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may also be coloured, and in that case are generally yellow; this
colour is chiefly connected with the fat (oil) which may be found in
abundance in the Fungi, whilst starch is invariably absent in all the
true Fungi.
The mycelium assumes many different forms; sometimes it
appears as a thread-like, cobwebby, loose tissue, less frequently as
firm strands, thin or thick membranes, horn-like plates or tuber-like
bodies. The thread-like mycelium may, in the parasitic Fungi, be
intercellular or intracellular, according as it only extends into the
interstices between the cells or enters into the cells proper. In the
first case there are generally found haustoria, or organs of suction
(e.g. among the Peronosporaceæ; Taphrina, on the contrary, has no
haustoria); but haustoria are also found among the epiphytic Fungi
(e.g. Erysiphaceæ). Intracellular mycelia are found in the Rust-Fungi,
in Claviceps purpurea, Entomophthora, etc. In spite of its delicate
structure, this mycelium may live a long time, owing to the
circumstance that it continues to grow peripherally, while the older
parts gradually die off (“fairy rings”).
String-like mycelia may be found, for example, in Phallus,
Coprinus, and are formed of hyphæ, which run more or less parallel
to each other. Membrane-like mycelia are chiefly to be found in
Fungi growing on tree-stems (Polyporaceæ and Agaricaceæ); they
may have a thickness varying from that of the finest tissue-paper to
that of thick leather, and may extend for several feet. The peculiar
horny or leather-like strands and plates which, for instance, appear
in Armillaria mellea, are known as Rhizomorpha; they may attain a
length of more than fifty feet. The tuber-like mycelia or sclerotia play
the part of resting mycelia, since a store of nourishment is
accumulated in them, and after a period of rest they develope organs
of reproduction. The sclerotia are hard, spherical, or irregular bodies,
from the size of a cabbage seed to that of a hand, internally white or
greyish, with a brown or black, pseudo-parenchymatous, external
layer. Sclerotia only occur in the higher Fungi, and are found both in
saprophytes, e.g. Coprinus, and in parasites, e.g. Claviceps (Ergot),
Sclerotinia.
 Reproduction. Sexual reproduction is found only among the
lower Fungi which stand near to the Algæ, the Algal-Fungi, and
takes place by the same two methods as in the Algæ, namely by
conjugation and by the fertilisation of the egg-cell in the oogonium.
The majority of Fungi have only asexual reproduction. The most
important methods of this kind of reproduction are the sporangio-
fructification and the conidio-fructification.
In the sporangio-fructification the spores (endospores) arise
inside a mother-cell, the sporangium (Fig. 80). Spores without a cell-
wall, which move in water by means of cilia and hence are known as
swarmspores or zoospores, are found among the Oomycetes, the
sporangia in which these are produced being called swarm-
sporangia or zoosporangia (Figs. 86, 87, 91, 94).
In the conidio-fructification the conidia (exospores) arise on
special hyphæ (conidiophores), or directly from the mycelium. When
conidiophores are present, the conidia are developed upon them
terminally or laterally, either in a basipetal succession (in many
Fungi, for example in Penicillium, Fig. 111, Erysiphe, Cystopus), or
acropetally (in which method the chains of conidia are often
branched; examples, Pleospora vulgaris, Hormodendron
cladosporioides). All conidia are at first unicellular, sometimes at a
later stage they become two-celled or multicellular through the
formation of partition-walls (Piptocephalis). The conidia with thick,
brown cell-walls, and contents rich in fats (resting conidia), can
withstand unfavourable external conditions for a much longer period
than conidia with thin walls and poor in contents.
The sporangia arise either from the ordinary cells of the
mycelium (Protomyces), or are borne on special hyphæ. They are
generally spherical (Mucor, Fig. 80; Saprolegniaceæ), egg-, pear-, or
club-shaped (Ascomycetes), more rarely they are cylindrical or
spindle-shaped. While among the Phycomycetes the size, form, and
number of spores are indefinite in each species, in the Ascomycetes
the sporangia (asci) have a definite size, form, and number of
spores. The spores of the Ascomycetes are known as ascospores.
The sporangio-fructification is found under three main forms.
 1. Free Sporangiophores which are either single (Mucor, Fig.
78), or branched (Thamnidium).
2. Sporangial-layers. These are produced by a number of
sessile or shortly-stalked sporangia, being formed close together like
a palisade (Taphrina, Fig. 105).
3. Sporangiocarps. These consist usually of many sporangia
enclosed in a covering, they are found only in the Carpoasci, and are
also known as ascocarps. The parts of an ascocarp are the covering
(peridium), and the hymenium, which is in contact with the inner wall
of the peridium, and is generally made up of asci, and sterile, slender
hyphæ. The latter either penetrate between the asci and are
branched and multicellular (paraphyses, Figs. 103 d, 123, 125, 129),
or clothe those parts of the inner wall which bear no asci
(periphyses; among many peronocarpic Ascomycetes, e.g.
Chætomium, Sordaria, Stictosphæra hoffmanni). The ascocarps are
produced directly from the mycelium, or from a stroma, that is a
vegetative body of various forms, in which they may be embedded
(Figs. 116 B, C).
Among the conidio-fructifications there are, in the same way, three
divisions.
1. Free conidiophores (Fig. 109). The form of the
conidiophores, the shape, and number of its spores are various. In
the most highly developed Fungi, the Basidiomycetes, there are,
however, special more highly developed conidiophores, the basidia,
which have a definite form and spores of a definite shape and
number. The conidia borne on basidia are called basidiospores.
2. Conidial-layers. (a) The simplest case of this is found when
the conidiophores arise directly from the mycelium, parallel to one
another, and form a flat body (e.g. Exobasidium vaccinii, Hypochnus;
among the Phycomycetes, Empusa muscæ and Cystopus). (b) In a
higher form the conidial-layers are thick, felted threads (stroma)
inserted between the mycelium and the hymenium (i.e. the region of
the conidiophores). Examples are found in a section of the
Pyrenomycetes (Fig. 122). (c) The highest form has the basidial-
layer, that is a conidial-layer with more highly developed
conidiophores (basidia). The basidial-layer, with stroma, and the
hymenium (region of the basidia), forms the basidio-fructification,
which is branched in the Clavariaceæ, and hat-shaped in other
Hymenomycetes (in these groups the hymenium is confined to the
lower side of the pileus).
The hymenium of the conidial-layer and basidial-layer is
composed entirely of conidiophores, or of conidiophores and sterile
hyphæ (paraphyses) which are probably always unicellular.
Paraphyses are found in Entomophthora radicans, and in certain
Basidiomycetes (e.g. Corticium).
3. Conidiocarps (pycnidia). A special covering surrounds the
conidia-forming elements. The inner side of this covering (peridium)
bears the hymenium, i.e. those elements from which the conidia are
abstricted. The conidiocarps arise either immediately from the
hyphæ or from a stroma in which they are generally embedded.
Conidiocarps are entirely wanting in the Phycomycetes. On the other
hand they are found among the Ascomycetes and Basidiomycetes,
and in the latter group the conidiocarps contain more highly
differentiated conidiophores (basidia) and are known as
basidiocarps. Conidiocarps with simple conidiophores, are found
only among the Basidiomycetes, in the Uredinaceæ, and in
Craterocolla cerasi. In the Ascomycetes (Figs. 120 d, e; 117 a, b;
123 a; 124 b) the conidiocarps are visible, as points, to the naked
eye, while the basidiocarps of the Basidiomycetes (Figs. 170, 171,
173–176, 178–180) vary from the size of a pea to that of a child’s
head. The “spermogonia” of the Ascomycetes and Lichenes, are
conidiocarps with small conidia (microconidia) which germinate
sometimes more slowly than other conidia, and formerly were
erroneously considered as male reproductive cells, and called
spermatia.
The conidia of the Fungi are not primitive structures. The
comparison of the sporangia and conidia among the Zygomycetes,
and among the species of the genus Peronospora shows, that the
conidia are aberrant formations, and that they have arisen through
the degeneration of the sporangium, which, by the reduction of its
spores to one, has itself become a spore.
 In the genera Thamnidium and Chætocladium the gradual diminution of the
sporangia, and the reduction of the number of spores can be distinctly followed. In
Thamnidium the number of spores is often reduced to one, which is free in the
sporangium. In Chætocladium however the sporangia are typically one-spored, the
spore is always united with the sporangium, and the two become a single body,
the so-called conidium, which is in reality a closed sporangium. How close is the
connection between the sporangia and conidia of Thamnidium and Chætocladium,
is seen from the fact that, in the conidial stage of Chætocladium the same whorl-
form of branching appears as in the sporangial stages of Thamnidium
chætocladioides, and also, that the conidia of Ch. fresenianum throw off the former
sporangium-wall (exosporium), while Ch. jonesii germinates without shedding its
exosporium. The Phycomycetes have doubtless sprung from Water-Algæ and
inherit the sporangia from them. On this supposition, as the Phycomycetes
assumed a terrestrial mode of life, the sporangia would become adapted to the
distribution of the spores by means of the air, the sporangia would become small,
contain dust-like spores, and would eventually become closed-sporangia, i.e.
conidia. The conidia are a terrestrial method for the multiplication of Fungi. In the
Hemiasci and the Ascomycetes the sporangia are still preserved, but in every
instance they are adapted to terrestrial spore-distribution, their spores being set
free on the destruction of the sporangium-wall (generally shot out) and distributed
through the air. For further examples of spore-distribution see below, p. 91–93.
The reproduction of Fungi is accomplished not only by spores and
conidia, but also sometimes by chlamydospores. These are
fundaments[11] of sporangiophores and conidiophores, which have
taken on a resting condition in the form of a spore, and are able to
germinate and produce carpophores. In the formation of the
chlamydospores the hyphæ accumulate reserve materials at the
expense of the neighbouring cells; in the undivided hyphæ of the
Phycomycetes transverse walls are formed, and finally the
chlamydospores are set free by the decay of the empty cells
connecting them with the mycelium. One must distinguish between
oidia and true chlamydospores. The former are more simple, the
latter are a somewhat more differentiated form of carpophore
fundaments, which serve for propagation in the same manner as
spores. In Chlamydomucor racemosus the chlamydospores grow out
into the air and form differentiated carpophores. In the
Autobasidiomycetes they only germinate vegetatively, and not with
the formation of fructifications. From Chlamydomucor up to the
Autobasidiomycetes the successive development of the fructification,
which is interrupted by the formation of the chlamydospores,
degenerates more and more. Among certain Ustilagineæ the
chlamydospores (brand-spores) no longer germinate with the
production of fructifications. In the Uredinaceæ, only one of the three
chlamydospore-forms has the property of producing fructifications on
germination; the other forms only germinate vegetatively, like
ordinary spores, and in the same manner as the chlamydospores of
the Autobasidiomycetes. In the Hemibasidii, and the Uredinaceæ, in
Protomyces, the chlamydospores are the chief means of
reproduction. They are found also among the Ascomycetes.
The sporangia and the conidia of the Fungi have their common
origin in the sporangia of the Phycomycetes. The asci (and the
Ascomycetes which are characterised by these bodies) are
descended from the sporangia-forming, lower Fungi; the basidia
(and the Basidiomycetes) from those which bear conidia. The
sporangia of the Phycomycetes are the primitive form and the
starting point for all the reproductive forms of the Fungi. The
chlamydospores appear besides in all classes of Fungi as
supplementary forms of reproduction, and are of no importance in
determining relationships. Although the expression “fruit” must
essentially be applied to true Phanerogams, yet, through usage, the
term “fruit-forms,” is employed to designate the forms or means of
reproduction of Fungi, and the organs of reproduction are known as
organs of fructification, the sporangiophores and conidiophores as
fruit-bearers (carpophores), and the sporangiocarps, conidiocarps,
and basidiocarps as “fruit-bodies.”
The majority of Fungi have more than one method of reproduction, often on
various hosts (Uredinaceæ). Species with one, two, or more than two methods of
reproduction are spoken of as having monomorphic, dimorphic, or pleomorphic
fructification. Monomorphic, e.g. the Tuberaceæ; dimorphic, Mucor, Piptocephalis,
Saprolegniaceæ, Penicillium crustaceum; pleomorphic, Puccinia graminis,
Capnodium salicinum (in the last species there are five methods of reproduction:
yeast-like conidia, free conidiophores, conidiocarps with small and large conidia,
and ascocarps).
The liberation and distribution of the spores and conidia. The
spores and conidia, on account of their small size and lightness, are
spread far and wide by currents in the air, but in addition to this
method, insects and other animals frequently assist in disseminating
them. The liberation of the conidia is occasionally effected by the
complete shrinking away of the conidiophore, but more frequently by
abstriction from the conidiophores, either by their gradually tapering
to a point, or by the dissolution of a cross-wall (generally of a
mucilaginous nature). The individual links of conidia-chains are
detached from one another in the same way, or often by means of
small, intercalary cells, which are formed at the base of the individual
links, and becoming slimy, dissolve upon the maturity of the spores.
Special contrivances for ejecting the spores and conidia may often
be found. In Peronospora the cylindrical fruit-hyphæ in the dry
condition become strap-shaped and also twisted. These are very
hygroscopic, and the changes of form take place so suddenly, that
the spores are violently detached and shot away. In Empusa a
peculiar squirting mechanism may be found (Fig. 85). Each club-
shaped hypha which projects from the body of the fly, bears a
conidium at its apex; a vacuole, which grows gradually larger, is
formed in the slimy contents of the hypha, and the pressure thereby
eventually becomes so great that the hypha bursts at its apex, and
the conidium is shot into the air. By a similar mechanism, the spores
of many of the Agaricaceæ are cast away from the parent-plants. In
the case of Pilobolus (Fig. 84) the entire sporangium is thrown for
some distance into the air by a similar contrivance, the basal region
of the sporangium having, by the absorption of water, been
transformed into a slimy layer which is readily detached.
Sphærobolus, a Gasteromycete, has a small, spherical fruit-body
(basidiocarp), the covering of which, when ripe, suddenly bursts, and
the basidiospores contained in it are forcibly ejected.
The spores which are enclosed in asci are, in some instances, set
free from the mother-cell (ascus) prior to their complete development
(Elaphomyces, Eurotium). In the case of the majority of the
Pyrenomycetes and Truffles, the asci swell by the absorption of
water into a slimy mass, which gradually disappears, so that the
spores lie free in the fruit-body; they either remain there till the fruit-
body decays, as in those which have no aperture (Perisporiaceæ,
Tuberaceæ), or the slimy mass, by its growth, is forced out through
the aperture of the sporocarp, taking the spores with it (Nectria). The
ejection of the spores by mechanical means takes place in a number
of Ascomycetes, and should many spores be simultaneously
ejected, a dust-cloud may be seen with the naked eye to arise in the
air from the fruit-body. This is the case in the larger species of
Peziza, Helvella, Rhytisma, when suddenly exposed to a damp
current of air. A distinction is drawn between a simultaneous ejection
of all the spores contained in the ascus, and an ejection at intervals
(successive), when only one spore at a time is thrown out. The first
of these methods is the most frequent, and is brought about by the
ascus being lined with a layer of protoplasm, which absorbs water to
such a degree that the elastic walls are extended at times to double
their original size. The spores are forced up against the free end of
the ascus, a circular rupture is made at this point, and the elastic
walls contract, so that the fluid with the spores is ejected. Special
means may in some instances be found to keep the spores together,
and compel their simultaneous ejection. Thus, a tough slime may
surround all the spores (Saccobolus), or a chain-apparatus, similarly
formed of tough slime; or there may be a hooked appendage from
each end of the spores which hooks into the appendage of the next
spore (Sordaria). The paraphyses occurring between the asci in
many Ascomycetes, also play a part in the distribution of the spores,
by reason of the pressure they exercise. The asci in some of the
Pyrenomycetes, which are provided with jar-shaped fruit-bodies,
elongate to such an extent that, without becoming detached from
their bases, they reach the mouth of the fruit-body one at a time,
burst and disperse their spores, and so make room for those
succeeding. An ejection of the spores at intervals from the ascus is
rarer. It takes place, for instance, in Pleospora, whose asci have a
double wall. The external wall, by absorption of water, at last
becomes ruptured, and the internal and more elastic membrane
forces itself out in the course of a few seconds to one of two or three
times greater length and thickness, so that one spore after another is
forcibly ejected from a narrow aperture at the end of the ascus.
Germination of spores (conidia and chlamydospores). In many
spores may be found one or more germ-pores, i.e. thinner places,
either in the inner membrane (uredospores, Sordaria) or in the
external membrane (teleutospores in Rust-Fungi), through which the
germination takes place. Generally this does not occur till the spores
have been set free: in some Ascomycetes germination commences
inside the ascus (Taphrina, Sclerotinia). The different ways in which
the spores germinate may be classified into three groups.
I. The ordinary germination occurs by the spore emitting a
germ-tube, which immediately developes into a mycelium. In spores
with a double wall it is only the inner membrane which forms the
germ-tube. In swarmspores a single wall is formed after the
withdrawal of the cilia, and this, by direct elongation, becomes the
germ-tube. The protoplasm accumulated in the spore enters the
hypha, which, in pure water, can only grow as long as the reserve
nourishment lasts.
2. Germination with promycelium differs only by the
circumstance that the hypha developed from the germ-tube has a
very limited growth, and hence it does not immediately develope into
a mycelium, but produces conidia (Rust-and Brand-Fungi). This
promycelium must only be regarded as an advanced development of
a conidiophore or basidium.
3. The yeast-formation of conidia consists in the production of
outgrowths, very much constricted at their bases, from one or more
places. Each of the conidia formed in this manner may again
germinate in the same way. When sufficient nourishment is present,
a branched chain of such conidia is formed, and these are finally
detached from one another. Yeast-like buddings from the conidia are
produced in various Fungi, e.g. Ascoidea, Protomyces, Ustilagineæ,
Ascomycetes, Tremellaceæ, etc. In the Ustilagineæ these conidia
are an important element in the development. The budding conidia of
Exobasidium forms a “mould” on the nutritive solution. The yeast-like
conidia are not to be confounded with the “Mucor-yeast” (comp.
Mucoraceæ). For Saccharomyces see Appendix to the Fungi, page
176.
In a compound spore (i.e. when a mass of spores are associated
together) each spore germinates on its own account. There are
sometimes, however, certain among them which do not germinate,
but yield their contents to those which do.
 The length of time for which conidia can retain their power of
germination is shortest (being only a few weeks) in those having thin
walls and containing a large supply of water (Peronosporaceæ,
Uredinaceæ). In many spores a resting period is absolutely
necessary before they are able to germinate (resting spores). It has
been observed in some spores and conidia, that the faculty of
germinating may be preserved for several years if the conditions
necessary for germination remain absent (Ustilagineæ, Eurotium,
Penicillium).
The optimum, minimum and maximum temperatures required for
the germination of the spores has been decided in the case of a
good many Fungi. A large portion of the most common Fungi have
their optimum at 20°C., minimum at 1–2°C, maximum at 40°C. In the
case of pathogenic Fungi the optimum is adapted to the temperature
of the blood. Fungi living in manure, whose spores are often adapted
to germinate in the alimentary canals of warm-blooded animals, have
an optimum corresponding to the temperature of these animals, but
with a little margin.
Systematic Division.—The lowest class of the Fungi is that of
the Phycomycetes, which have an unicellular mycelium, sexual and
asexual reproduction, and have doubtless sprung from sporangia-
bearing, lower Green Algæ. From the Phycomycetes (and certainly
from the Zygomycetes) spring two well defined branches, each with
numerous distinct species; to the one branch belong the Hemiasci
and the Ascomycetes, to the other the Hemibasidii and the
BASIDIOMYCETES. Ascomycetes and Basidiomycetes may be
united under the title of Mycomycetes or Higher Fungi. The
Hemiasci and the Hemibasidii constitute the class of Mesomycetes.
The Hemiasci are an intermediate form between Zygomycetes and
Ascomycetes; the Hemibasidii a similar group between the
Zygomycetes and Basidiomycetes. Mesomycetes and Mycomycetes
have only asexual reproduction; sexual reproduction is wanting.
Their mycelium is multicellular.
Up to the present time about 39,000 species have been
described.
 Review of the divisions of the Fungi:—
Class I.—Phycomycetes (Algal-Fungi).
Sub-Class 1. Zygomycetes.
Sub-Class 2. Oomycetes.
Family 1. Entomophthorales.
Family 2. Chytridiales.
Family 3. Mycosiphonales.

Class II. Mesomycetes.

Sub-Class 1. Hemiasci.
Sub-Class 2. Hemibasidii (Brand-Fungi).

Class III.—Mycomycetes (Higher Fungi).

Sub-Class 1. Ascomycetes.
Series 1. Exoasci.
Series 2. Carpoasci.
Family 1. Gymnoascales. }
Family 2. Perisporiales. }Angiocarpic Exoasci.
Family 3. Pyrenomycetes. }
Family 4. Hysteriales. }
Family 5. Discomycetes. } Hemiangiocarpic Exoasci.
Family 6. Helvellales. Gymnocarpic (?) Exoasci.
Additional: Ascolichenes. Lichen-forming Ascomycetes.
Sub-Class 2. Basidiomycetes.
Series 1.—Protobasidiomycetes. Partly gymnocarpic, partly angiocarpic.
Series 2. Autobasidiomycetes.
Family 1. Dacryomycetes. Gymnocarpic.
Family 2. Hymenomycetes. Partly gymnocarpic, partly hemiangiocarpic.
Family 3. Phalloideæ. Hemiangiocarpic.
Family 4. Gasteromycetes. Angiocarpic.
Additional: Basidiolichenes. Lichen-forming Basidiomycetes.
Additional to the Fungi: Fungi Imperfecti. Incompletely known
(Saccharomyces, Oidium-forms, etc.).

Class 1. Phycomycetes (Algal-Fungi).[12]

This group resembles Vaucheria and the other Siphoneæ among
the Algæ.
 Organs of Nutrition. The mycelium is formed of a single cell,
often thread-like and abundantly branched (Fig. 78). Vegetative
propagation by chlamydospores and oidia. Asexual reproduction by
endospores (sometimes swarmspores) and conidia. Sexual
reproduction by conjugation of two hyphæ as in the Conjugatæ, or
by fertilisation of an egg-cell in an oogonium. On this account the
class of the Phycomycetes is divided into two sub-classes:
Zygomycetes and Oomycetes.
Sub-Class I. Zygomycetes.
Sexual reproduction takes place by zygospores, which function as
resting-spores, and arise in consequence of conjugation (Fig. 81); in
the majority of species these are rarely found, and only under special
conditions. The most common method of reproduction is by
endospores, by acrogenous conidia, by chlamydospores, or by oidia.
Swarmspores are wanting. Parasites and saprophytes (order 6 and
7). The zygospores are generally produced when the formation of
sporangia has ceased; e.g. by the suppression of the sporangial-
hyphæ (Mucor mucedo), or by the diminution of oxygen; Pilobolus
crystallinus forms zygospores, when the sporangia are infected with
saprophytic Piptocephalis or Pleotrachelus.
A. Asexual reproduction only by sporangia.
Order 1. Mucoraceæ. The spherical sporangia contain many
spores. The zygospore is formed between two unicellular branches
(gametes).
The unicellular mycelium (Fig. 78) of the Mucoraceæ branches
abundantly, and lives, generally, as a saprophyte on all sorts of dead
organic remains. Some of these Fungi are known to be capable of
producing alcoholic fermentation, in common with the
Saccharomyces. This applies especially to Chlamydomucor
racemosus (Mucor racemosus), when grown in a saccharine
solution, and deprived of oxygen; the mycelium, under such
conditions, becomes divided by transverse walls into a large number
of small cells. Many of these swell out into spherical or club-shaped
cells, and when detached from one another become
chlamydospores, which abstrict new cells of similar nature (Fig. 79).
These chlamydospores were formerly erroneously termed “mucor-
yeast,” but they must not be confounded with the yeast-conidia
(page 94). They are shortened hyphæ, and are not conidia of definite
size, shape, and point of budding. Oidia are also found in
Chlamydomucor.

Fig. 78.—Mucor mucedo. A mycelium which has sprung from one spore, whose
position is marked by the *: a, b, c are three sporangia in different stages of
development; a is the youngest one, as yet only a short, thick, erect branch; b is
commencing to form a sporangium which is larger in c, but not yet separated from
its stalk.
The Mucoraceæ, in addition to the chlamydospores and oidia,
have a more normal and ordinary method of reproduction; viz., by
spores which are formed without any sexual act. Mucor has round
sporangia; from the mycelium one or more long branches,
sometimes several centimetres in length, grow vertically into the air;
the apex swells (Figs. 78, 80) into a sphere which soon becomes
separated from its stalk by a transverse wall; in the interior of this
sphere (sporangium) a number of spores are formed which
eventually are set free by the rupture of the wall. The transverse wall
protrudes into the sporangium and forms the well-known columella
(Fig. 80 d, e). The formation of spores takes place in various ways
among the different genera.

Fig. 79.—Chlamydospores of Chlamydomucor

racemosus (× 375 times.)
 Fig. 80.—Mucor mucedo: a a spore commencing to germinate (× 300 times); b
a germinating spore which has formed a germ-tube from each end (× 300 times); c
the apex of a young sporangium before the formation of spores has commenced;
the stalk is protruded in the sporangium in the form of a column: on the wall of the
sporangium is found a very fine incrustation of lime in the form of thorn-like
projections; d a sporangium in which the formation of spores has commenced; e a
sporangium, the wall of which is ruptured, leaving a remnant attached to the base
of the columella as a small collar. A few spores are seen still adhering to the
columella.

Sexual Reproduction by conjugation takes place in the

following manner. The ends of two hyphæ meet (Fig. 81) and
become more or less club-shaped; the ends of each of these are cut
off by a cell-wall, and two new small cells (Fig. 81 A) are thus
formed, these coalesce and give rise to a new cell which becomes
the very thick-walled zygote (zygospore), and germinates after
period of rest, producing a new hypha, which bears a sporangium
(Fig. 81 E).
Mucor mucedo, Pin-mould, resembles somewhat in appearance
Penicillium crustaceum and is found growing upon various organic
materials (bread, jam, dung, etc.).
Pilobolus (Figs. 83, 84) grows on manure. Its sporangium (Fig. 84
a″) is formed during the night and by a peculiar mechanism (page
92) is shot away from the plant in the course of the day. This
generally takes place in the summer, between eight and ten a.m.
The sporangium is shot away to a height which may be 300 times
greater than that of the plant itself, and by its stickiness it becomes
attached to portions of plants, etc., which are in the vicinity. If these
are eaten by animals, the spores pass into the alimentary canal and
are later on, sometimes even in a germinating condition, passed out
with the excrement, in which they form new mycelia.
Phycomyces nitens (“Oil-mould”) is the largest of the Mould Fungi;
its sporangiophores may attain the height of 10–30 c.m.
Order 2. Rhizopaceæ. Rhizopus nigricans (Mucor stolonifer)
which lives on decaying fruits containing sugar, on bread, etc., has,
at the base of the sporangiophores, tufts of rhizoids, i.e. hyphæ,
which function as organs of attachment. From these, “runners” are
produced which in a similar manner develope sporangiophores and
rhizoids.
 Figs. 81, 82.—Mucor mucedo: A-C stages in the
formation of the zygote; D zygote; E germination of
 zygote: the exospore has burst, and the endospore
grown into a hypha bearing a sporangium.
Order 3. Thamnidiaceæ. On the same sporangiophore, in
addition to a large, terminal, many-spored sporangium, many
smaller, lateral sporangia are formed with a few spores.
Thamnidium.
B. Asexual reproduction by sporangia and conidia.
Order 4. Choanephoraceæ. Choanephora with creeping
endophytic mycelium, and perpendicular sporangiophores.
Order 5. Mortierellaceæ. Mortierella polycephala produces on the
same mycelium conidia and sporangiophores. M. rostafinskii has a
long stalked sporangiophore, which is surrounded at its base by a
covering of numerous felted hyphæ.
 Fig. 83.—Pilobolus. Mycelium (a, a), with a sporangiophore (A) and the
fundament of another (B).
 Fig. 84.—Pilobolus. Sporangium (a″) with
stalk (a-c), which is covered by many small
drops of water pressed out by turgescence.
C. Asexual reproduction only by conidia.
Order 6. Chætocladiaceæ. The conidia are abstricted singly and
acrogenously. Chætocladium is a parasite on the larger Mucoraceæ.