval female deity associated with the male gods of
81
these three functions, comparable with the Iranian goddess Anahita.
a new and unique world for a new political, religious and ideological
purpose.89 ,
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20 PR.OM DASARAJNA TO KURUK~ETRA
ORNAMENTAL PAINTING.
monograms.
At the present time nearly all possessors of carriages have their
private marks painted on some part of the panels. These take the
form of monograms, initial letters, crests, and heraldic bearings or
coats of arms. The monogram is the commonest. For crests and
coats of arms a duty is levied, from which monograms are free.
A few examples are subjoined. They can be multiplied to any
extent; and designing monograms and initial letters would be
excellent practice for the apprentice.
Fig. 33.—Lay in C with dark blue, light blue,
and chrome yellow, No. 2; lighted with A to be
in Tuscan red, lighted with vermilion and
orange; V with olive green, lighted with a
bright tint of olive green and white. Separate
the letters with a wash of asphaltum.
Fig. 34.—Paint C a tan colour shaded with
burnt sienna, shaded with asphaltum to form
the darkest shades. Put in the high lights with
Fig. 33.—V. A. C.
white toned with burnt sienna. Colour I with
dark and light shades of purple, lighted with
pale orange; N to be lake colour lighted with vermilion. The above
may be varied by painting the upper half of the letters with the
colours named, and the lower portions in dark tints of the same
colour. When this is done, care must be taken
to blend the two shades, otherwise it will look
as if the letters are cut in two.
Fig. 35.—Paint the
upper half of O a light
olive green, and the
lower half a darker
tone of the same
colour; T to be lake,
lighted with vermilion
Fig. 34.—I. N. C.
above the division
made by the letter S,
no high lighting to be used on the bottom
portion of the stem; S to be painted red
Fig. 35.—O. T. S. brown, lighted with orange; or the colours
may be laid on in gold leaf, and the above
colours glazed over it.
Fig. 36.—This combination forms a
pleasing variety, and will afford good
practice in the use of the pencil. Lay in
the letters as indicated by the shading,
the letter V to be darker than A, and T
deeper in tone than either V or A. The
letters may all be laid on with gold leaf,
and afterwards glazed with colours to
suit the painter’s taste. The vine at the
base may be a delicate green tinged
with carmine.
Fig. 37.—This is of French design. Fig. 36.—V. A. T.
The letters furnish an odd yet attractive
style. It will be noticed that the stem of
the letter T covers the centre perpendicularly, and that the outer
lower portions of A and R are drawn to touch on the same line. The
main stems of these letters terminate in twin forms, arranged so as
to cross each other at the centre of the monogram and balance each
other on either side. In the matter of its colouring, it may be
mentioned that the letters in a monogram are
very often painted all in one colour, and
separated at the edges by a streak of white or
high light. Monograms painted in this manner
should be drawn so that the design will not be
confused by ornamentation; that is, the main
outlines of each letter should be distinctly
defined, and the spaces must be so arranged
as not to confuse the outlines. The pattern
here given may be coloured carmine, and the
Fig. 37.—A. R. T.
edges separated by straw colour or blue, and
the letters be defined by canary colour, or a
lighter tint of blue than the bodies of the letters are painted.
Fig. 38.—If the ground colour of the panels
is claret or purple the letters may be painted
with the same colour, lightened up with
vermilion and white, forming three distinct
tints; on brown, coat the letters with lighter
shades of brown; and so on with other
colours.
Fig. 38.—T. O. M.
Initial Letters.
A well painted initial letter is certainly quite equal to a monogram;
but then it must be well painted, because, as it stands alone, it has
only itself to rely upon for any effect, whereas, in a monogram, the
component letters mutually assist each other.
Fig. 39.—This letter possesses all the grace of outline that could
be desired in a single letter. Paint the letter in gold, shaded with
asphaltum and lighted with white. If a colour be used, have one that
agrees in tone with the striping on the carriage part; that is to say, if
blue be used in striping, then use the same kind of blue for the letter,
and so on with other colours.
We may here mention that all this kind of
painting is done on the last rubbing coat of
varnish, so that the letters receive a coat of
varnish when the finishing coat is given.
Fig. 40.—The
natural form of this
letter is graceful,
being composed of
curves bearing in
Fig. 39.—D. opposite directions,
and which blend into
each other, forming a continuous but varied
line. The ornamentation also falls into the
shape of the letter naturally. The upper and
lower ends of the letter terminate in three
stems, covered by three-lobed leafing, and
the main stem of the letter is preserved in Fig. 40.—S.
shape by appearing to grow out naturally from
its outer and inner edges.
Lay in the letter with gold, on which work out the design with
transparent colours. If colours only be employed the panel colour
may be taken as part of the colouring of the letter; for instance, if the
panel be dark brown, lake, blue, or green, mix up lighter tints of
whichever colour it may be, and considering the panel colour as the
darkest shade, lighten up from it.
Fig. 41.—This letter will please by the novelty of its ornamentation.
The body of the letter retains its natural outline almost wholly. From
the upper part of the thin stem springs a scroll, which curves
downward, reaching to the middle of the letter, and from this grows
out a second scroll, serving to ornament the lower portions.
Lay in the colour in harmony with the striping colour, deepening
the tone of the colour on the stem of the letter, as shown by the
shade lines. The leafing should be made out with light, medium, and
dark tints, blended into each other so as to avoid the scratchy
appearance which an opposite method produces.
Fig. 41.—V.