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Fruit Juices
 Fruit Juices
Extraction, Composition, Quality
and Analysis

Edited by
Gaurav Rajauria
University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland

Brijesh K. Tiwari
Teagasc Food Research Centre, Dublin, Ireland
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Contents

List of Contributors .......................... ....................... .................................. . ........................ xxv

SECTION I COMPOSITION

CHAPTER 1 Fru it Ju ices: An Overview ................................................................... ,,3

Gaurav Rajauria and Brijesh K. Tiwari
1.1 The Importance of Juice: An Introduction ._ ................... 3
1.2 Demand and Consumption of Fruit Juices ........................................... . .................... 3
1.3 Juice Preparation...... ................................ " ............ 4
1.4 Juice Processing and Preservation . . .........__ .................... .......... .. ... ... 5
1.5 Challenges Assocjated Wjth Fruit Juices Production.. ......... .... ......... . ....... . ........... 5 ..

1.6 Book Objective.......... .. . ...

...... . .................................. ............ 6
1.7 Book Structure .............. ............... ... 6
References ... . .. ............ ........... ........... ........... ..... . . .. ....................... ......... . ............ ] 3
. __

CHAPTER 2 Market D i m e nsions of the Fruit Juice Industry .. . ...... .. ..... ..... . ... ...... ... 15
Anushree Priyadarshini and Akanksha Priyadarshini
2.1 Introduction............ ............. 15
2.2 Market Overview.... ....... . . . . ........ . . . ..... ... .. .. ...................................... 15
2.3 Key Trends in the Juices Market .... .. ..... ................. .. .................. .......... ] 7
2.3.1 Functional Drinks................................ .. ........... ................................. 18
2.3.2 Marketing to Kids ... .. ............. ................................... ...................... . 20
2.3.3 Beauty Support Drinks .................... .. ..................... ............................... .21
2.3.4 Luxury Juices ................................... ............. .................................. . 2J

2.3.5 Ethical Juices .. ................................... .............................................. . 22

2.4 Opportunities and Threats .......................................... ...................................... 22
2.4.1 Emerging Markets Growth ... . . ..... ...... .23

2.4.2 Insecurity of Supply/Sourcing .......... ................................. . 23

2.4.3 Bifurcation ................................. ..................... ............................... . 24
2.4.4 Volatility ............................ . ............................................................ 24
2.4.5 Convergence of Categories ___.. ....... . . ......... .. . . ...... .___ ...... .__.... .24
2.5 Factors Affecting Consumers Juice Choices...... . ..... . . . . .. . . . . . ..... .
.. .. .
. . . . . ...... . ... ... . . 25
. . . .

2.5, I Economic and Noneconomic Factors " "'''''''''''''''''''''''''', ........................... " 25

2.5.2 Psychological Factors ............. ................................... .. ......... 26
2.5.3 Cultural Factors .. .... . .. ... ...........................................................26
2.5.4 Lifestyle Factors ............................................................................................. 26

v
VI Contents

2.6 lnnovation in Fruit Juice Marketing ..................... ............................................ 26

2.6.1 Product-Based Innovations .................................. ....... 28
2.6.2 Packaging-Based Inn ovati on ........ , ... , ......... , , ................................................ , 29
2.7 An Outlook on the Future for Fruit Juices .......... .... ....... . . . . . . . . . . .. . ............... 30
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . __ .. ......... 31

CHAPTER 3 Classification of Fruit Juices . ... . . . . . . . .... . . ....

. . . . . . . .. . . . . ... .. . . ... .. . .. .... 33
. . . . . . . . .

Kiril Mi halev Rada Dinkova, Vasil Shikov and Plamen Mollov

,

3.1 Introduction ................... . ............... ...... 33

3.2 Classification According to the Product Composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ____ ..... . 33
.

3.3 Classification According to the Preservation Method""""""""' ' ' ''''''''''',, ... ...... .. .. 41
References"", ....... ,", ...... "' .................................. "',..... ,' "' ......"" ............................ 43

CHAPTER 4 Quality Attributes of Apple Juice: Role ami Effect of Phenol i c

Compounds . .. ... . ,', ......... , ........................................... , ......................., .. 45
Laura Massini, Daniel Rico a nd Ana B, Martin-Diana
4.1 ]ntroduction .... , ................... 45
4.2 Apple Fruit and Juice: Health Benelits ................ ................ 46
4.3 Apple Juic e Produ ction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... ..................................... ...... 47
4.4 Phenolic Composition of Apple Juice .. ............ . .................................... ....... 49
4.5 Antioxidant Capacity of Apple Juice due to Phenolic Content ................ ... 51
4.6 Color of Apple Juice ....... . . ............... 52
4.7 Tu rb idity of Apple Juice ...................................... .. ... " ..................... " .............. 53
4.8 The Taste of Apple Juice .................... 53
4.9 Future Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... . . . . . . ....... . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......... 54
References , .......... . ........... . ...... __ .. ____ ...... .... .....
__ __ . ...... __. __ .... .... ..., .. 55
__ __

Further Reading .. ............ ... . _ . . . . . . . . __________ . . .. ____ . . ............................. .. .....

. . . .________ ... ... 57

CHAPTER 5 Fruit Juices (Apple, Peach, and Pear) and Changes

in the Carotenoid Profile . . . . . . .. . . . . . .... . .... . .. .... . . .. . . . . .. . . .. .. .. . . ... . .. 59
. . . . . . . . . . . . .

Andrea C. Galvis-Sanchez and Juliana Vinholes

5.1 Introduction " ....... "." . . . . . . . "" ........ " . ...................... . " ....... "". . . . . . . . " ......... " .............. 59
5.2 Ca rotenoids Chemistry, Structure, and Distribution in Apple. Peach.
and Pear Frui ts .................. . . ........... , ____ .................., ...........,.......... ..,............. 61
5.3 Analytical Method. to Quantify Carotenoid. in Apple, Pe ach,
and Pear Juices ...... .......... ........ .....
. . ____ ..........__...... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . __ . .... . . . . .. 63
5.3. I Extraction ....... 64
5.3.2 Saponification ............................. " """.... . "".............................. "" 64
5.3.3 Determination ..............................,"", .......,", ........,", ................................,.,' 67
"
 Contents VII

5.4 Changes i n the C ar oten oi d Profile o f Apple Peach and Pear Juice ,

During Processing.... ... ... . ...... . . . . . . ................. . . . . . ....... .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . ........ 68

5.4.l Apple Juice... ......... ..... ............... .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . ........ .................... . 68
5.4.2 Peach Juice . . . . . ...... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........................ ..... 69
5.4.3 Pear Juice ....... . . . . . ...... ................ .... ..
. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .................... ......... 70
5.5 Conclusions ...... ..... . .. . ......... 70
5.6 $unlmary Points ....... ............... . ...... . . . . .... __ ................ . .. ............ . . . . . . . ............ 70
Acknowledgment ." ........................... 71
Refere nce s ... . . . . . . ...... . .............. 71

CHAPTER 6 Selenium and Other Beneficial Elements in Fruit J u i ces .................. 75

Maja Welna, Anna Szymczycha-Madeja and Pawel Pohl
6.1 lntroduction ...... ..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......................... ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......... 75
6.2 Selenium and Ot her Beneficial Elements in Fruit Juices .... .. ... . . . . . . . . . . ....... 76
6.3 Det erm ination of Total Se in Fruit Juices .................. . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . ........ . . . . ..... ... 78 . . . . .

6.3.l Fruit Juices List . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... ............. ........... 78

6.3.2 Methods for Determination of Se in Fruit Juice . ..... . . . . . . . . ____ ........... 80
6.3,3 Preconcentration and Separatio n Methods in Total Se Determination ......... 84
6.4 Fractionation and Speciati o n of Se in Frui t Juices ..... . . ........ . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . ................ 86
6.4.l Fractjonation Assay........................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............................. 87
6.4.2 Speciation Assay .. . . . . .... . ... ...... . ... .. .... . .... .. . ......... .
......... .... . ....... . ..
.. .... ... .. ...... . .. 87
6.4.3 Bioavailability Assay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... .. ......... 87
6.5 Effects o f Sc i n Fruit Juices-In Vitro Studies ...... .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... . . . . ....... 88
6.6 Conclusions.... .. . . . . . . . ..... . . . . . . ....... . . . . . .... .. ........... ...................................... 90
Acknowledgment.... . . . . ............................. .. .............. 91
References .... ........................ 91
Further Reading ... .. ........ ............ 93

CHAPTER 7 The Contribution of Phytochemicals to the Ant ioxidant

Potential of Fruit Juices . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... . . . . .. . . . . . .. . .. . . ..... . . . . .. .... . . . . ....
. . . . . . . . .. . . 95
Yvonne II Yuan and Sachitha A. 8aduge
7.1 Introduction ...... ........ . . . . . ....... . . . . ........ . . ....................... ....... .. .......... 95
7.2 Antioxidant Profiles of Fruit Juices . . . ..... ............ .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ...... .... .. ...... .......... .. . ... .. 98
7.2.1 Apple Juices . . . ...................... . . ... . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............................. 98
7.2.2 Berry Juices .. . . . . . . . . .... .. ........... ..... . . . . . . . .. . ........... .. .................... 106
7.2.3 Citrus Juices.. ..................................... .. ............................................ 111
7.2.4 Grape Ju;ce5 .. . .. . .. .. . . .
. .. . ... . ...... . .... .. ... . . . . ...
.. ... . .. .. ...
. .... .. ...
... ... . .
. ... .. ... . .
. ..... . ... . 1]7
7.2.5 Exotic Juices .. . . . . . . . ...... ..................... .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............. ......... 118
7.3 Conclusion.... ........................................ ............... J25
Refere n es c ............................................................................................................... 125
Further Readi ng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ................... 128
VIII Contents

S E CTION II EXTRACTION AND PRODUCTION

CHAPTER 8 Extraction of Fruit Juice: An Overview .. ...

. . . . . . . . .. ... . . . . .. ... . . . . . . . .. . . . .
. . . . . 131
Muhammad Mushtaq
8.1 :Introduction . . . . . ......... . . . ............ 13 1
8.2 Fruit Juice Extraction ..... . .......... . . . . 132
8.2.1 Fruit-Based Raw Materials for the Juice Industry . ......................... . . .... 133
8.2.2 M atur ity and Ripening Stage .......... . .. 134
8.2.3 Washing....................................... . .................................... 1 3 6
8.2.4 Preparation of Fruits ... . . ...... . . .... . . .....
. . .... ....... . .. ..
. .. . . .. .. ... ..... . . ....... ..
. . . .. . . .. .1 3 8
.

8.2.5 Crushing or Milling . . . .. .. . . ... .. .. .. . .... .. ..................... .. ....... ... . . .. ... ..... .... 139
. .. . . .. . .

8.2.6 Fruit-Grinding Mills ......... . ....................... ............. . . . . . 140

8.2.7 Finger Cup Extractors................... . .... . . . . . ... . . . .................................141
8.3 Separalion of Juice . . .... ... . .... .... ..... . ....
. . . . . . . ...... . .... . . ......................................... 142
8.3. t Pressers .. .. . . ..... ..... ............. ............................ ..... 143
8.3.2 Rack and Cloth Press................... . .................................... 143
8.3.3 Hydraulic Presses ............. ......... . . . .. .. . ..
.. . . . .... ..... ... ..... ... ........... .......... .. . 144
. .. . . ...

8.3.4 Screw-Type Presses ........ . . .. ....... . . .... ......... ..... 144

8.3.5 Be lt Presses ..... .... .............. .... . .... .
. . ....... . . ........ .. .................... . . ........ ... . 1 4 5
8.3.6 Hydrodiffusiol] Extractor .. ... . . .... . . .... .. ...... .. ...... .... . . ...... ........... . .. .....
. .. .. .. .. . . . 146
8.3.7 Spiral Filter Presser....................... . . . . ... . ... ... . . ...... . .....
.. . . . . . . 148
8.4 Clarification and Stabilization ... ........... . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... ....... 148
8.4.1 Centrifugation ............................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......................... ....... 149
8.4.2 Membrane-Based Filtration Technologies. . ........ . . . . .................... .. 1 51
8.4.3 Enzymes for the Clarification of Fruit Juices .... . ...... ........ . . . . . 151
8.5 Drying/Evaporation and Concentration .. .. .......... . . . ..... . . . . . ....... ... .. .... 1 5 2
B.6 Pasteurization .......................... ............................ . . . . . . ............ 1 53

8.7 Slorage................. ........................................... ................ ......................... 153

8.8 Future Prospects .............. .......... ........................ . ........ . . ...... . . . ........ . . . . ........... 1 5 6
References .................... ........ __.. . . . . . . . ____.. ....156

CHAPTER 9 Novel Extraction Technologies . . .. ... . . . . .. ... .. . . . . . . . .. .. . . . . . .. . .. . . . . . . . . . .. ... . . . . 161

Muhammad Mushtaq, Sumia Akram and Ahmad Adnan
9.1 lntroduction . . . . . 1 61
9.2 Fruit Selection and Pretreatment ............................................ ....... I�
9.3 Mechanical Extraction/Processing. . . . . . ................. 1 6 2
. .

9.4 Enzymatic Maceration . ..... . . . . .... . . ..... .. .. ... .... . ....... .. . .. ............ 1 66
9.5 Ultrasound Extraction of Fruit Juices.................. . .. ............ ...................... 168
9.6 Microwave Hydroditfusion and Gravity.............. . .. . . . . ............ 169
 Contents IX

9.7 Thermal Processing of Fruit Jukes .. . . ... . ........

.. ..... .. .... ... .. . . . . . . . ........... ........ . . . . . .... J 70
.

9.7. 1 Ohmic Heat Treatment . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... ............. . . . ...... 1 7 1

9.7.2 Pulsed Electric Field ...... .. ...... .......... ...... ..... .. ......... .... . ........ . . ..... ... ..... 172
. . . . . . . . . .

9.7.3 High-Pressure-Carbon-Dioxide-Induced Precipitation . . . .. ..

. . .... ... . . . . . ..... ..... ] 74
9.8 Fi Itration ....... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... 174
9.9 Nove l Clarification Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... 176
9.10 Novel Deacidification of Fruit Juices . . . .................. . . . . ........ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . ..... 176
9.11 Conclusion and Future Prospects ........................................................................... 177
References..... . ................................ .. ................. 1 7 7

CHAPTER 1 0 Enzyme-Assisted Extraction of Fruit Juices . . . . . . . . . . . . ..

. . . . . ... ... . . . . . . . . .... 183
Florina Danalache, Paulina Mata, Vitor D. Alves and
Margarida MoldeD-Martins
10.1 Introduction ....................................... ................................... .. . . . . . . . . .......... 183
10.2 Chemistry of Enzymes and Their Substrales .......... . . . . . .. . ... . . . . . . ..... . . . . . . .. . . . . . ... . 184 . . . ..

10.2.1 Pectins and Pecti n ases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ____ ......._. 1 84

10.2.2 Cellulos e and Cellulase ......... .. ....... 187

10.2.3 Hemicellulose and Hemi cellulase ..... ... . ............. . .......... ........... ... . ...... . 187
. . . .. . .

10.3 Cornmerc.ial Enzyme Preparations . . ..... . .... . ...... . ..... . ... .......... ................. ........ ] 88
10.4 Legislation ........... ... . .. . ... . . . ................ ........ . ... . . .. . . .
. . . .. . .. ....... ...... 1 89
10.5 Biotechn ological Applications of Enzyme-Assisted Extraction
for Different Fruit Juices.... ........................... . . . . . . . . ... . . .. ...... ....... 189
1O.5.l Pomme Fruils . . . . ... .. ........ .... ....... .... .. . .............................................. J90
lO.5.2 Citrus Fruits ..... ... .. .......
.. ..... .... .. . .... . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... ....... ...... .. .... . . 191
..

10.5.3 Ben'ies . . . . .. . . .............................. .. . . . . .................. ........ 191

10.6 Effect of E nzyma tic Treatment on the Physicochemical Properties
and Quality of Fruit Juice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....................... .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........... 192
10.6.1 Juice yield........ .. ...................... ........ .. . . . . ....... . . . . . ........................... 192
lO.6.2 Viscosity. . . . . .............................
.. . . .......... ................. 194
lO.6.3 Tu rbidity . . . ................................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........................... 194
10.6.4 Color . . . . . . . . . . ....... ..................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .............................. 195
lO.6.5 Total Soluble Solids . . ...... . .. . . ..... ...... .. . . . ............................ 195
lO.6.6 pH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............................ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........................... 195
10.6.7 Ascorbic Acid Conten!............ . . . . . . . ..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ................. ......... 195
10.6.8 Anthocyanins Content.. ... .... ....... .... . . . . . . ............................ 196
10.7 Conclusions .. ..... .. .
. .. ........... 196
References ... ......... 196
Further Reading ........................... .. . . . . ....... . . . . ......... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... . . . ......... 200

CHAPTER 1 1 Application of Enzymes for Fruit Juice Processing . . . .. . .. . . . . . . . .... . . . . . 201

Carlos Alvarez Garda
11.1 Introduction ............. . ................. .............. 201
x Contents

11.2 The Use of Enzyme s for Fruit Juice Processing.. .......................................... 201
1l.2.1 Main C omponents in Plant Cell Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... ..... 202
1 1.2.2 M_echanjsm and Principle of Enzymes Employed in Juice Pro cess i ng "" 204
1l.2.3 Main Parameters lntluencing Enzymatic Processes.. .. .......... ... .......... . . ... 207 . .

1l.2.4 Effects of Enzymatic Treatment on Juice Properties ... ............. ..... 212
11.3 Conclusions ... . . .... ....... ... ....... 213
References .... .......... .............. 2 1 3

CHAPTER 12 Fruit Juice Concentrates . .. ......, ...................... , ......... " ........... "........" 217
Ahmad Adrrarr, Muhammad Mushtaq and Tanveer ul Islam
12.1 lntroduction .
. . ...... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .............
. .................................. ....... 217
12.2 Global Demand/Market for Fruit Juices ...............""......"""......." ..........",,.......... 218
12.3 Nutri tion al Value of F ru its and Derived Products "" ........... 2 1 9
12.4 Fruit Juice .. . . . . . ...... . . . . ...... . . . ..... . . . . . . ....... . . . . . ..... . . . . . ..... . . . ...... . . . . ... ....... 222
12.5 Fruit Juice Concentration ......................... .............. ...................... 223
12.5,1 Juice Concentration by Evaporation . . . . . "" . . . . . . . . . "" ................ . . . . . ........ , , 2 2 3
"

12.5.2 Cryoconcentration . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . ........ . . . . . . . . . . . . 228

12.5.3 Concentration by Membrane Filtration .................. ................. . .... .. . ..... 231
1 2.5.4 Hydrate Separation Technology.""".... "" .......... "....................... .. ..",234
12.6 Orange Juice Concenlrate "....................... " " ........... 235
12.7 Other Fruit Juice Concentrates .... ......... ...... . . . .. .... . .. . . . . ............ 237
12.8 Concluding Remarks and Future Perspectives ..... .. .... ,...................... ,............ 237
Referenc es .... . ... ..... ..... .........................
. . . . "" ......................... 238

CHAPTER 13 Reverse Osmos is and Forward Osmosis for the Concentration

of Fruit Juices .. . . . 24 1
Navin K. Rastogi
13.1 lntroduction " . . ..... " . " ............ 24 1
13.2 Transmembrane Flux and Concentration Polarization in Reverse Osmosis. ... .... 244
13.3 Transmembrane Flux and Concentration Polarization in Fo rward Osmosis . ...... 246
13.4 Draw Soluti ons for Forward Osmosis . ................. "......... " ............ 247
13.5 Membranes for Forward Osmosis . . . ..... ........ . ...
.. .................. 248
13.6 Concentration of Fruit J uices Using Reverse Osmosis . . . . . ...... . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . .... . . ...... 250
13.6,1 Apple Juicc .... .. ..................... . . .... .. , " , .... .. . . ." .. . ... ..
. . , ... . ... ................... . . . . 2 50 .. .. . ,

1 3.6,2 Orange Juice" ......... ............... . . ,,"", ......,,", ....... ,,", ...................... . . . . . . .... ," 2 50
..

13.6.3 Grape Juice ............. .................................. ..... 251

13.6.4 Watermelon Juice... . ....... . ..... 2S1
13.6,5 Black Currant Juice................ . . "" ........ "" .. ....."" ................................ ,251
. ..

13.6,6 Acerola Juice....................... "" ...................... ........ " , 252

13.6.7 Mango Juice . . . . . 25 2
13.6,8 Pear Juice .... ,............................ ,......... " .......... ,.................................... 252
 Contents XI

13.7 C o nc e ntrat io n of Fruit Juices Using FOlward Osmosis ... . .... . . . . .... .... .. .. ..... ....... 252
...

13.7. 1 Grape Juice ......... .... ............. .................................. ............. ......... 253
13.7.2 Pineapple Juice .. ........ . . . . . ...... . .........
. ... .. ....... . .....
. ....... .... ....... . .. .. . . .. ..... 253
.. . ... . .

13.7.3 Anthocyanin Extract .. ..... . ... .

. ..... ..... . . . . . ........ . . . . ......... . . .. .. .... ... ... . .
... . . ... .... . 253
13.7.4 Red Raspberry Juice .. ..............................
.. .. .......... 253
13.7.5 Orange Peel Press Liquor ..... .................................. ......... 254
13.8 C on clus ion ................. ....................... .................................. ........ 254
List of Symb ols ....................................................... ................................................ 254
List of Acronyms.. . ...........
. ... ..... ... ....
. . .. .. ................. 255
References.................. .. ........ .. .....
. .. . ..... ........ .. .. . .........................255

CHAPTER 14 Production of Fruit-Based Smoothies .. . . .. .. .. ... ....

. . .. ... . . .. . .. . ..
. . .. .. .... .. 261
Uma Tiwari
14.1 Introduction .... .................................... 26 1
14.2 Relevance of Fruit- and/or Vegetable-Based Smoothies. ................. 262
14.3 Pr oduc tio n of Smoolh i es... .. .. ....... . . . . . . . . . ... . ....... ... ... . .... ..... ... ........ 264
14.4 Pro ces sin g of Smoothies ...................... ..... .................................... 266
14.4 .1 Th erm al and Nonthermal Proc essi ng of Smoothies .. . .. ........ .. . .. ... .. . 266 . . .. . . .

14.4.2 Enzymatic Processing of Smoothies.... . . . ....... ... .... .. ...... .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... ...... 273 .

14.5 Fermentation Technologies for Smoothies ....................... ............. ...................... 274

14.6 Conclusion ....... ..
. ..... . .. ....... .. .. .. .......... .. .
.. .. .. .. . .... ...... .. ..... 275
References ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............................ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......... 275
Further Reading ... . . .. ................................... ............. .................... 278

CHAPTER 1 5 Turning Fruit Juice Into Probiotic Beverages ... . . . .. ... . .... . ... . .. . . . . . . .. .. 279
Ana Lucia Fernandes Pereira and Sueli Rodrigues
15.1 Introduction ........... ................................ 279
15.2 Principles of Probiotic Sy stems . .. ......... .............. ........ . ... .. ............... 280
15.3 Fruit Juices as a Matrix for P robiot ic Microorganisms Delivery .. . . . . . .
.... . . . . . . ... . 280
.

15.4 Ch ange s in the utritional Value of Prohiotic Fruit Juices .. . ............................ 283
15.5 Sensory Analysis of Probiotic Frui t Juices. ...... . ... . . ..... . . ... ........ ...... ..... . .... ..... . . .... 283
15.6 Commercially Available Pro biotic-Based Fruit Juices .... . . . ........ 284
15.7 Final Remarks.. ....................... ....................................................................... 285
Referen c es . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......................... . . ........................................ 285

SECTION III QUALITY AND SAFETY

CHAPTER 1 6 Pathogens and Spoilage M i croorganisms in Fruit Ju ice:
An Overview . . ..... . .. .. .... .. ... .. . ..... ...
. .. .. . .. . .... .... .... ..... . .... ..... .
. . . . .. .. . ... .... .. 291
Beatriz de Cassia Martins Saiomao
16.1 Introduction ............. .. . .......... 291
XII Contents

16.2 Bacteria............ ................... .................................. .......................................... 292

16.2.1 Pathogenic Bacteria .................................. ..... 292
16.2.2 Spoilage Bacteria .................. ..... ....... ..... . . ..... ....... ... . .....
. .... .. ............ ....... ... 293
16.3 Molds .. . .. ...... ....
.. .. .. ... .... ..
. .. ...... .......
. ..... ... . .. ..... ..... 295
. .

16.3.1 Fil amentous Molds ........................... ..... 295

16.3.2 Yeast .................. ............. .................................. ..... 299
16.4 Viruses............................. ............... ... ....... .. ............ 300
1 6.5 Protozoa .................................................................................................................. 30 I
References ... ....... ........................... 302

CHAPTER 17 Thermal Pasteurization a n d M i c robial Inactivation

of Fruit Juices ... ..... . ... .. .... .... ... ..... ... . .. . .... ...... .. .......
. . . . . . . . . . . ........ ... . .. 309
. . .

Erdal Ag{,am, Asiye AkYlldlz and Burcu Dlindar

17.1 Introduction . . . . . . .................... .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
17.2 Engineering Aspects for Thermal Pasteurization. .. ............ 311
17.2.1 D-Value ........................ ..........................................................312
17.2.2 l-Value . .. ......... . ......... . ......... .................. .
. . . .. . .. .. .... 313
17.2.3 Leth a lity .... ......................... .. .................................. 314
17.2.4 Pasteurization Norm (P-Value) ... ................................... .3 14
17.3 Relation of Fruit Juice Acidity and Thermal T reatment .... ..315
17.4 Types of Pasteurization According to Intensity . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . __. . ..... 317
17.5 Microbiologic Background and Target Microorganisms of Fruit Julces . ............ 3] 8
17.5.1 Escherichia coli, Salmonella, and Listeria monocytogenes ....... .. . .. . ..... 318 ...

17.5.2 AlicyclobQcillu.<.. ............. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... . .... 320

17.5.3 Other Important Spoilage Bacteria.......... . .................................. 323
.

17.5.4 Molds and yeasts ............ ............... ........................... . ........ .. ...... ................ 324
17.6 Enzyme Inactivation ............................ ............... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . .... ....... 330
17.6.1 Peroxidase ........................ ............... ..... 331
17.6.2 Polyphenoloxidase ...................... ... .. . . ...... ..... ....... ......... 33 1 .

17.6.3 Lipoxygenase ............................ ...................................... 332

17.6.4 Pcctinmcthylestcfase in Citrus Juice ..................................... .....333
References.... ....................................... .................. ............................ 333

CHAPTER 18 The Inactivation of Pathogens i n Fruit J u i ce: Escherichia

coli 0157:H7, Salmonella Typhimurium, and Listeria
monocytogenes ............................. . ..................... . ............................. 341
Hafiz Muhammad Shahbaz, Jeong Un Kim, Sun-Hyoung Kim
and Jiyong Park
18.1 lntroduction ..... .................................................... . .......................................... 341
18.2 Escherichia coli 0157:H7, Salmonella Typhimurium. and Li.)"teria
mOllocytogenes Led Microbial Contamination of Fruit Juices
and Associated Outbreaks ......... ......... .............. .................................. ....... 341
 Contents XIII

1 8.3 Recent Approaches for Inactjvation of Mkrobial Pathogens in

Fruit Juices ........ .... . ...................... ..... .. . . . . . . . . ......... ........ 343
. .

18.3. 1 Inactivation of Escherichia coli OI57:H7, Salmollella Typhimurium,

and Listeria monocyrogenes in Apple Juice Using Different
Processing Treatments ............................... , , , .. ............ ....................... "", ... 345
1 8.3.2 1nactivation of Escherichia coli 0 1 57:H7, Salmonella TyphimuriUln,
and Listeria monocytogenes in Orange Juice Using Different
Processing Tremments ...... ..... ........ . . ......... . 347 ___ . . . . . . . __

18.3.3 Inactivation of Escherichia coli OI57:H7, Salmollella Typhimurium,

and Listeria m01wcyrogcncs in Apricot, Mango, Pear, Pineapple,
Strawberry, Tomato, Kiwi, Melon, and Watermelon Fru it Juices
Using Different Processing Treatments ...... . . . . . . . ........ . . . " ... , ....................... 349
1 8.4 Mechanisms of -Microbial Inactivation in Fruit Juice Using Differem
Processi ng Treatlll.ents ........................ ........... .. .... ...... ........................ " ...... " .. ........ 353
.

Acknowledgments .. ......... .. . . ...... .. . . ...... . . . . . ...................... .. ........... 357

References ... . . . . . . . ........ .......... . . . . ... .............. . . . . . ........ . . . ....... . . . . . .................... 357

CHAPTER 1 9 Techniques to Detect and Detoxify Organophosphorus

Pesticides from Fruit Juices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
. . . . .. ..

Sumia Akram and Muhammad Mushtaq

1 9. 1 Introduction ...... ... .. .. . ....... 363
1 9.2 ExtractionlEnrichment of Organophosphorus Pesticides . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . ..... 364 . .. . .. ... . ..

1 9.2.1 Liquid-Liquid Extraction .... ....... . . . . ........................ .. ....... 370

19.2.2 Microwave/Ultrasound-Assisted Dispersion . . . . . ....... . . . . ......... .. ....... 372
19.2.3 Cloud Poi nt Based Extraction.. . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......... . . ..... . . . . .. ..... 372
.. . . . .

1 9.2.4 Single· Drop Microextraction . . . . . ......... . . . . ........... .................... ......... 373

19.2.5 Solid-Phase Extraction ... .......... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... ............. ......... 373
1 9.3 Biosensors for Simultaneous Detection and Quantilication of OPs . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .... 376
1 9.4 Detection and Quantification . .... .......... . ....... . . . . ....... . . ..
. . . . .. ..... 377 ...... . . . . ....... . . . . . . . . . . . . .

19.4. 1 Gas Chromatography . . . .......... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... .. .......... 378

19.4.2 Liquid Chromatography .................. ............. . . . .......... ............................... 378
1 9.5 Detoxification of Organophosphorus Pesticides i n Fruit Juic e . . .. . .... . 379 . .....

19.5. 1 Washing and degradation................ .. . . . . . ...... . . . . ............................. 379

19.5.2 Filtration- or Immobilization·Based Technologies . . . ........................... 382 .

1 9.5.3 Decontamination via Radio1ysis . ..... . 382

. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _ _ . . . ............ ......

19.5.4 Nonthennal Degradation................... . . . . . ...... . . . .............................. 384 . .

1 9.6 Conclusion and Future Challenges ........................ 384

References ... . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......................... 385 . . . ....................... . . . . . . . . . . ..........

Further Reading ........................... .............. . . . . . ....... ................. . . . ........ . . ................ 389

XIV Contents

S E CTION IV INNOVATIVE TECH N I QUES

CHAPTER 20 High Hyd rostatic Pressure and High-Pressure Homogenization
Processing of Fruit J u i ces _ _ _ _ _ _ . _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ . _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ . . _ _ _ _ _ . _ . __ . _ . __ 393
Pedro E D Augusto, A fline A L Tribst and Marcelo Cristian ini
_ _ _ .

20. 1 Int roduction "......... " . " ..... . . . . ........ " ....................... ""....... . ......... "." ....."." 393
20.2 High Hydrostatic Pressure . . . . _ _ _ . __ . . . . _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ . _ . . . . _ _ _ _ . . . . . . . _ _ _ _ . . _. . . . . ____.. ____ 394
20_2 . 1 Principles and Equipment _ . . _ . . . __ . _ _ _ . . . . . _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ . . . _ . _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ . . . 394
20.2.2 Effect on Microorganisms . ............ . . . . . . . . ,," ............ " ................................. 396
20.2.3 Effect on Enzym es _ _ _ . ___ . . _ ___ _____ . . . . . . . _....._ _ _ _ _ _._.. . . 397
20_2.4 Effect on Food Constituents and Impact on Juice Structure,
i
Tech nol og c al , Sensory, and Nutrition al Properties .. ___ . . . . . . . 399
20.2.5 Industrial Perspec tives and Commercial Use . . . . .. . . . . ........................... .... . 400
20_2.6 Conclusions _ . 40 1
20.3 High-Pressure Homogeni zation . . . . . . . .... ......... .. ..... . . . " .... " " . 40 1
20_ 3 . 1 Principles and Equipment _. . . 402
20.3.2 Effect on Microorganisms . ... _ . .__ _ _ . . . . . . _ _ _ _ _ _ . .. . . . . __. ___________. _ _ _ . . . 405
20.3,3 Effect all Enzymes " " ..... . """" ... " " " " " " . " " " " " " . " " .... " ...................... . . . . . . 407
20,3.4 Effect on Food Constituents, Juice S tructure, Physical,
and Technological Properties .... " " " ............................ , , , 4 1 1
20.3.5 Industrial Perspectives and Commercial Use .... . . . . . . . . ... .... .. . . . . . . . . . . . ",. . 4 1 6
20.3 ,6 Concl usions " " . . . " . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . __ "" "....."",,.....,,'" . " ... "................. "".416
20.4 Use of High Hydrostatic Pressu re and High Pressure Homogenization
in Fruil Processing; Future Challenges .................. " . . . . " . . ,," " .......... 4 1 7
References " " " " ...................... 4 1 7
Further Reading _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _, ,_ _ _ _ _ " _"" _ ___ _ " ___ _ , ,_ _ _" ____ 42 1

CHAPTER 2 1 Gamma Irradiation Usage i n Fruit Juice Extraction " . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . 423

Ratish Ramanan Kalaiselvan, Anandakumar Sugumar and
Mahendran Radhakrishnan
2 1 . 1 Introduction " . ... . . " " " ...... " "..................... " " .......... 423
21.1.1 Definitions ."" .............................. ,"" " . . . . . " " " . . " " . " " .... " ...................... ".,,. 423
21 _ 1 2 Doses for Irradiation
. ________ " " " "____" " "______ " " " ".._ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ___ _ "" 424
2 1 . 1 .3 Terms Used for Gamma Irradiati o n , ,_____" " "________ ""__ _____________ _ _ " . 42 5
21 .2 Gamma ltradiation Exlraction Theory.. .... ........... . " " . . . . " " " " . . " " " " . . . " . . """ .......... 425
2 1 .2. 1 Gamma- Radiation-Assisled Fruit J uice Ext racti on Process .... . . . ... ... .. .
. . . . . 427
21.3 Applications of Gamma Irradiation on Fruit Juices Extraction " " " __ , , _ " " " _ _ _ ______ 430
2l.3.l Effect of Gamma Irradiation on Bjochemical Propertie s of
Fruit Juice Extract . . . . . . . . . ....... ........ . . . . . .
. .. . . . . . 430
2 1 .3,2 Effect of Gamma ltr<ldiation on Fruit Jui ce Color" .............................. ,," 43 1
2 1 .3,3 Effect of Gamma Irradiation on Microbes in Fruit Exlraclion .............. " , 432
2 L3.4 Juice Yield Extraction ______ " . . . 432
2 1 .4 Sensory and Shelf Life of Fruit Juice Extract.. ... __ ____ " , ,_ _ _. ._. . __ ,,_ 432
 Contents xv

21 .5 Conclusion . .. ... .. .. .... .............................. 433

References. __ . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . ........ . . . . . . . . ............. . . . . ......... . . . . ..... . . . . . . ..... . . ........... 433

CHAPTER 22 Pulsed E l ectric Field Processing of Fruit Juices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437

Mohamed Koubaa, Francisco J. Barba, Danijela Bursae Kovacevic,
Predrag Putnik, Mauro D. Santos, Rui P Queiros, Silvia A. Moreira,
Rita S. Imicio, Liliana G. Fidalgo and Jorge A. Saraiva
22.1 Introduction ........... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437
. . . .................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......

22.2 M.echanism and Factors Influencing Microbi al Inactivation by PEF .... . . . . . . ... .. 438 . __

22.2.1 Mechanisms of Microbial Inactivation by PEF ..... ..... .. ...... . 438 . . . . . . .

22.2.2 Factors Affecti ng Microbial Inactivation .. . .. . . ... . . . . . .. . .. . 438 . . . . . ...... . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . .

22.3 A pplicati on of PEF in Fruit Juic e Processing . . . . 440 ........ . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . .....

22.3.1 Microbial Inactivation by PEF in Fruit Juices ..... .... ............. ......... 440 . . . . . . . .

22.3.2 Impact of PEF on Fmi t Juice Properties ..... . . . . . .......... ......... .................... 441
22.4 Conclusions .............. ....................... ....................................... . . .................... 445
References ... . . . . . . ................... 445

CHAPTER 23 U ltrasound for Fruit J u i ce Preservation .. ... . . .. . . . .. .. .. . . . . . .. ...

.. . . . . ... .. . 451
.. .

Gabriela John Swamy, Kasiviswanathan Muthukumarappan

and Sangamithra Asokapandian
23.1 Introduction .... ...... 451 . ...... . . ....
. . . . . . . . .

23.2 Generation of Power Ultrasound . . . . . . . .............................. . . ...... 451 .

23.3 Microbial Inactivation in Fruit Juices . . . ... . . . . . . ... . ......... . .. . . ...... . .. . ......... . ....... 453
.. . .. . ... . .

23.3.1 Orange Juice ............. .. . . ....... . . . . . . ............ ..... ............. ......... 453
23.3.2 Apple Juice. ... . . . .... .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............ ...... ............. ........ . 457
.. .

23.3.3 Other Fruit Juices . .. .. .. . . . . . . ... . ....

.. . . . . . . . . . .
...... . . . . .. 458
.. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . ......... .. . . . . . . . . ......

23.4 Conc lus ion ..... ......... .............. . . . . . . ....... .. . . . . . ............. ............... 461
References. __ .............
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ._ .... . ... .... ... . .... .. 461 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .

CHAPTER 24 Short-Wave U ltraviolet light Inactivation of Pathogens

in Fruit J u ices . . . .. .. . . . . .. .... . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . .. ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463
Ay�e H. 8aysal
24. 1 Introduction ........... . . ........ 463
24.2 UV-C Light . .. ........ ... ......... ...................... ...... .............. .. ...... 464
24.2.1 atural Sources ....... .. ........... .. . . .................... ........ 465
24.2.2 Artificial Sources .... ............. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... ............. ........ . 465
24.3 UV-C Light Treatment Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . .............. 466
....... . . . ..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .....

24.3.1 oncontinuous UV-C Systems ....... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........................... 466

24.3.2 Continuous UV-C Systems ... . . . . . ....... . . . . . . ....... . . . . ...... .. ...... . 467
24.3.3 UV-C Systems Used in Fruit Juice Application ... . .. .. ... . 468 .. . . . . . .. . ........ ....... .

24.4 Fruit Juice as Vehicles of Foodborne Pathogen s .................................................. 469

24.5 UV-C Light Inactivation Mode of Action ... ............... ..... . . . . . . . ....... . . . . . ....... . . . ....... 473
XVI Contents

24.6 UY-C Ughl Damage Repalr Mechanism ............. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........... . . ............ 477
24.7 UY·C Ughl Applications in the Food Industry . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... ....... 479
24.7 . 1 Air Dlsinfoction ................ . . . . ..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ................................... 479
24.7.2 Application to Surface Disinfection . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... . . . ........
.. ... ...... ...... ....... . 479
..

24.7.3 UY-C Light Applicalion for Liquids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . 480

24.8 UY·C Light Application for Fruit Juices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... ....... 48 1
24.9 UY-C Inac tiv ation Kinetics of Pathogens ............. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... . . . ........... 488
24. 1 0 Use of Mathematical Modeling for Assess ing UY·C Inactivation
of Pathogens ........ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........... 489
24. 1 1 FaclOrs Affecting Resi stance of Pathogens 10 UV-C Li ght
and Its Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... . . . . . 490
24.1 1 . 1 Intrinslc Factors ................ . ....................... . . . . . 490
24. 1 1 . 2 Extrinsic Factors ............. . . . . . . . . . ...................... . . . . . 49 1
24. 1 2 Conclusion . . . . ... . .
. . . . . ........... 496
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...................... . 496
Further Readi ng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..................... . . ...................... 5 1 0

CHAPTER 2 5 Ozone for Fruit J u i ce Preservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511

Sangamithra Asokapandian, Suganya Periasamy and
Gabriela John Swamy
25.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..................... . . . . ..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............ 51 I
25.2 Structure and Properties of Ozone . . . . . ........ . . . . ....... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... ....... 512
25.3 Generation of Ozone . . . . . . . . . . .......... . . ...................... . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........... 5 1 2
25.4 Regulations for Usage of Ozone .. . . . . ....... . .....
. .. ..... , . . . ........... 5 1 6
25.5 Apphcations of Ozone in Fruil Juice Preservation . . . ............ 5 1 6
25.5 . 1 Apple Juice. . . .... .........................
. ............... . . . ................. . . . . . 5 1 7
25.5.2 Orange Juice ....... . .... ......... ...... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...................
.. . . . . . 520
25.5.3 Grape Juice. . . ..... . ....................... . ............. ................................. .. 522
25.5.4 Peach Juice . . . ............................. . ... 523
25.5.5 Other Juices . . ...... ....... ...... ... ..... . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . ...... . . ... ....... ..... ..... . . . . .. 523
25.6 Conclusion ............. ........ ... . ... ....... . . . . 523
References ............................. 524

CHAPTER 26 Cold Plasma Processing of Fruit Juices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .

. .. ...... .. . 529
.

Shashi Kishor Pankaj and Kevin M. Keener

26.1 Introduction .... . . . . . . . .............................................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............ 529
26.2 Types of Plasma . . . ............. 529
26.3 Parameters for Plasma Generation and Processing . . . . ...... ......
. . 531
26.3 . l Pressure . . . . .. . . . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... ... . . 5 3 1
26.3.2 Yoltage . . . . .. . . . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........ . . . . . 53 1
26.3.3 Treatment Time .............................. . . ..................... ............................... . . . . . . 532
26.3.4 Type of Gas . . . .............................. . . ............................................... 532
 Contents XVII

26.4 Fruit Juice Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...................... ...... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... 532

26.5 Conclusion .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . ... ............. .................................... 535
Reference s ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ................ 535

CHAPTER 27 H u rd l e Technologies for Fruit J u i ces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . 539

Yash Dixit, Carl O 'Sullivan, Patrick J. Cullen and Brijesh K. Tiwari
27.1 Introduction .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .... . . .. ....... . . . . ....................... 539
27.2 Hurdle Approach ..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...................... ........ .. ...... 539
27.3 Hurdl e Technology for Fruit Juices .................................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... 540
27.4 Conc l usi on s .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... 553
References. __ . . . . . . .... .. . . . . . .. . . . .. . . . . . . . . ............. ................................. ............. 553

SECTION V SHELF LIFE AND STORAGE

CHAPTER 28 Quantitative Assessment of the Shelf life of Fruit Juices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 557
.

David Millan·$ango and Vasitis P Vatdramidis

28.1 I ntroduction .............. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....................... ...... . . . . ...... 557
28.2 I de nt ifying the Limits o f Quality Indicators Affec ti ng the Quantification
of Shelr Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . ............................ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . ...... 558
28.3 Impact of Processing and Postprocessing on Quality Indicators .......... . . . ............ 559
28.4 M odeling Approaches for the Quanti ficati o n of Shelf Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . ...... 560
28.4. 1 Model in g the Ki netics of Chemical Indicators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... .... ..... .. ....
. ... .. 560
28.4.2 Mode l in g the Kinetics of Microbial Indicators . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . ... . . . ..... .... 56 1
28.4.3 Cal cu l ation of the QIO Value .......... . . ............................. 563
28.4.4 Altemative Approach e s . . .... . ..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . .............................. 563
Acknowledgment .... . . . . . . . .... . . ..... ... ......... .... . . . . . . ......... ........... 565
Referen ces . .. . . . . . . .... .. . . . . ... .. .. ............. 565

CHAPTER 29 Use of Natural Preservatives for Shelf Life Extensi o n of Fruit

Juices........ . . . ...... . . . ............. .............................. . . . ............ ........ . . ........ . 571
Arti Pandey and Pradeep S. Negi
29.1 Fruit Juices-An Introduction . . . . . . ...... 57 1
29.2 Juice Spoilage .......... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ................... . . . . ..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... 572
29.2. 1 Juice Spoil age Organisms and O utb re aks
Common . . . . . .................. 572
29.2.2 Chemical Deterioratio n . . . . . __ .. .. ....... 576
29.3 Prevention of Spoilage in Fruit Juices . .... . ....... . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . ..... ....... 576
. .. ........... ... . . .

29.3.1. Preventjon of Spoilage Caused by Microorganisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......... 577 .. . . .... .

29.3.2 Prevention From Chemical Deterioration . . ....................... .. . . . . ...... 578

29.4 Sources or Natural Preservatives . . . . . . . . . ...... . ............. . . ............. 578
29.4. 1 Plants . . . .......... . . . . . ............................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . .
. .. . . . . ... . .. 578
.

29.4.2 Aninlah;fMicroorganisms ..... . .......... . . . " . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . " ........................... 579

.
XVIII Contents

29.5 Application of Natural Preservatives in Juices..... . . .. . . . . . ..... . . . . . ......... . . . ....... . . . . 585

29.5 . 1 As Antimicrobial Agents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... . . . . . 587
29.5,2 As Antibrowning Agent. ........... . . . . . " . . . . . . . . . " . . . . . . . . . .. . . . ............................ . . . . . 588
29.5,3 In Combination With Other Preservation Techniques .............................. 589
29.6 Bioactive Components in Natural Preservatives and Their Mechanisms
of Action.. . . . . . . ........ . . . ....................... .. ............. 589
29.7 Conclusion .. .... .. ............ 5 9 1
References . . . . 591
Further Reading . . ............................. 605

CHAPTER 30 Hyperba ric Storage of Fruit J u i ce and Impact on Composition . . . . . 607

Mauro D. Santos, Liliana G. Fidalgo, Rita S. Imicio, Ricardo V. Duarte,
Ivonne Delgadillo, Shahin Roohinejad, Mohamed Koubaa,
Francisco J. Barba and Jorge A. Saraiva
30.1 lntraduction . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . ...... . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . ... . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . . ..... . . . . . 607
30.2 Strawberry Jui ce . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............ 608
30.2 . 1 Microbial Stability . . . . . . . . . ..
. . . . . . . . . ....
. . . . . . . .. .................... . . . . . 608
30.2.2 Microbial Stability During Post-Hyperbaric Storage... ............. .. . . . 610
30.2,3 Physicochemical Parameters..... ... . . . . . . .... . . .. . . . . . . . . . .
. .. . . . 610
30.3 Watermel on Juice . . . . , . . . . . . . . , " , . . . . . . ..... ...................... . , . . . . . . . . . . " . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , ' ............ 6 1 3
30.3,1 Microbial Stability .................... ........ . . . . . . .... . . . . . . ........... ............. . . . . . ... . . 6 1 3
30.3.2 Microbial Stability During Post-Hyperbaric Storage ................. ... . . 615
30.3,3 Physicochemical Parameters....... .. ............................ ..... 6 1 5
30.3.4 Bioactive Composition .............. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... ....................... . . . . . 616
30.4 Melon Juice . . .. .. . . . . . . . ...... . . . . . . . ... . .
. . . . . . .... __ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......... . . . ....... . . . . 6 1 6
30.4 . 1 Microbial Stab i l ity .. 61 6
30.4,2 Physicochemical Parameters ..... . . ............. .................... . . . . . ........ .. 6 1 7
30.5 Conclusion .. . . .. " ........." ......... " ............. 6 1 7
AcknowledgTnents ... . . . . . ........... ..... ....... .. . . ..... . .
. . . . ..__ ...... ... ... . . . . . ..... . ... . ... .. ..... ...... 6 ] 8
. __

References "" . . ....................... 618

CHAPTER 31 Storage in Polyethylene Terephthalate Bottles:

Changes and Shelf Life . . . .. .. . ... ................
. . . . . . . . . . . ...... ... . . . . .. . . . . ..
. .. . . . . . 621
. .

Rabia Naz
31.1 I ntroduction . . ........ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........ . . . ..... ............. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... 621
3 1 .2 Effect of Polyethylene Terephthalate Bottles on Quality Attributes
of Beverages During Storage . . . . . . . . . . . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........ . . . ...... . . . . . 622
3 1.2 . 1 Gas Permeability . . . . . . . ... .. . . . . . . . . . . . ..
. .. . . . . . ..............
. .. .. . . . 623
3 1 .2.2 Microbi al Spoilage .............. .... . . . " . . . . . . . . . " . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........................... . . . . . . 624
.. ..

3 1 .2.3 Changes in Aromatic and Flavoring Compounds . . . .. .. . . . . . . . . .. .. . . . . . .. .. . . .. . . . 627

 Contents XIX

3 l .2.4 Changes in Color ........ ........ . ....... . . . . . . . . . ....

. ... . . . . . . . . . . .......... ........ . ....... 630
. . . . . . . .

3 1 .2.5 Contamination of Heavy Metals and Toxic Chemicals .... ............. ......... 630
3 1 .3 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .................... . . . ..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . ...... 632
References..... . . . ......... . . .......... ....................... . . ...... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........... ......... 632
Further Readi n g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......... 635

CHAPTER 32 Packaging Technologies for Fruit J u i ces . . . . . . . . . . . ..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 637

Rajeshwar S. Matche
32.1 I ntroduction .... . . .. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... . ........ ... . . ...
. . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... 637
. .

32.2 Packaging for Liquid Products . . . . . . . . . . . . .......... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... 638

32.3 Storage Requirements . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .
.. .. . . . . . ..... . ........... . .. ... .. ... ... . . . . . . . .
.. .. ... .... ... .
. . . . . .. .... 639
32.4 Packaging for J uice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... 639
32.5 Packaging Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... 641
32.5.1 Glass Bottles ......... ............. . . . . ...... ... . ........
.. . . . . . . ................... ....... 641 .

32.5.2 Metal Containers . ... . .

. ................ ... ... .. . . . . .......... .............................. 642
32.5.3 Can Fabrication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... ............. ......... 644
32.5.4 Plastic Containers ........................... . . .................. ......... 647
32.6 Hot·Fill·Hold Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........ 650
32.7 Ase pti c Packaging.... . . . .. ..... . . . ........ . ............ . ..... ... .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... 652
32.7.1 Functional Requirements of Aseptic Packages . . . . ............................. 653
32.7.2 Package Forms ........ ..... . . . ............. ..... . . . . . .. . . .. . . . . . . . .................. . ......... . ..... 653
. . .

32.7.3 Asepti c Packaging in Cartons......... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........ .................... 653

32.7.4 The Brick-Pack System ......... . . . . ....... . . . . . ....................... ..... 654
32.7.5 Bag-in-Box Systems ....................... . . . . . . . . . . . ........................... 655
32.7.6 Cartons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... .............. . . . ...... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .................. .. ......... 655
32.7.7 PET Bottles . ... . . . . .............................. . . . . ............................. 656
32.7.8 Other Aseptic Systems . . . . . . . . . .. .... ...... . . ............. ............................. 657
32.8 Sterilization of Packaging Materials . . . . . . ...... 658
32.8.1 Physical Processes... ...... ....... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... . . . . . . ...... 659
32.9 Advantages and Disadvantages of Typical Materials Used
in Food Packaging......... .. . . . . . ..... . . . . . . . . . . . ...... ................ ......... . ....... 659
32.9.1 Material: Glass . . ....................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............................. 659
32.9.2 Material: M etal ......................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........................... 660
32.9.3 Material: Paper and Paperboard . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...................... 660
32.9.4 Material: Plastic ....... .................. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............................ 660
32. 1 0 B arri ers Associated With Packaging Materials ..... . .. . . . ........ . . . . . . ...... . . . . ...... .
. . . . . ...... 661
32.l0.1 Passive Barrier Materials .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... . ........ 66]
32.l0.2 Active Barriers . . .... ............. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............................. 661
32.1 1 Compatibility of Plastic Packag i ng Materials ........... . . ..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... 664
References... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .................... 665
xx Contents

S E CTION VI ANALYSIS
CHAPTER 33 Analytical Techniques for Phytochemical Estimation
in Fruit Juices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 669
Marco Garcia-Vaquero and Gaurav Rajauria
33.1 lntroduction . . . . .... . .. . . . . . . . .. . . ..... . ..
... . . . ... . . . . . . . .
. . . .. . ........... . . ........................ 669
. .. .

33.2 Sample Preparation . . ........ . . . ......... . . . ....... ............ . . ........ . . . . . . ..... ................. . . . . 670
33.2 . 1 Extraction Strategies .. . . . 670
33.2.2 Derivatization of Compounds ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......... . . . . .................................. 677
33.3 Sample Analysis .. . . ......................... . .. 678
33.3. 1 Spectrophotometric-Based Methods . . . ... . . . . . . ...... . . . . . . ... ............... . .... 678
33.3.2 Fluorescence-Based Assays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... .. ... ..... . .. . . . . . . . . 681
..... . . .

33.3.3 Chromatography-Based M ethods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............................ . . . . . . . . 682

References . . . . ..... ........... ............ .. . . ......... .............. ............. . ... 688
Further Reading .. . . . .............................. . ...... . . . . . ...................... 692

CHAPTER 34 Analysis, Identification, and Quantification of Anthocyanins

in Fruit Juices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . .. . ... . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .
. . . . . . 693
Tania G. Albuquerque, Mafalda A . Silva, M. 8eatriz p. p. Oliveira
and Helena S. Costa
34.1 lntroduction . . . . . . . .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .. ..... . .. . . .
.. .. . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .....
. . . . . . 693
34.2 Anthocyanins ................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...................... . . . . ..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........... 694
34.3 Sample Preparation, Extraction, and Purification Procedures . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . .... ..... 694
34.4 Quantiftcation and Separation of Anthocyanins... .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ................. 700
34.5 AnthOCy3nin Occurrence In Fruit Juices ............. . .... . . . . .............. .......... . . . . 721
34.5. I
Acerola ... . .. ......... ...... . . . . . . . . .. ........ ........ . .. 72 1 . . . . . . .. . .... . . .

34.5.2 Bilberry ... . . ..................... . . .... 729

34.5.3 BlaCkberry .... . .. ... . .... . .... . . . . . . . . . . ..... . . . . . ..................................... . . . . . 729
34.5.4 Black Currant .................. . . . . ...... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .................. . . . . . . . ...... . . 729
.

34.5 .5 Blueberry . . . . . . .. . . .... . ................ . ...... ............ ... 730

34.5.6 Chokeberry ....................... . . . . . ...................... ....... ................... . . . . . 730
34.5.7 Crowberry . . . . . . ...... ............ ...... .... . .... 731
34.5.8 Elderberry . . . .............................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .................... . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . 73 1
34.5.9 POlnegranale ................................ . . . . . . . . . . . . ............................... . . . . . 73 1
34.5 . 1 0 Raspberry . .... . . .. . . . . ........ . . . ........ . . . . . . ......... . .... 732
34.5 . 1 1 Redeunant . . . ............................. . . .... . .. . ........ ........ .. .. 7 3 2
. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .

34.5 . 1 2 Sour and Sweet Cherry .............. . ............................. ..... 732

34.5 . 1 3 Strawberry ... . . . . . . .. ... ... . . . ......................
...... ... 733
34.6 Summary Points . . . . . . . ....... . . . . . ........ . . . ..... . . ....... . . . ............ ...... . . . . ............ . . . . . 733
Acknowledgnlents " " " " " . . , . " ...................... , ........ " " " " " " " " " " " ' " " ' , .. , .. ,', .............. 733
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............................ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 733
 Contents XXI

CHAPTER 35 Determination of Elements in Fruit Juices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 739

Pawel Pohl, Dominika Jedryczko, Anna Dzimitrowicz,
Anna Szymczycha-Madeja, Mala Welna and Piotr Jamroz
35.1 Introduction .... . . . . . . ..... 739
35.2 Elemental Analys is of Fruit Juices ............. .... . . .... . . . .. .. ... .. . . .. . . . . . .
. . . . . .. ...... 740
35.3 Calibration Methods . . . . . . . . ..... . . ......... . . .. ...... 743
35.4 Fru it Juices and Their Treatment Before Elemental Analysis . . ...... 746
35.5 Quality Assurance . .. ............ ................. 756
35.6 Conclusions ........... .. . . . . . ...... 757
Acknowledgment .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......... 758
References ... .. . . . . . . . ....... . . . . .. ....... ........................ 758

CHAPTER 36 Analysis of Mycotoxins in Fruit Juices . . . .. ... .. ... . . . . .. .... . . ...

. . . .. .. . . . . . . . . . 763
/ychettira Machaiah Mandappa, Koracha Basavaraj
and Haravey Krishnan Manonmani
36. 1 Introduction .... .. ..... . .... . ...... 763
36. 1 . 1 Occurrence of Mycotoxins in Fruit s and Their Proces sed Products ..... 764 ...

36.1.2 Mycotoxins (in Fruits and Fruit Juices) and Thei r Toxicity..................... 765
36.2 Methods for Analysis of Mycotaxins (in Fruit Juices) . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . .... 769
36.2.1 Aflatoxins. . . . . . . . . . . .............................. . . ........................... 771
36.2.2 Alternaria To xi ns ........................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77]
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...........................

36.2.3 Ochratoxin A . . .......... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... ............ . ......... 771

36.2.4 Patuli n ..................... ............. ............. .............. ......... 772
36.3 Management/Control of Mycotoxins . . . . .............................. . . . . ........ ... ....... 772
36.4 Conclusions .... .. ..... ... . . . . . ...... ... . . ...... 773
Acknow l ed gme nts ........................... 773
References . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .................. 773

CHAPTER 37 Authentication of Fruit J u i ces by Metabolomics

U s i ng U PLC-QTOF MS . . . . . . .. . . .... ... . ... .....
. . . . . . . . . . . . .. .
. .. . . . ..... . . . ..... . . . . .. . . . . . . 779
Zora Jandric and Andrew Cannavan
37. 1 Introduction .............. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........................ . . . . ..... 779
37.2 Sampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
..... ..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... . . ..... ...... ... . . ...... 782
37.3 SampJe Preparation and Instrumental Conditions .. ... ....... 784
37.4 Data Processing and Ana lys is . . . . . . . . .. . ..... . . . .... . . . . . . .. .. . .. .. ...... 785
37.5 Authentication of Fruit/Fruit Juices-Confirmation of Ori gin .. ...... 786
37.6 Detecti on of Fruit Juice Adulteration . . . ............................. . . . ...... 794
37.7 Conclusions .. .. . . ........ 802
References ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... . .... . ....... ........... 802
XXII Contents

CHAPTER 38 Si ng l e Nucleotide Polymorphism Quantitative Polymerase

Chain Reaction Assay: Iletection of Mandarin in
Orange J u i c e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 805
Nazia Kanwal and Aisha Tahir
38.1 Jntroduction ..... ........... . . ............... ....................... . . ............. 805
38.2 The Delicious Oranges . . . . . . ............ 805
38.3 Mandarins (Ciuus rel.icti/ala) .. .... . . ..................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............ 806
38.4 Adulte ra tion in Orange Juice by Mandarin . ... .. .. .
. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... . ........... 806
38.5 Techniques Used to Detect Adulteration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......... . . . .... ....... 807
38 .5 . 1 Chromatographic Techniques ..... .. ........... .......................... . ...... . . 807
38.5.2 Spectrophotometric Techn iques . . . . . . ....... . . . . . . . ...... . . . . . ............................... . 808
38.5.3 Molecular Techniques ................. ................ .............. ......... ..... 809
38.6 Genetic Markers . . . . ......... . . . ...................... .. . . . . . . . . . . . . ......... . . ............ 809
38.6.1 Single Nucleotide Polymorphism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. ... ... .. .... . ............. . .. . . . . . . 809
.

38.7 Quanti tati ve Real-Time PCR . .. . .. . . . . ..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... . . . . 8 1 3

38.7.1 Background and Principle of qPCR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ... . . 8J3
38.7.2 Instrumentation and Reacti on Instructjons o f qPCR . . ..... . . ..... ..
. . . ........ ...." 8]4
38.7.3 Methods of DNA Detection and Quantita t i on in qPCR .. . . 814
38.8 SNP-qPCR Assay for Detection of Mandarin i n Orange Juice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... . . . . . . 8 1 5
38.8.1 Selection and Detectio n of SNPs i n Orange and Mandarin ..................... 8 1 5
38.8.2 Primers and Probes for qPCR... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ............. ... . . 816
38.8.3 Methodology of qPCR Assay ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . 817
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . .. ........... ..... ... 8 1 9
R eferences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... . . . ....... ... ........... . . . .... .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....................... 8 J 9
Further Reading . . . . . . . ... . . . ........... . . . . .... .
. .. . . . . . . . . . ...................... 822

CHAPTER 39 Characterizing Fruit J u i ces and Fermented Fruit Beverages

Using C he m o m etr i cs Tools . .. . . . . ..
. . . . . ... . . . . . . . .. ... . .
. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. .
. . . . . .. . .. . . 823
Acacia A . F. Zielinski, Aline Alberti and Alessandro Nogueira
39.1 1ntroduction ... .. ............ 823
39.2 Chemometric Tools ............................. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... . . . . 823
39.3 Application of Chemometrics . . . . . . . . . .................... . . . ............. 825
39.3 . 1 Characterization .. .... . ...... .... ..... . . . .
.. .. .. ............................ ..... 825
39.3.2 Geographical Origin.................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......... . . . .................... . . . .... 829
39.3.3 Authenticity .. 830
39.3.4 Effect of Processing .......... ............ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......................... . . . . . . . 830
39.4 Final Considerati ons.. . .. . . . ....... . .. . . .. .. . . . . . ..
. . . ... . .. . . . . . . . .......... . 83 1
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... . . . . ......... . . . . 83 1
 Contents XXI I I

CHAPTER 40 Process Analytical Technology for the Fruit Juice Industry . . . . . . . .. . . 835
Bhavya Panikuttira and Colm P. O'Donnell
40. 1 1 ntroduction ...... .......... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... 835
40.2 PAT for the Fruit Juice Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... 837
40.2. 1 Microwave Spectroscopy .................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......... ................... 838
40.2.2 Raman Spectroscopy . ....... .. ..
. .... ...... . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... . . . .. . . .. . . . . . . . . ..... 839
40.2.3 Infrared Spectroscopy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . 840
40.2.4 Hyperspectral Imaging ...... ____ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ___ .......... . . . . . . . . ... . 841
40.2.5 Thermal Imaging ........ .......... . . ... . ..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......... . .......... . . . . ..... 843
40.2.6 Diagnostic Ultrasound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... .. ..... . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 843
40.3 Challenges and Opportunities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... 844
40.4 Conclusion ............. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... 844

References... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ................ 844

Index . . . . . . . ............ ............................ . . . . ....... 849

List of Contributors

Ahmad Adnan
Government College University, Lahore, Pakistan
Erdal Ağçam
Cukurova University, Balcali, Adana, Turkey
Sumia Akram
Minhaj University, Lahore, Pakistan; Kinnaird College for Women University, Lahore, Pakistan
Asiye Akyıldız
Cukurova University, Balcali, Adana, Turkey
Aline Alberti
State University of Ponta Grossa, Ponta Grossa, Parana, Brazil
Tânia G. Albuquerque
National Institute of Health Dr Ricardo Jorge, Lisbon, Portugal; University of Porto, Porto,
Portugal
Vitor D. Alves
University of Lisbon, Lisbon, Portugal
Sangamithra Asokapandian
Kongu Engineering College, Perundurai, Tamil Nadu, India
Pedro E.D. Augusto
University of São Paulo, Piracicaba, Sao Paulo, Brazil
Sachitha A. Baduge
Ryerson University, Toronto, ON, Canada
Francisco J. Barba
University of València, València, Spain; University of Copenhagen, Frederiksberg, Denmark
Koracha Basavaraj
Coffee Board, Bengaluru, Karnataka, India
Ayşe H. Baysal
İzmir Institute of Technology, Izmir, Turkey
Andrew Cannavan
International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna, Austria
Helena S. Costa
National Institute of Health Dr Ricardo Jorge, Lisbon, Portugal; University of Porto, Porto,
Portugal
Marcelo Cristianini
University of Campinas, Campinas, Sao Paulo, Brazil

xxv
xxvi List of Contributors

Patrick J. Cullen
Dublin Institute of Technology, Dublin, Ireland
Florina Danalache
New University of Lisbon, Lisbon, Portugal; University of Lisbon, Lisbon, Portugal
Ivonne Delgadillo
University of Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal
Rada Dinkova
University of Food Technologies, Plovdiv, Bulgaria
Yash Dixit
Dublin Institute of Technology, Dublin, Ireland
Ricardo V. Duarte
University of Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal
Burcu Dündar
Cukurova University, Balcali, Adana, Turkey
Anna Dzimitrowicz
Wroclaw University of Technology, Wroclaw, Poland
Ana Lucia Fernandes Pereira
Federal University of Maranhão, Imperatriz, Maranhão, Brazil
Liliana G. Fidalgo
University of Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal
Andrea C. Galvis-Sánchez
University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
Carlos Álvarez Garcı́a
Teagasc Food Research Centre, Ashtown, Dublin, Ireland
Marco Garcia-Vaquero
University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
Rita S. Inácio
University of Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal
Tanveer ul Islam
Government College University, Lahore, Pakistan
Piotr Jamroz
Wroclaw University of Technology, Wroclaw, Poland
Zora Jandrić
International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna, Austria
Dominika Jedryczko
Wroclaw University of Technology, Wroclaw, Poland
 List of Contributors xxvii

Ratish Ramanan Kalaiselvan

Indian Institute of Food Processing Technology (Ministry of Food Processing Technology,
Government of India), Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu, India
Nazia Kanwal
Center of Excellence in Molecular Biology, Lahore, Pakistan
Kevin M. Keener
Iowa State University, Ames, IA, United States
Jeong Un Kim
Yonsei University, Seoul, South Korea
Sun-Hyoung Kim
Yonsei University, Seoul, South Korea
Mohamed Koubaa
University of Technology of Compiegne, Compiègne, France
Danijela Bursać Kovačević
University of Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia
Iychettira Machaiah Mandappa
Coffee Board, Bengaluru, Karnataka, India
Haravey Krishnan Manonmani
CSIR Central Food Technological Research Institute, Mysuru, Karnataka, India
Ana B. Martin-Diana
Agro Technological Institute of Castilla and Leon (ITACYL), Government of Castilla and Leon,
Valladolid, Spain
Laura Massini
Dublin Institute of Technology, Dublin, Ireland
Paulina Mata
New University of Lisbon, Lisbon, Portugal
Rajeshwar S. Matche
CSIR Central Food Technological Research Institute, Mysuru, Karnataka, India
Kiril Mihalev
University of Food Technologies, Plovdiv, Bulgaria
David Millan-Sango
University of Malta, Msida, Malta; National Centre for Technology and Food Safety, Navarra,
Spain
Margarida Moldão-Martins
University of Lisbon, Lisbon, Portugal
Plamen Mollov
University of Food Technologies, Plovdiv, Bulgaria
xxviii List of Contributors

Silvia A. Moreira
University of Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal
Muhammad Mushtaq
Government College University, Lahore, Pakistan
Kasiviswanathan Muthukumarappan
South Dakota State University, Brookings, SD, United States
Rabia Naz
Kinnaird College for Women, Lahore, Pakistan
Pradeep S. Negi
CSIR-Central Food Technological Research Institute, Mysuru, Karnataka, India; Academy of
Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), New Delhi, India
Alessandro Nogueira
State University of Ponta Grossa, Ponta Grossa, Parana, Brazil
Colm P. O’Donnell
University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
Carl O’Sullivan
Dublin Institute of Technology, Dublin, Ireland
M. Beatriz P.P. Oliveira
University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
Arti Pandey
CSIR-Central Food Technological Research Institute, Mysuru, Karnataka, India; Academy of
Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), New Delhi, India
Bhavya Panikuttira
University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
Shashi Kishor Pankaj
Iowa State University, Ames, IA, United States
Jiyong Park
Yonsei University, Seoul, South Korea
Suganya Periasamy
Avinashilingam Institute for Home Science and Higher Education for Women, Coimbatore, Tamil
Nadu, India
Pawel Pohl
Wroclaw University of Technology, Wroclaw, Poland
Akanksha Priyadarshini
University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
Anushree Priyadarshini
Dublin Institute of Technology, Dublin, Ireland
 List of Contributors xxix

Predrag Putnik
University of Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia
Rui P. Queirós
University of Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal
Gaurav Rajauria
University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
Mahendran Radhakrishnan
Indian Institute of Food Processing Technology (Ministry of Food Processing Technology,
Government of India), Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu, India
Navin K. Rastogi
CSIR Central Food Technological Research Institute, Mysuru, Karnataka, India
Daniel Rico
Agro Technological Institute of Castilla and Leon (ITACYL), Government of Castilla and Leon,
Valladolid, Spain
Sueli Rodrigues
Federal University of Ceará, Fortaleza, Ceará, Brazil
Shahin Roohinejad
Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran
Beatriz de Cássia Martins Salomão
Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte UFRN, Natal, Rio Grande do Norte, Brazil
Mauro D. Santos
University of Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal
Jorge A. Saraiva
University of Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal
Hafiz Muhammad Shahbaz
Yonsei University, Seoul, South Korea; University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Lahore,
Pakistan
Vasil Shikov
University of Food Technologies, Plovdiv, Bulgaria
Mafalda A. Silva
National Institute of Health Dr Ricardo Jorge, Lisbon, Portugal
Anandakumar Sugumar
Indian Institute of Food Processing Technology (Ministry of Food Processing Technology,
Government of India), Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu, India
Gabriela John Swamy
South Dakota State University, Brookings, SD, United States
Anna Szymczycha-Madeja
Wroclaw University of Technology, Wroclaw, Poland
xxx List of Contributors

Aisha Tahir
University of Agriculture Faisalabad, Faisalabad, Pakistan
Brijesh K. Tiwari
Teagasc Food Research Centre, Ashtown, Dublin, Ireland
Uma Tiwari
Institute of Technology Sligo, Ballinode, Sligo Ireland
Alline A.L. Tribst
University of Campinas, Campinas, Sao Paulo, Brazil
Vasilis P. Valdramidis
University of Malta, Msida, Malta; National Centre for Technology and Food Safety, Navarra,
Spain
Juliana Vinholes
Embrapa Clima Temperado, Pelotas, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
Maja Welna
Wroclaw University of Technology, Wroclaw, Poland
Yvonne V. Yuan
Ryerson University, Toronto, ON, Canada
Acácio A.F. Zielinski
State University of Ponta Grossa, Ponta Grossa, Parana, Brazil
 SECTION

COMPOSITION
 CHAPTER

FRUIT JUICES: AN OVERVIEW

1 2
1
Gaurav Rajauria1 and Brijesh K. Tiwari2
University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland Teagasc Food Research Centre, Ashtown, Dublin, Ireland

1.1 THE IMPORTANCE OF JUICE: AN INTRODUCTION

Juice consumption has been documented since time immemorial, with the first reference being
mentioned in Vedic or ancient Greek, Egyptian, or pre-Roman scripts, but the word “juice” mean-
ing “the watery part of fruits” was first recorded in the early 14th century. A more recent definition
by the Codex Alimentarius Commission is that “Fruit juice is the unfermented but fermentable -
liquid obtained from the edible part of sound, appropriately mature and fresh fruit or of fruit main-
tained in sound condition by suitable means including postharvest surface treatments applied in
accordance with the applicable provisions of the Codex General Standard” (CODEX STAN 247-
2005). However, in the most general sense, fruit juice can be defined as an extract or an
extractable fluid content of cells or tissues made by mechanically squeezing or pressing out the nat-
ural liquid contained in ripe fruits without using any heat or solvent.
In recent years, consumers have shown an increasing interest in health and wellbeing and are
becoming much more aware of what they drink and what they want to drink. People are more
inclined to choose drink products that are healthy and nutritive, and that fit in with their busy life-
styles, thus attention has been focused on the use of natural over artificial flavored drinks. Fruit
juices are therefore a popular choice of beverage amongst consumers, they are natural and consid-
ered healthy, and play an important role in human diet (Mintel, 2009, 2015; Caswell, 2009). Apart
from macronutrients and micronutrients, fruit juices are also a rich source of nutraceutical com-
pounds which can provide better immunity and various other health benefits. According to the
National Health Service (UK), a person should consume five recommended portions of a variety of
fruits and vegetables a day (five-a-day), wherein a 150-mL glass of unsweetened 100% fruit or
vegetable juice counts as one portion (one of your five-a-day) (NHS, 2015).

1.2 DEMAND AND CONSUMPTION OF FRUIT JUICES

The global juice market is expanding and it is likely driven by the fitness conscious consumer and
the demand for healthy food products. Nowadays juice manufacturers are customer centered and
focus on introducing different juices varieties, flavors, and mix juices along with innovative pack-
aging and detailed nutrition and health claims (Transparency Market Research Report, 2015). The
Fruit Juices. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-802230-6.00001-1
© 2018 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. 3
4 CHAPTER 1 FRUIT JUICES: AN OVERVIEW

global juice market is predicted to witness strong growth at a compound annual growth rate of 3%
during the period 2016 20 and is expected to be adding $128.74 billion to the world economy by
the end of 2017. However, the growth is entirely dependent on the production, availability and geo-
graphical distribution of fruits. The global juice market is segmented into Latin America, the
Middle East and Africa, Europe, Asia Pacific, and North America, but the leading markets for juice
in these regions are Japan, China, France, Germany, the United Kingdom, and the United States
(MarketResearch.com Report, 2017). The key juice manufacturers in the global market are Nestlé,
Coca-Cola, Welch’s, Dr. Pepper Snapple, Citrus World, PepsiCo, and Del Monte, among several
others. On average, fruit juice consumption is directly related to a country’s income level and life-
style. Across geographic regions, the average consumption of fruit juice was recorded to be from
0.66 (95% uncertainty interval (UI): 0.36, 1.13) servings/day to 0.013 (95% UI: 0.011, 0.017)
servings/day, with the highest intake in Australasia (especially in New Zealand) and the lowest in
East Asia (Singh et al., 2015).

1.3 JUICE PREPARATION

The preparation of juices from fruits has been documented as one of the earliest forms of agri-food
operation, growing gradually with humans learning novel and practical ways of extracting it from
various sources through trial and error (Bates et al., 2001). Nowadays, juice preparation has to fol-
low certain codes of practice, wherein a juice should be prepared by a suitable process and should
retain the essential nutritional and organoleptic characteristics of the fruits from which it comes.
The juice may be cloudy, turbid, or clear, consisting of 100% pure fruit, and may contain aromatic
substances and flavor components from the same fruit. The juice may also be topped up with pulp
and cells obtained by proper physical means from the same fruit but typically it should contain no
preservatives, sugars, artificial flavors, or any other added ingredients (BSDA, 2016; CODEX
STAN 247-2005). A single juice is obtained directly from one kind of fruit or by reconstituting
concentrated juice from the same fruit; however, a mixed juice is obtained by the amalgamation of
more than two juices or a blend of juices and purées, from different kinds of fruit (CODEX STAN
247-2005).
In many cases, the fruit juices are the obvious result of squeezing the liquid from the whole or
cut ripened fruit, but in some cases it is not so apparent. For instance, tomato, apple or orange
juices are the liquid extracts that result from pressing the fruit, while the juices from certain acid
fruits (e.g., lemons, limes) require the addition of water or sugar to reduce the sourness or consis-
tency prior to consumption (Bates et al., 2001). The majority of commercially available juices are
either filtered or free of pulp, but fresh pulpy orange juice is a highly popular and consumed juice
worldwide. However, because of changes in lifestyles and awareness, single and mixed juices of
vegetables and fruits such as mango, grapefruit, guava, tomato, pineapple, grape, and apple are
gaining popularity, and thus juice manufacturers are now more focused on the opportunities arising
from new product development. In recent decades there has been an increase in the consumption of
exotic fruit juices and blends. Furthermore, fruit juices are also explored as a novel and appropriate
medium for probiotic strains due to their nutritional composition. These new juice products are usu-
ally referred to as functional drinks which are very popular and designed for young and old people
 1.5 CHALLENGES ASSOCIATED WITH FRUIT JUICES PRODUCTION 5

(Perricone et al., 2015). In addition, antioxidant-enriched juices made up of berries are gaining
momentum and are anticipated to provide profitable growth opportunities to juice manufacturers
(Transparency Market Research Report, 2015).

1.4 JUICE PROCESSING AND PRESERVATION

The perishable nature of fruit juices poses significant challenges associated with production and
preservation. Unless the juice was consumed fresh, storage at chilling or freezing temperatures was
the only alternative to protect the organoleptic properties of juice. The fermentation of juice soon
after squeezing was the biggest challenge until preservation techniques were developed. Initially
fermentation was the only choice to prolong the shelf life of juices, but juices emerged as popular
drinks after the development of pasteurization techniques. Studies have shown that the amounts of
nutraceuticals in fruit juices are dependent on how they are produced, processed, and preserved.
Thus, there is a need not only to document the traditional ways of extracting and preserving juices,
but also to explore how novel processes can help to reduce the challenges encountered by the juice
industry. Traditional techniques including canning, pasteurization, concentrating, freezing, evapora-
tion, and spray drying have resulted in significant extensions in shelf life, but at the cost of nutri-
tional or health attributes. Thermal treatments sometimes fail to produce a quality, high-nutrition,
and microbiologically stable product. In recent decades, the emphasis has been on employing novel
approaches to enhance the safety and shelf life whilst retaining the nutritional quality of fruit juices.
Numerous emerging technologies including high-pressure processing, pulsed electric field (PEF)
processing, ultrasound, ozone processing, light-based technologies, irradiation, and nonthermal
plasma have been applied for fruit juice preservation, processing, and packaging. These novel tech-
niques are rapidly acquiring the juice market as they are efficient in shelf life extension, enzymatic
activity reduction, and microorganism inactivation, while maintaining the quality of the original,
fresh pressed produce (Mohamed and Eissa, 2012).

1.5 CHALLENGES ASSOCIATED WITH FRUIT JUICES PRODUCTION

As fruit juices are a healthier choice among consumers, the quality and the safety of juice products
are always a worry, and they are always subject to very detailed legislation ensuring all necessary
information on their nutritional benefits and compositions (AIJN—European Fruit Juice
Association). In Europe, the quality, composition, preparation processes, manufacture, and labeling
characteristics of juice products are covered by a specific European Fruit Juice Directive (2001/
112/EC) with a few amendments in 2009 (Directive 2009/106/EC) and 2012 (Directive 2012/12/
EU). The legislation also advises the definition of the type of raw fruit materials as well as the con-
tent of fruit juice and/or purée in mix juices along with the authorized additives included during the
preparation of fruit juices, concentrated fruit juices, dehydrated fruit juices, and fruit nectars
(AIJN—European Fruit Juice Association). In addition, juices are also subject to various European
food laws such as health claims, labeling, and addition of nutrients to goods regulation, pesticides
6 CHAPTER 1 FRUIT JUICES: AN OVERVIEW

residue law, and general food law regulations that regulate the safe manufacturing of these products
(AIJN—European Fruit Juice Association).
Apart from strict regulations, there are some other factors that pose challenges in the production
of fruit juices and inhibit the growth of the global juice market. One of the main challenges is asso-
ciated with the constant supply of fruits, as most of fruits are seasonal and this affects the overall
production. Other challenges include: manufacturing challenges (homogenization, extraction, filtra-
tion, processing, preservation, packaging, and storage); ingredients challenges (fruit components,
sweeteners, flavors, colors, preservatives, nutraceutical ingredients, and miscellaneous additives);
quality issues (color and flavor deterioration, appearance changes, packaging material, storage con-
ditions, microbiological problems, shelf life, water quality and bottling issues); and most recent are
new product development and marketing challenges (cost constraints, marketing brief, consumer
assessment and complaints) (Ashurst and Hargitt, 2009). However, availability of substitutes such
as carbonated soft drinks, sports and energy drinks, and other hybrid drinks pose the prime
challenges to the juice industry and inhibit the growth of the global fruit juice market (Heyman and
Abrams, 2017; Transparency Market Research Report, 2015).

1.6 BOOK OBJECTIVE

The overarching objective of this book, Fruits Juices: Extraction, Composition, Quality, and
Analysis, is to provide an overview of juice compositions, extraction strategies, quality and safety
assessment, emerging technologies for preservation and processing, shelf life and storage, and
approaches for nutritional components as well as mycotoxins and residues analysis. A key objective
of the book is to critically evaluate the role of emerging technologies in shelf life extension, nutri-
ents preservation and packaging that can be exploited industrially. Determination of trace elements,
pesticides, authentication, adulteration, and traceability analysis which are primary concern of juice
segment are also covered.

1.7 BOOK STRUCTURE

The book contains 40 chapters which are divided into six sections. Section I outlines the composi-
tion and health benefits of fruit juices, Section II summarizes conventional and novel extraction
approaches of fruit juices, Section III focuses on the quality and safety of fruit juices, Section IV
explores the role of emerging technologies in juice processing and preservation, Section V high-
lights the challenges associated with shelf life and storage of juices, while the final Section VI
focuses on juice analysis, including a variety of factors that can affect overall juice quality, authen-
ticity, and stability.
Section I comprises seven chapters wherein Chapter 2, Market Dimensions of the Fruit Juice
Industry, aims to offer insight into and an overview of the trends, opportunities, and threats in the
fruit juice industry, and highlight the factors affecting consumers’ food choices and innovations in
fruit juice marketing. Chapter 3, Classification of Fruit Juices, gives a brief classification of fruit
juices on the basis of their composition and manufacturing processes as laid down by legislative
 1.7 BOOK STRUCTURE 7

authorities. The composition and related biological activity are important quality attributes which
contribute to potential health benefits of juices. Further classification according to the dispersion
system, composition of fruit juices, and different product types depending on the juice preservation
methods are also outlined. Chapters 4 7 provide a comprehensive overview of micro- and macro-
nutrients, and various functional ingredients including polyphenols, phenolic acids, flavonoids, car-
otenoids, and their role in health and wellbeing. The relationship between the level and type of
these compounds in juices and their effect on quality attributes and sensorial characteristics such as
color, taste, and turbidity is critical for consumers’ acceptance, and can also lead to products with
enhanced health benefits beyond the basic provision of their nutritional value. The composition of
these metabolites is affected by environmental conditions, especially oxygen levels and endogenous
enzymes, as well as their interactions with fruit matrix components such as carbohydrates and pro-
teins during processing and storage. Therefore, these chapters focus on stability, quantification, and
determination, along with bioaccessibility, bioavailability, metabolism and antioxidant activity of
these beneficial compounds with in vitro and in vivo evidence.
An ever-increasing demand for fresh or minimally processed food products has built up pressure
on food technologists to explore and scrutinize more efficient juice extraction/preparation technolo-
gies. Therefore, Section II of the book, which contains eight chapters all together, and mainly
focuses on traditional and modern extraction approaches for juice production along with new prod-
uct development based on various juice concentrates, smoothies, and probiotic beverages. To deal
with the ever-increasing demands of these perishable and healthy drinks, Chapter 8, Extraction of
Fruit Juice: An Overview, and Chapter 9, Novel Extraction Technologies, explain various juice
extraction methodologies, briefly describe the workings of these technologies, and unfold the parti-
culars contributing their novelty in juice production. With the intention of improving yield, shelf
life, nutrients, sensory characteristics, and anticipated health benefits, the consumers, manufac-
turers, and researchers should have an in-depth knowledge of the various steps involved in the juice
manufacturing process. In order to increase the extraction yield and production efficiency while
reducing the energy costs and waste, the application of enzymes in juice production has several
advantages from a commercial and environmental point of view. Chapter 10, Enzyme Assisted
Extraction of Fruit Juices, and Chapter 11, Application of Enzymes for Fruit Juice Processing, sum-
marize information on the role of enzymes and their biotechnological applications for the proces-
sing of pectic substances in fruits and their effects on the organoleptic properties of the resulting
fruit juices. The enzymes used in the fruit juice industry are primarily mixtures of pectinolytic
enzymes which break down complex polysaccharides of fruit tissues into simpler molecules. Thus,
in order to apply the currently available enzymes, it is mandatory to have a previous knowledge of
the cell wall composition of the fruits aimed to be processed and the kind of activities that the cur-
rently available enzymes can provide. Furthermore, single-strength juices, when produced are not
easy to store, pack, or transport because of the colossal volume and also because they are vulnera-
ble to nutritional and sensory deterioration. Fruit juice concentrates, on the other hand, have a lon-
ger shelf life and are easy to pack, store, or transport to geographically far regions. Although the
majority of the fruit juice concentration methods are based on evaporation, scientific evidences
point out the depletion of potentially beneficial moieties such as flavor and essence volatiles, vita-
mins, and phytonutrients. The traditional process of concentration involving high temperatures pro-
motes significant sensory and nutritional changes in the fruit juice quality. However, modern
approaches including reverse osmosis and forward osmosis are membrane-dependent processes that
8 CHAPTER 1 FRUIT JUICES: AN OVERVIEW

can be used to preconcentrate fruit juices avoiding heating resulting in minimal thermal damage,
besides requiring lower capital and operating costs. Therefore, the focus of Chapter 12, Fruit Juice
Concentrates, and Chapter 13, Reverse Osmosis and Forward Osmosis for the Concentration of
Fruit Juices, is to describe the functioning of available concentration methodologies and to high-
light the future prospects of emerging concentration practices. Fruit-based smoothies involving a
range of different fruit juices, pulps, with or without vegetables or milk are also gaining impor-
tance. Production of fruit-based smoothies and their various nutritional properties are outlined in
Chapter 14, Production of Fruit-Based Smoothies. More recently, the concept of probiotic drinks is
prevailing in the dairy sector because of their positive effects on the intestinal microbiota composi-
tion and overall health. The use of fruit juices as vehicles for probiotic microorganisms has been
increasing as an alternative for those who do not consume dairy products. Thus, Chapter 15,
Turning Fruit Juice Into Probiotic Beverages, explores the main aspects of probiotic fruit
processing, the principles of probiotic systems, sensory analysis, and some commercially available
probiotic juices.
The paramount benefits of juices can only be enjoyed when juice manufacturing methods and
instruments are benign, efficiently optimized, eco-friendly, and most importantly generate microbi-
ologically safe products. Overall, four chapters in Section III of the book cover this subject matter
by addressing several aspects of fruit juice microbiology, with an overview of various thermal and
nonthermal technologies to produce safe and stable products. Chapter 16, Pathogens and Spoilage
Microorganisms in Fruit Juice: An Overview, explores the data of spoilage and pathogenic microor-
ganisms in different fruit juices, sources of contamination, spoilage caused by microorganisms, out-
breaks involving foodborne pathogens and mycotoxins, along with the international guidelines
required for safe juice production. Therefore, inactivation of pathogens in fruit juices is important
in order to maintain safety and extend product shelf life. The juice hazard analysis and critical con-
trol points regulation requires that pasteurization processing used to prevent biological contamina-
tion must achieve at least a 5-log reduction of pathogen levels for species of concern to public
health, in order to produce safe fruit juice that is free of pathogens and is of high quality, meeting
consumer expectations and reducing commercial losses. Chapter 17, Thermal Pasteurization and
Microbial Inactivation of Fruit Juices, demonstrates the potential and recent advances in thermal
pasteurization of juice and relevance in the era of novel technologies. The chapter outlines physico-
chemical properties of fruit juices, inactivation mechanisms of target microorganisms and enzymes,
along with the engineering aspects of thermal pasteurization during juice preservation. Though,
conventional thermal pasteurization techniques have been used to achieve microbiological safety
and preservation of fruit juices, the high temperatures used during pasteurization can affect sensory
the characteristics and cause deterioration in nutritive values of fruit juices. Chapter 18, The
Inactivation of Pathogens in Fruit Juice: Escherichia coli O157:H7, Salmonella Typhimurium, and
Listeria monocytogenes, mainly focuses on inactivation of various microorganism using innovative
nonthermal technologies applied alone or in combination with other preservation methods for effec-
tive decontamination of fruit juices. Apart from microbial-led deterioration, pesticides also worsen
the quality of juice. Certainly, pesticides provide an easy, economic, and pragmatic strategy to con-
trol pests, insects, and weeds but actually, they cost a lot through adverse health and environmental
effects. Amongst the pesticides, organophosphorus pesticides are the most widely used class in fruit
juices. During processing, these pesticides are rapidly absorbed in fruits and vegetables through
all possible routes, which can cause nerve breakdown that can lead to the death. Though the
 1.7 BOOK STRUCTURE 9

application of these chemicals cannot be voluntarily checked, reliable analysis, observable

regulation, an intelligent pest management can reduce the loss percentage. Thus, Chapter 19,
Techniques to Detect and Detoxify Organophosphorus Pesticides From Fruit Juices, precisely pro-
vides comprehensive information regarding identification, analysis, and removal of these contami-
nants from fruit juices.
Practicing novel methods to preserve fruit juices without compromising their quality is the
emerging trend in juice processing. In recent years, a number of innovative technologies have been
investigated, and the primary focus of these inventions is to ensure product safety, quality and
acceptability, with minimal modification in nutritional properties and to reduce the energy require-
ments. Utilization of natural, fresh fruit juices rich in phytochemicals and antioxidants has been
reported to overcome degenerative diseases that affect humans. Fruit juices and other liquid foods
constitute an important source of bioactive compounds. However, the techniques used for their pro-
cessing may cause alterations in their contents, and consequently they do not provide the benefits
expected by the consumer. With this fact in mind, Section IV (consisting of eight chapters) of this
book explores several emerging nonthermal technologies to develop safe and quality products. On
these lines, Chapter 20, High Hydrostatic Pressure (HHP) and High Pressure Homogenization
(HPH) Processing of Fruit Juices, explores both high hydrostatic pressure (HHP) and high-pressure
homogenization (HPH) processes as nonthermal, nonconventional, emerging technologies. The
chapter describes the principles and equipment for both technologies, as well as their effects on
microorganisms, enzymes, food constituents, juice structure, physical and technological properties,
along with their industrial perspectives, commercial use, and future challenges. Chapter 21, Gamma
Irradiation Usage in Fruit Juice Extraction, outlines gamma radiation as a physical method for
extraction and preservation that has proved its efficacy over other thermal preservation techniques,
and is known to retain the quality of fruit juices. The chapter summarizes gamma irradiation and
its effect on various fruit juices with regard to the changes induced in phenols, anthocyanins, flava-
noids, and antioxidants. It also includes the influence of gamma irradiation on microbial inactiva-
tion, color changes, sensory changes, and shelf life of treated juices. Furthermore, Chapter 22,
Pulsed Electric Field Processing of Fruit Juices, which comprises PEF shows that PEF could be
used to pasteurize fruit juices with minimal modifications of the physicochemical and nutritional
properties or even a significantly higher amount of health-related phytochemicals. Ultrasound,
another nonthermal technique, as a standalone process or in synergy with mild heat or pressure
treatments enables achievement of the US FDA’s mandatory 5-log reduction in pathogen levels in
fruit juices. Although ultrasonic processing has been in practice for a long time, its application in
liquid foods such as fruit juices and milk are rather more recent. The probable adverse effects of
ultrasound in fruit juices may involve changes in color, anthocyanins, cloud value, and ascorbic
acid content. However, the changes are minimal and can actually be improved with mild sonication.
Thus, Chapter 23, Ultrasonic for Fruit Juice Preservation, provides a comprehensive and practical
knowledge of ultra-sonication in fruit juice processing and preservations. In line with other nonther-
mal technologies, Chapter 24, UV-C Light Inactivation of Pathogens in Fruit Juices, focuses on the
application of UV-C light assisted inactivation of pathogens in fruit juices. The bactericidal mecha-
nism of UV-C is based on the absorption of UV-C light by microbial DNA or RNA structures and
the formation of pyrimidine dimers, prevents replication, makes pathogens inactive and unable to
cause infection in the food products. Furthermore, authorization of ozone as a direct food additive
in 2001 increased attention on ozone applications, particularly in fruit juices. Chapter 25, Ozone
10 CHAPTER 1 FRUIT JUICES: AN OVERVIEW

for Fruit Juice Preservation, reviews the progress of ozone processing in fruit juices due to its high-
er oxidation potential and antimicrobial properties. The chapter deals with ozone generation,
destruction of microbes and mycotoxin, the effects of ozone on the quality attributes of juices, and
the limitations of ozone in fruit juice applications. The last chapter (Chapter 26: Cold Plasma
Processing of Fruit Juices) of this section explores one of the latest technological innovations for
preservation in the food sector which is cold plasma. The chapter reviews the application of non-
thermal cold plasma in fruit juice processing as an innovative approach for safety and quality reten-
tion of fruit juices with potential commercial prospects. Cold plasma has proven its efficacy in
inactivating various pathogenic and spoilage organisms found in fruit juices. The simple design,
low-cost, easy scale-up, flexible configuration, and environmentally friendly nature of cold plasma
offers unique advantages over traditional processing technologies. However, the technology is still
in its nascent form and needs further research to assess its application in a wide range of fruit juices
and optimization of process variables. Chapter 27, Hurdle Technologies for Fruit Juices, discusses
various hurdle approaches involving conventional and novel technologies which can be employed
for improving microbial safety, quality, and nutritional profile of fruit juice.
Section V of the book deals with postproduction aspects of fruit juices which are shelf life and
storage. The section is divided into five chapters (Chapters 28 32) wherein Chapter 28,
Quantitative Assessment of the Shelf-Life of Fruit Juices, deals with the quantitative assessment of
the shelf life of fruit juices. It revisits the definitions related to the shelf life assessment and pre-
sents a number of indicators that are relevant for the quantification and modeling of the shelf life
of fruit juices. A list of some representative examples of these kinetic studies in relation to current
practices in fruit juice processing and postprocessing conditions is also presented. Although the
modern technologies implemented in food processing have reduced the likelihood of food-related
illness, numerous serious food-safety problems associated with technological flaws or synthetic pre-
servatives are documented. Many synthetic preservatives such as sodium benzoate, sorbates, citric
acid, sulfur dioxide, and sulfites are common chemical preservatives in fruit juices approved by the
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations; however, their overuse or misuse are
toxic to health. Therefore, consumers are more inclined towards the usage of more natural preserva-
tives which can provide a tremendous opportunity for advancing the field of juice preservation and
safety as described in Chapter 29, Use of Natural Preservatives for Shelf life Extension of Fruit
Juices. The combination of natural antimicrobial compounds with other preservation techniques
could be a new trend in the preservation of fruit juices with improved microbiological safety and
acceptable organoleptic properties. However, additional research is needed to optimize their appli-
cations, with great care for consumer acceptability. Temperature is one of the main parameters
affecting fruit juice quality attributes over storage. Although low temperature significantly reduces
the spoilage, it leads to high energy costs. To overcome these issues, hyperbaric storage has
recently appeared as an alternative preservation methodology for microbial growth inhibition simi-
lar to refrigeration storage. The technology is showing a great potential for energy savings, as well
as carbon footprint reduction, as it could be applied at room temperature. Chapter 30, Hyperbaric
Storage of Fruit Juice and Impact on Composition, aims to gather information with a brief state-of-
art summary of hyperbaric storage, showing its historical background and the results obtained as a
new preservation methodology. Apart from shelf life, storage and safe transportation are other post-
production issues which can change fresh flavor and color during transportation or storage.
Chapter 31, Storage in Polyethylene Terephthalate Bottles, Changes and Shelf Life, and
 1.7 BOOK STRUCTURE 11

Chapter 32, Packaging Technologies for Fruit Juices, highlight the effects of packaging materials
on quality and shelf life of fruit juices. In earlier times, fruit juices were packed in glass containers,
but because of weight and brittleness the juice manufacturers have started exploring other packag-
ing selections from tin plate containers to tin-free steel, chromium-coated steel plate, aluminum
cans, polyethylene terephthalate (PET) bottles and Tetra pack. Storage in PET bottles is insufficient
to give a satisfactory shelf life unless the product is kept at chilled temperatures. However, Tetra
pack (plastic-coated paper carton) for aseptic packaging is the path-breaking development in bev-
erages packaging. Apart from explaining the advantages and disadvantages of various packaging
materials, both chapters also discuss numerous packaging parameters including gas permeability,
microbial activity, sensitivity of flavor and aroma compounds, color changes, vitamin loss, and
migration of toxic substances from packaging material into beverages.
The final part (Section VI) of the book deals with perhaps the most important question consu-
mers have about juice: its authenticity—how do we measure the authenticity or check adulteration
in the juice? Eight chapters in this section cover all the answers that a consumer might need.
Chapter 33, Analytical Techniques for Phytochemical Estimation in Fruit Juices, aims to highlight
the overarching analytical methods for the detection of bioactive compounds, phytochemicals, and
contaminants in fruit juices. It systematically explains the protocols used in fruit juices for sample
preparation (clean-up, extraction, and derivatization), compounds separation (using chromato-
graphic and spectroscopic methods), and their detection and identification. Although many
advanced technologies are available to date, the application of different methodologies for the
analysis of a specific compound or a group of phytochemicals depends on the physicochemical
properties of the analytes or their metabolites, the sample matrix, the extraction method, and chro-
matographic and spectroscopic techniques. For instance, anthocyanins are naturally present in a
wide range of fruits such as berries, plums, cherries, pomegranates, citrus fruits, among others, and
are usually associated with the orange, pink, red, violet, and blue colors of fruits. This anthocyanin
content can be used as a quality-control marker to check the fruit juice authenticity. The same type
of juice can show a significant difference in anthocyanin content, but the profile of anthocyanins
should be similar. Thus, Chapter 34, Analysis, Identification, and Quantification of Anthocyanins
in Fruit Juices, focuses on high- or ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography techniques cou-
pled with diode array detection or mass spectrometry detection for the qualitative and quantitative
analysis of anthocyanins in fruit juices. The chapter provides an overview on the extraction, purifi-
cation, and analytical methods used to determine anthocyanins in fruit juices, to evaluate the cur-
rent knowledge on this subject, as well as to identify gaps and to establish potential future trends in
the analysis of these compounds in fruit juices. Similarly, the nutritional value of fruit juices is also
associated with the presence of macro-, micro-, and trace elements. These elements are indispens-
able for life maintenance, while their occurrence in excessive amounts can cause severe health
hazards. The proper and reliable analysis of elemental composition of fruit juices can be significant
for fruit producers, juice manufacturers, and consumers. Therefore, Chapter 35, Determination of
Elements in Fruit Juices, deals with the most commonly applied flame and graphite furnace atomic
absorption spectrophotometry as well as inductively coupled plasma optical emission and mass
spectrometry for elemental analysis in fruit juices. In addition, different procedures of sample treat-
ment of fruit juices prior to elemental analysis along with calibration methods and ways of quality
assurance are surveyed. In contrast to determination of beneficial nutrients, fruit juices are also reg-
ularly checked for the presence of mycotoxins. Presence of these toxins in fruits and their processed
12 CHAPTER 1 FRUIT JUICES: AN OVERVIEW

products induce severe toxicity at low levels which are not only hazardous to human health, but
also result in economic losses to fruit juice manufacturers. Chapter 36, Analysis of Mycotoxins in
Fruit Juices, of this section aims to give an overview of the mycotoxins commonly present in
fruits and fruit juices, methods for their analysis, and strategies for their control. Although the
most widely produced juice is citrus juice, recent production of “superfruit” juices, from excep-
tional nutritional quality fruits such as pomegranate and various types of berries, have become
popular due to their high levels of antioxidants, micronutrients, and polyphenols, especially
anthocyanins. Because of their high value, these products are always a potential target for fraud
and adulteration. Chapter 37, Authentication of Fruit Juices by Metabolomics Using UPLC-QToF
MS, therefore reviews a metabolomics approach that has been applied to verify the authenticity
of fruit juices. The chapter talks about a number of methods that have been developed for authen-
ticity testing of juices, allowing estimation of the percentage of adulteration as well as prediction
of geographical origin, using various statistical models. A number of studies have also been
undertaken to discover potential biomarkers based on protein, metabolites, and DNA analysis for
the detection of adulteration and authentication. But, DNA-marker-based methods have been
adopted extensively due to stability of DNA molecules in processed food materials. In line with
this, Chapter 38, Single Nucleotide Polymorphism qPCR Assay: Detection of Mandarin in
Orange Juice, especially focuses on the detection of mandarin adulteration in orange juices by
using a quantitative polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-single nucleotide polymorphism approach.
The chapter also discusses different techniques, their principles, advantages, disadvantages, and
their utility in the assessment of mandarin adulteration in orange juice. Undoubtedly, pure and
authentic juice production generates a lot of data in terms of characterization or classification,
geographic origin determination, authenticity, traceability, and juice quality. Therefore, the use of
chemometric analysis by creation of software to perform mathematical and statistical calculations
is required. The use of chemometrics has been an important tool in dealing with a large quantity
of data, thus Chapter 39, Characterizing Fruit Juices and Fermented Fruit Beverages Using
Chemometrics Tools, reviews different multivariate techniques including unsupervised methods
(principal component analysis (PCA), hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA)), supervised methods
(such as linear discrimination analysis (LDA), k-nearest neighbor (KNN), soft independent
modeling of class analogy (SIMCA), partial least square discriminant analysis (PLS-DA), artifi-
cial neural networks (ANN)), and calibrations methods (such as multiple linear regression
(MLR), partial least squares (PLS), principal component regression (PCR)). The use of chemo-
metrics in the research on juices and fermented beverage fruit (wine, cider, and others) has
impacted positively on scientific quality and it has generated interest in the industrial sector due
to its potential application. Certainly, the paramount of juice benefits can only be enjoyed when
the juice manufacturing process and instruments are efficiently optimized. The final chapter
(Chapter 40: Process Analytical Technology for the Fruit Juice Industry) of the book, centering
on the state-of-the-art in this discipline, reviews process analytical technique which is a concept
that aims at building quality into the process. It is also known as quality by design and has an
important application in the quality assurance of products. It involves real-time measurement and
control of a process which assists in the production of superior-quality juice products.
To conclude, we hope that the book will be a valuable guide and platform for information relat-
ing to fruit juices. The book has been contributed to by leading national and international experts
including those from world renowned institutions, and is especially designed for food scientists,
 REFERENCES 13

technologists, food industry workers, and microbiologists. We are confident that the chapters are
informative and concise, and will provide a clear thinking perspective on a subject matter that has
and will continue to benefit mankind from many perspectives. It is an informative monograph that
covers a wide area of fruit juice science which is well suited for academic libraries and covers the
domains of food production, food processing, food technology, and fruits or food science.

REFERENCES
Ashurst, P., Hargitt, R., 2009. Soft Drink and Fruit Juice Problems Solved. Woodhead Publishing,
Cambridge, UK.
Bates, R.P., Morris, J.R., Crandall, P.G., 2001. Principles and Practices of Small-and Medium-Scale Fruit
Juice Processing, vol. 146. Food & Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy.
BSDA (British Soft Drink Association), 2016. Fruit Juice: Technical Guidance. Available from: http://www.
britishsoftdrinks.com/write/MediaUploads/Publications/BSDA_-_FRUIT_JUICE_GUIDANCE_May_2016.
pdf (accessed 02.04.17).
Caswell, H., 2009. The role of fruit juice in the diet: an overview. Nutr. Bull. 34 (3), 273 288.
CODEX STAN 247-2005, 2005. General standard for fruit juice and nectar. Available at: ,www.fao.org/
input/download/standards/10154/CXS_247e.pdf. (accessed 01.06.17).
Heyman, M.B., Abrams, S.A., 2017. Fruit juice in infants, children, and adolescents: current recommendations.
Pediatrics e20170967.
MarketResearch.com, 2017. Juices market research reports & industry analysis. Available at: ,https://www.
marketresearch.com/Food-Beverage-c84/Beverages-c165/Juices-c944/. (accessed 24.06.17).
Mintel, 2009. The fruit juice market: an appealing squeeze. Available at: ,http://www.marketresearchworld.
net/index.php?option 5 com_content&task 5 view&id 5 484&Itemid 5 48. (accessed 11.05.17).
Mintel, 2015. Juice market review: a squeeze on the market. Available at: ,http://www.mintel.com/blog/
drink-market-news/juice-market-review-a-squeeze-on-the-market. (accessed 11.05.17).
Mohamed, M.E.A., Eissa, A.H.A., 2012. Pulsed electric fields for food processing technology. In: Eissa, A.A.
(Ed.), Structure and Function of Food Engineering. InTech, Rijeka, pp. 275 280.
NHS, UK, 2015. 5 A Day portion sizes. Available at: ,http://www.nhs.uk/Livewell/5ADAY/Pages/
Portionsizes.aspx#. (accessed 27.06.17).
Perricone, M., Bevilacqua, A., Altieri, C., Sinigaglia, M., Corbo, M.R., 2015. Challenges for the production of
probiotic fruit juices. Beverages 1 (2), 95 103.
Singh, G.M., Micha, R., Khatibzadeh, S., Shi, P., Lim, S., Andrews, K.G., et al., 2015. Global, regional, and
national consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages, fruit juices, and milk: a systematic assessment of
beverage intake in 187 countries. PLoS One 10 (8), e0124845.
Transparency Market Research Report, 2015. Juice market global industry analysis, size, share, growth,
trends and forecast 2015 2021. Available at: ,http://www.transparencymarketresearch.com/juice-market.
html. (accessed 20.06.17).
 CHAPTER

MARKET DIMENSIONS
OF THE FRUIT JUICE INDUSTRY

1
2
Anushree Priyadarshini1 and Akanksha Priyadarshini2
Dublin Institute of Technology, Dublin, Ireland 2University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland

2.1 INTRODUCTION
The juices market is one of the most innovative product markets in the food and drinks sector, and
one of the most competitive segments in the beverage industry. Driven by increasing awareness
and preference of consumers for healthy products the market is expanding with the use of high-
technology in processing and packaging (Baourakis and Baltas, 2004). Fruit juices form part of
what are termed as the “new age beverages.” Currently, natural beverages, having no additives or
preservatives are ruling the fruits and vegetables juice market, and drinks made of organic ingredi-
ents are gaining popularity. In sync with growing consumer inclination toward healthier choices,
manufacturers are moving over to healthier ingredients in their juices. Numerous new and innova-
tive products are being launched globally by manufacturers to stimulate sales through innovations
in flavor blends, calorie and sweetness levels, and functional benefits, very much shaped by the
major lifestyle trends (Annette, 2008).
The fruit and vegetable juice market is segmented by the geography, the major ingredient used,
the concentration of the juices, and the category served by the juice. The market is dependent on
the geographical distribution and availability of the fruit/vegetable and the health considerations. It
is expected to witness increased demand levels in both value and volume terms as the demand is
also being triggered by the prevalent trend of preference for juice drinks in the majority of Asian
and Latin American countries. Growing economies such as China and India present lucrative oppor-
tunities in terms of potential consumers (Annette, 2008). Reviewing the global juice market for its
trends, opportunities, and threats, this chapter tracks the factors affecting consumers’ food choices
and innovations in fruit juice marketing, and an outlook of the future for fruit juices market is
outlined.

2.2 MARKET OVERVIEW

The global market for juices is expanding. In 2014 the global juices market had a total revenue of
$110.8 billion, representing a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 3% between 2010 and
2014. Market consumption volume increased with a CAGR of 4% between 2010 and 2014, to reach

Fruit Juices. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-802230-6.00002-3

© 2018 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. 15
16 CHAPTER 2 MARKET DIMENSIONS OF THE FRUIT JUICE INDUSTRY

CAGR in juice market (Forecast 2017)

18.5%
16%

8.6% 8.4% 8.3%

–1.4% –1.4% –1.5% –2.6% – 4.6%

a

il

ly

ria

y
az

an
di

si

ric

si

re

Ita

st
ne

ay
In

Ko
Br

m
Af

Au
al
do

er
h

h
M

G
ut
In

ut
So

So

FIGURE 2.1
Compound annual growth rate (CAGR) in the juice market: forecast for up to year 2017.
Data source: Mintel Report, 2013. Juice and juice drinks 2013 and the future. Available at: ,http://store.mintel.com/industries/
drink-and-tobacco/non-alcoholic-drink/non-carbonated-soft-drinks?p 5 1. (accessed 14.03.16.).

a total of 74,271.5 million liters in 2014, and is expected to keep growing, driving the market value
up to $128,741.1 million by the end of 2017. Between 2007 and 2013 the market increased with an
average annual growth of 3.5% while the expansion of the industry is forecast to reach 3.7% p.a. in
the coming years (Savara, 2015).
China, France, Germany, the United Kingdom, and the United States represent the largest fruit
and vegetable juice markets, with China being the world leader. Its juice market is nearly twice
that of the United States in market volume, with 2.3 billion of its 19.7 billion liters sold at retail in
2012 to be pure juice. The volumes in China exceeded Europe as a whole for the first time in 2014
(Mintel Report, 2013). Nonetheless, currently Latin America juice markets are among the fastest-
growing regions globally. The retail value for Chile is close to 20% CAGR on retail value, with
Brazil and Mexico close to 14%, and Columbia at 8.9%. In terms of forecast for the CAGR (up to
2017), the fastest growth is expected to occur in India (18.5%), Indonesia (16.0%), South Africa
(8.6%), Brazil (8.4%), and Malaysia (8.3%), and the slowest-growing regions are forecast to be
South Korea (21.4%), United States (21.4%), Italy (21.5%), Austria (22.6%) and Germany
(24.6%) (Fig. 2.1) (Mintel Report, 2013).
While the major players in the global fruit and vegetable juice markets are: The Coca Cola
Company, PepsiCo, Del Monte, Nestle, Welch’s, etc. In terms of the flavors, currently orange juice
accounts for 29.1% of the global demand while the remaining market share is divided between
grapefruit juice (2.1%), other citrus juice (4.5%), apple juice (27.1%), pineapple juice (3.6%), grape
juice (8.5%), tomato juice (0.5%), other single fruit or vegetable juice (15.2%) and mixtures of
juices (9.3%) (Fig. 2.2) (Persistence Market Research Report, 2015). Although overall, sweet is the
 2.3 KEY TRENDS IN THE JUICES MARKET 17

Global demand

Orange Apple Grape Other citrus Pineapple Grapefruit Tomato

5% 3% 1%
6%

38%
11%

36%

FIGURE 2.2
Global demand for flavors.
Data source: PRNewswire Report, 2015. Global Juice Report 2014-Comprehensive Analysis of Trends in the Global Juice
Market Including Long-Term Forecasts. Available from: http://www.reportlinker.com/p02515771-summary/view-report.html
(accessed on 23.03.16).

preferred flavor globally followed by tart, herbal, and vegetable, regional variations occur in the
preference of each. Research shows that while sweet is preferred most in the Middle East and
Africa (MEA) region, followed by North America, Central and South America, Asia, Australia, and
Europe. In the case of Tart the order of preference is Europe, Central and South America, North
America, Asia, Australia, and MEA. Herbal flavors are preferred most in Asia, Australia, MEA
region, followed by Central and South America, Europe, and North America, while
vegetable flavors though least popular globally have regional preference in the order of North
America, Asia, Australia, MEA region, Europe, and Central and South America.
Overall, whilst juice is a mature category, its market is expanding owing to the health trends
and consumer concerns relating to the use of artificial flavors, colors, and preservatives in drinks
that are leading to greater demand for healthy, natural products. Premium products such as luxury
products designed for connoisseurs, nostalgic products, products that communicate provenance and
a growth in indulgent drinks, particularly smoothies, are driving growth in the juices market and
presenting opportunities and threats for the global fruit juice market.

2.3 KEY TRENDS IN THE JUICES MARKET

The health trend continues to dominate the beverage market, and as consumers are increasingly
searching for healthier substitutes to carbonated soft drinks, juices provide a convenient and flavor-
some option. However, as juice is a mature market, manufacturers battling to grow sales are keenly
18 CHAPTER 2 MARKET DIMENSIONS OF THE FRUIT JUICE INDUSTRY

focusing on product differentiation and developing juices that go beyond just tasting good and
providing general health benefits. Based on buyers’ changing taste and preference, drinks manufac-
turers are focusing on adding extra vitamins and minerals to their offerings (Research and Markets
Report, 2012). Consumers are increasingly preferring natural fruit juices or which contain 100% in
fruit content (concentrated juice). This “100% juice category presents substantial growth opportu-
nities for juice-making companies, and manufacturers currently are also venturing into the ‘free
from’, functional, luxury, and ethical drinks” (Persistence Market Research Report, 2015). The key
trends that have been prominent over the last few years include:
• functional drinks—investment in superfruits, soy drinks, omega-3, probiotics and prebiotics,
added calcium, and natural energy;
• marketing to kids—creating credible healthy alternatives to carbonated drinks;
• beauty support drinks—beauty from the inside out;
• luxury juices—gourmet or experimental trend;
• ethical juices—organic juices, green packaging.

2.3.1 FUNCTIONAL DRINKS

The market for functional drinks has advanced rapidly with the growing focus of consumers on
what they eat and drink to influence their health. Superfruits are readily being incorporated into
health juices owing to the presence of high levels of polyphenols present naturally in them.
Ingredients such as omega-3, probiotics, prebiotics, botanicals, and isoflavones from soy are being
used in juices nowadays with increasing frequency as these satisfy the consumer desire for health
through natural ingredients (Annette, 2008).

2.3.1.1 Added calcium

Juices are now being developed with calcium as the key functional ingredient and a range of juice
products are appearing on the market that contain added calcium. Calcium is known to be very
important for older female consumers as it is good for bone health. An example of one such drink
targeted primarily at women worried about their calcium intake is the Osteo range of fruit juices
from Osteoblast Beverages LLC. While the drink contains no artificial ingredients and is free from
caffeine, it offers a fitting solution to attain a good level of calcium intake in the form of a sweet-
tasting drink. It is marketed to consumers as a substitute to milk in providing calcium required for
the body. Another range of calcium-enriched orange juices has been recently launched by Canada’s
second largest food retailer Sobey’s Inc., and is marketed as a product “specially designed as a
source of calcium for people who do not drink milk.”

2.3.1.2 Superfruits
Fruits rich in antioxidants are referred to as superfruits because of antioxidants’ role in everything
from preventing heart disease and cancer to improving the immune system and reducing the aging
process. Found in the red, blue, and purple pigments that give fruits their vibrant color, antioxidants
are commonly present in berries, grapes, cherries, and pomegranates all of which are regarded as
“superfruits.”
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ebbero risposto con lo stesso tono, egli fece dei piccoli regali agli
uomini e incominciò a cantare con loro, poi prese parte al loro gioco
dei cinquantadue bastoni, nel quale era molto forte.
E quei selvaggi fumarono il suo tabacco e erano contenti. Ma i
giovanotti assunsero un atteggiamento di diffidenza. Serpeggiava tra
loro come un’aria di sfida, che le allusioni chiare delle vecchie e i
sogghigni delle ragazze rendevano palese.
Essi avevano conosciuto pochi bianchi. — o «Figli del lupo»,
com’essi dicevano — ma da costoro avevano appreso strane lezioni.
Scruff Mackenzie, quantunque mostrasse un’aria d’indifferenza, si
rese ben conto di quello stato d’animo; e durante la notte seguente,
tutto raccolto nelle sue pelliccie, riflettè seriamente ai casi suoi e
meditò, pur fumando numerose pipe, il da fare. Tra quelle ragazze,
una sola gli piaceva, ed era, nientemeno, la figlia del capo della
tribù, la bella Zarinska, che per lineamenti, taglio della persona ed
andatura, impersonava un tipo di bellezza bianca, in modo da
sembrare una specie di anomalia fra le altre ragazze della tribù. Egli
l’avrebbe condotta con sè, come moglie, e ne avrebbe mutato il
nome in quello di Geltrude. Così deciso, egli si voltò su un fianco e
s’addormentò subito, da vero figlio di razza conquistatrice.
Ottenere quell’intento, però, non era facile; occorreva molta abilità
per riuscire. Scruff Mackenzie si comportò con molta accortezza e
ostentando un’indifferenza che metteva in imbarazzo gli Sticks. Egli
seppe, con molta cura, convincere gli uomini della sua abilità di
cacciatore fanatico e di buon tiratore; così che da un estremo all’altro
dell’accampamento si sparsero le lodi della sua bravura, quando
uccise un moose [4] a cinquecento metri.
Visitava, di sera, la capanna del Capo Thiling-Tinneh, tutta adorna di
pelli di moose e di cariboo; e parlava dandosi grandi arie,
distribuendo generosamente tabacco, non trascurando di far
partecipe dello stesso onore il Shaman; giacchè egli si rendeva
conto del prestigio che questa specie di medico esercitava sul
popolo ed era ansioso di farsene un alleato. Ma costui, ch’era
sdegnoso ed altero, non si lasciò corrompere, e Scruff Mackenzie lo
incluse, giustamente, nel numero di quelli che gli si sarebbero voltati
contro.
Mackenzie, non intravvedendo la possibilità di rimanere solo con
Zarinska, le rivolse degli sguardi incendiari che rivelavano
chiaramente le sue intenzioni; mentre lei, che aveva intuito, si
circondava, da civettuola qual’era, d’uno stuolo di donne, ogni
qualvolta gli uomini uscivano, e Mackenzie, aveva l’occasione
desiderata. Ma egli da parte sua, non aveva fretta, sapendo che lei
non poteva fare a meno di pensare a lui, e che tenendola
costantemente preoccupata di lui per alcuni giorni, avrebbe potuto
attuare meglio i suoi disegni.
Finalmente, una sera, giudicando il momento propizio, egli uscì
bruscamente dall’abitazione annerita del capo e si diresse alla
capanna prossima. Zarinska era seduta, come soleva, tra donne
d’ogni età, intenta a far moccasins e lavori di perle; così che, quando
egli entrò, tutte incominciarono a ridere, unendo il nome di Zarinska
con quello di lui. Egli le prese, senza riguardo, l’una dopo l’altra e le
spinse fuori, sulla neve, donde partirono in fretta per andare a
divulgare la notizia in tutto l’accampamento.
Rimasto solo, egli difese con calore la sua causa, usando l’idioma
della giovane, che altrimenti, non l’avrebbe potuto comprendere, non
conoscendo altra lingua, ed alla fine, dopo due ore, s’alzò per
andarsene.
Dunque, Zarinska verrà nella capanna dell’uomo bianco? Bene! Ora,
vado a parlarne a tuo padre, che forse non sarà dello stesso parere.
Gli farò molti regali, ma bisogna che non pretenda troppo. E se dice
di no? Bene! Zarinska verrà ugualmente nella capanna dell’Uomo
Bianco».
Aveva già sollevato la portiera fatta di pelli di bestie per uscire,
allorchè un’esclamazione soffocata lo richiamò presso la giovane.
Questa gli si inginocchiò davanti sulla pelle d’orso che tappezzava la
capanna, e, arrossendo, da vera figlia d’Eva, gli sciolse timidamente
la pesante cintura. Sorpreso e insospettito, egli la guardava,
tendendo l’orecchio al menomo rumore di fuori. Ma il movimento
ch’ella fece poi allontanò ogni timore, ed egli sorrise dal piacere.
Zarinska s’alzò, andò a prendere nel suo sacco da lavoro un fodero
di cuoio di moose tutto lucente di perle dal ricamo fantastico e tolto il
coltellaccio di caccia di Mackenzie, ne osservò rispettosamente la
lama, quasi tentata di provarlo sul pollice, e l’infilò nell’astuccio. Poi
rimise l’arma nel fodero, al posto solito, alla cintola, proprio sull’anca.
Pareva uno spettacolo medioevale: quello della dama che arma il
cavaliere.
Mackenzie rialzò la giovane, e sfiorò coi suoi mustacchi le labbra
vermiglie di Zarinska, che conobbe per la prima volta, la carezza del
Lupo. Fu come l’incontro dell’età della pietra con l’età del ferro. E fu
come un fremito nell’aria, poco dopo, quando Scruff Mackenzie,
portando sotto il braccio un enorme pacco, sollevò la portiera della
tenda di Thiling-Tinneh. I ragazzi correvano, qua e là, portando
legna secche nel luogo dove doveva avvenire il potlach; un
mormorio di voci femminili s’udiva sempre più distinto, e i giovanotti,
in gruppi, si consultavano, con aria cupa, mentre dalla tenda dello
Shaman proveniva uno strano rumore, come di scongiuro.
Il capo era solo con la moglie, dagli occhi cisposi. Bastò uno sguardo
a Mackenzie per capire che la notizia era già divulgata; di modo che
affrontò senz’altro la questione, avendo cura di mettere bene in vista
il fodero ricamato, regalo del fidanzamento.
— O Thiling-Tinneh, capo possente degli Sticks e della terra di
Tanana, — esclamò. — Sei tu che regni sul salmone, sull’orso, sul
moose e sul cariboo! L’uomo bianco si presenta a te, per un gran
disegno ch’egli ha concepito, sono ormai trascorse molte lune, ed
egli vive ancora da solitario, in una capanna vuota. Il suo cuore,
raccolto nel silenzio, sospira pensando a una donna che gli segga
accanto, sotto la sua tenda, e gli prepari, al ritorno della caccia, un
buon pasto che lo ristori. Egli ha udito strane cose: il rumore di
piccoli passi di bambino e il suono di voci giovanili che gli giungono
di lontano agli orecchi. Una volta la sua notte di solitario è stata
turbata da una apparizione: egli ha visto il Corvo, che ti è padre, il
Gran Corvo, padre di tutti gli Sticks, e il Corvo ha parlato così
all’uomo bianco: «Metti i tuoi moccasin, attacca i pattini e prepara la
slitta; mettivi su delle provviste di viveri per numerosi giorni; e bei
regali pel Capo Thiling-Tinneh. — Quindi volgi gli occhi dalla parte
dove il sole è solito scomparire in piena primavera, e viaggia sino
all’accampamento di caccia del grande capo. Tu gli offrirai magnifici
regali, e Thiling-Tinneh, che mi è figlio, diverrà un padre per te. Sotto
la sua tenda c’è una fanciulla alla quale ho dato vita per te: quella
fanciulla sarà tua moglie».
«Così parlò il Gran Corvo, o capo! E perciò io pongo ai tuoi piedi
numerosi doni e desidero condurre con me tua figlia.»
Con una mossa non priva di maestà, il vecchio s’avvolse nelle sue
pelli, ma indugiò a rispondere, mentre un omuncolo ficcatosi nella
tenda e detto rapidamente che il consiglio, radunato, desiderava il
capo, spariva.
— O Uomo Bianco che abbiamo soprannominato l’Uccisore di
Moose, tu sei noto anche col nome di Lupo e figlio di Lupo. Noi
sappiamo che la tua razza è potente e siamo orgogliosi di averti
come ospite, al nostro pollach, ma il salmone-re, non può far
comunione col salmone inferiore, come non può il Corvo col Lupo.
— Come! — esclamò Mackenzie. — Ma se ho incontrato le figlie del
Corvo negli accampamenti del Lupo! Per esempio, la moglie di
Mortimer, la moglie di Tregidgo, la moglie di Barnabè, che è ritornata
due inverni fa, e ho udito parlare di parecchie altre figlie del Corvo,
che però non ho viste.
— Tu dici il vero, figliuolo, ma sono unioni infelici, come quella
dell’acqua colla sabbia o del fiocco di neve col sole. Hai incontrato
Mason e la sua compagna? No?... È venuto qui dieci corvi di gelo fa:
è stato il primo, di tutti i Lupi. Con lui, c’era un uomo robusto, grande,
diritto come un salcio; forte come l’orso grigio, dalla faccia senza
peli, dal cuore come la luna piena d’estate; il suo...
— Oh! — interruppe Mackenzie, riconoscendo in quello l’uomo noto
in tutto il Nord, — è Malemute Kid!
— È lui, un uomo fortissimo. Ne hai visto mai la moglie? Pareva
sorella gemella di Zarinska.
-No, capo, non la conosco, ma ne ho sentito parlare. Mason, giù, giù
nel Nord, è stato schiacciato da un enorme vecchissimo abete; ma il
suo amore era grande ed egli possedeva molto oro. Mediante
quest’oro, sua moglie ha potuto viaggiare col figlio per molti giorni
alla volta del paese dove si vede il sole a mezzo inverno; e là essa
vive. Non più geli, nè neve, nè sole a mezzanotte, d’estate, nè notti a
mezzogiorno, d’inverno.
Giunse un secondo messaggero che portò una chiamata urgente del
Consiglio. Mackenzie, nel respingerlo fuor dell’uscio, sulla neve,
intravvide con un rapido sguardo alcuni uomini curvi davanti al fuoco
del consiglio; indi le profonde voci basse degli uomini che cantavano
a coro, ritmicamente, e comprese che il Shaman eccitava la collera
del popolo contro di lui. Bisognava sbrigarsi... allora si volse al Capo:
— Insomma, io desidero tua figlia. E ora guarda: Ecco tabacco, per
te, un gran numero di vasi pieni di zucchero, coperte che riscaldano,
fazzoletti belli e grandi, infine una carabina, una vera carabina con
molte palle e polvere.
— No. — replicò il vecchio, resistendo alla tentazione di tutte quelle
ricchezze esposte davanti a lui — ormai il mio popolo è adunato; non
vuole questo matrimonio.
— Non sei tu il loro capo?
— Certo; ma i giovani sono furiosi perchè i Lupi hanno preso le
ragazze della tribù ed essi non possono ammogliarsi.
— Ascolta, o Thiling-Tinneh: prima che alla notte succeda il giorno, il
Lupo avrà già preso con i suoi cani la via delle montagne dell’Est,
diretto al paese del Yukon e Zarinska andrà avanti ai cani.
— E prima che metà della notte sia trascorsa, i miei giovani forse
avranno dato in pasto ai cani la carne del Lupo e disseminato le sue
ossa sulla neve, dentro la quale rimarranno sepolte, sino al giorno in
cui, la primavera le scoprirà.
Minaccia opposta a minaccia. La faccia abbronzata di Mackenzie
divenne rossa, d’un rosso cupo; egli alzò la voce. La vecchia moglie
rimasta sino a quel punto spettatrice impassibile, cercò di
svignarsela strisciandogli accanto verso la porta. Il canto degli
uomini cessò di botto; si udì, però un gran mormorio quando
Mackenzie respinse rudemente la vecchia sul tappeto di pelle.
— Torno a gridartelo: Ascolta, o Thiling-Tinneh! Il Lupo muore a denti
stretti, e con lui, dieci uomini, i più forti fra i tuoi, cadranno, uomini
necessari, giacchè è appena incominciata la stagione della caccia e
quella della pesca sarà fra poche lune. E poi, a che ti gioverebbe la
mia morte? Io conosco le costumanze del tuo popolo; tu avrai la
minima parte delle mie ricchezze, che, invece, potranno essere tutte
tue se mi dai tua figlia. E poi... i miei fratelli verranno, e sono
numerosissimi, e la loro fame non è mai sazia. E le figlie del Corvo
partoriranno nei capanni del Lupo. Il mio popolo è più grande del tuo.
Così vuole il Destino. Concedimi ciò che chiedo, e tutte le mie belle
cose saranno tue.
S’udiva un pestìo di moccasins, di fuori, sulla neve. Mackenzie
caricò la carabina e preparò due rivoltelle che aveva nella cintura.
— Accetta, o capo!
— Sarà il mio popolo a dir di no!
— Accetta, e queste ricchezze saranno tue. Penserò io a
intendermela poi col tuo popolo.
— Giacchè il Lupo vuole così, io prendo i pegni... ma ti ho avvisato.
Mackenzie gli consegnò tutti i regali, avendo cura, però, di scaricare
la carabina e aggiungendo, come segno di gradimento e conclusione
del patto, un fazzoletto di seta screziata di varî colori.
A questo punto, ecco entrare il Shaman, accompagnato da una
mezza dozzina di giovanotti. Subito, Mackenzie s’aprì arditamente
un varco tra essi, spingendoli con le spalle, e uscì dalla tenda.
— Preparati per la partenza, — fece con un tono reciso a Zarinska, a
mo’ di saluto, nel passare davanti alla tenda di lei. Poi andò in fretta
ad attaccare i cani.
Pochi minuti dopo, giungeva, alla testa del tiro, in pieno consiglio. La
donna gli stava allato. Egli si collocò nella parte più alta del
rettangolo, accanto al capo, e mise Zarinska alla sua sinistra, un po’
indietro, al posto che le spettava, anche perchè appressandosi l’ora
della lotta, era bene che avesse le spalle salve.
Da ogni lato, gli uomini, accosciati attorno al fuoco, cantavano ad
alta voce un motivo popolare, ricordando un passato da lungo tempo
dimenticato.
Misterioso, a pause cadenzate, con un ritornello ossessionante, quel
canto era tutt’altro che bello; l’aggettivo terribile non basta neppure a
definire la sensazione che suscitava. All’altra estremità del
rettangolo, danzavano cinque o sei donne, sotto l’occhio del
Shaman, il quale sgridava severamente quelle che non
s’abbandonavano con tutto lo slancio che ci voleva, di solito, in
quelle occasioni. Mezzo nascoste sotto la greve massa dei loro
capelli neri che ricadevano in disordine fino alla cintola, esse
ondeggiavano lentamente, ora indietro, ora in avanti, facendo
oscillare i loro corpi secondo il ritmo, che mutava continuamente.
Era uno spettacolo strano, anacronistico: mentre nel mezzogiorno, il
secolo XIX moriva con gli ultimi anni della sua ultima dècade, lì,
l’uomo primitivo, frammento negletto del Vecchio Mondo, fioriva,
quasi come al tempo degli abitatori delle caverne preistoriche. I cani
lupi, dal pelo fulvo erano coricati tra i loro padroni coperti di pelli di
bestie o si facevano largo in mezzo ad essi. I loro occhi sanguigni e
le loro bocche colanti schiuma riflettevano i rossi chiarori del fuoco. I
boschi dormivano, indifferenti, sotto un bianco lenzuolo, e il gran
silenzio ricacciato, a quell’ora, ai margini delle foreste, pareva
rifugiarsi in fondo in fondo; le stelle danzavano nella volta turchina,
come accade di solito al tempo del gran freddo: mentre gli spiriti del
polo trascinavano le loro vesti splendide attraverso i cieli.
Scruff Mackenzie ebbe un concetto approssimativo, della grandezza
selvaggia, di quello spettacolo, quando percorse collo sguardo i due
filari di abeti, per rendersi conto del numero degli assenti. E lo
sguardo si posò, un momento, su un neonato che succhiava il seno
di sua madre.
S’era a quaranta gradi sotto lo zero. Egli pensò alle donne delicate
della sua razza, e sorrise con aria selvaggia. Eppure, egli era nato
da una di queste donne, e aveva ricevuto un retaggio regale, come
quelli della sua razza: il potere di regnare su terra e su mare, sui
popoli e sugli animali di tutte le regioni. Solo com’era contro cento,
lontano da tutti i suoi, in pieno inverno artico, egli sentì passare nelle
vene l’ardore dei suoi antenati, il desiderio dell’amore selvaggio e
pericoloso, e, col fremito della lotta prossima, l’ardore di vincere o
morire.
Canti e danze cessarono, e il Shaman incominciò a parlare con
eloquenza avvincente; servendosi della loro intricata mitologia, egli
sapeva influire abilmente sull’animo credulo del popolo. La faccenda
diventava seria. Creando un contrasto tra i principî creatori incarnati
nella Cornacchia e nel Corvo, e Mackenzie, egli marchiò costui col
nome di Lupo, principio di lotta e di distruzione. — Non si trattava
solo di un contrasto di forze spirituali, ma della lotta, ma della lotta
dell’uomo contro l’uomo sino alla soppressione. Essi erano i figli di
Jelchs, il Corvo, che aveva portato il fuoco; Mackenzie era il figlio del
Lupo, o, con parole più precise, il Demonio. Dar tregua per un
momento a questa lotta perpetua e maritare le loro figlie con i capi
nemici era un tradimento e uno spaventoso sacrilegio... non c’era
immagine bassa o parola dura bastante per definire Mackenzie,
ch’egli chiamava intruso, sornione, creatura di Satana. Una specie di
ruggito selvaggio, subito represso, sfuggì dal petto degli ascoltatori
quando egli s’abbandonò al volo della perorazione.
«Sì, fratelli miei, Jelchs è onnipotente. Non ha portato il fuoco dal
cielo per riscaldarci? Non ha fatto uscire dalle loro caverne il sole, la
luna, e le stelle per darci la luce? Non ci ha insegnato a lottare
contro gli spiriti maligni, quali la Carestia e il Gelo? Ora, Jelchs è
adirato contro i suoi figliuoli ridotti a un piccolo numero, e rifiuta di
aiutarli, perchè si sono abbandonati a male azioni, hanno percorso i
sentieri del male e accolto nelle loro case i suoi nemici ch’essi hanno
fatto sedere accanto al loro focolare. E il Corvo è afflitto dalla
perversità dei suoi figliuoli; ma quando essi si solleveranno e
mostreranno di voler tornare a lui, egli uscirà dalle tenebre per
aiutarli. O fratelli, il Messaggero del Fuoco è venuto a sussurrare
delle parole all’orecchio del vostro Shaman, e le parole sono queste
che udrete: «I giovani conducano le giovani nelle loro capanne, si
lancino alla gola del lupo, e il loro odio non si estingua mai. Allora le
loro mogli diverranno feconde, ed essi cresceranno e
moltiplicheranno e formeranno un popolo potente. E i Corvi
guideranno tribù numerose dei loro padri e dei padri dei loro padri,
dalle lontane terre del Nord; e sconfiggeranno i Lupi sino al punto di
farli scomparire come i fuochi dei nostri accampamenti dell’anno
passato, e allora i Corvi regneranno su tutta la terra». Tale è il
messaggio di Jelchs, il Corvo».
Questo simbolo della venuta del Messia suscitò una specie di urlìo
rauco degli Sticks che, a un tratto, balzarono in piedi. Mackenzie
liberò il pollice dai guantoni e attese. Sorse un gran clamore:
volevano la Volpe. Il clamore s’acquetò solo allorchè un giovanotto
s’avanzò per parlare, a sua volta.
«Fratelli! Le parole del Shaman sono dettate da saggezza. I Lupi
hanno condotto con loro le nostre donne, e i nostri uomini sono
senza figliuoli. Siamo ridotti a un pugno d’uomini. I Lupi hanno preso
le nostre calde pellicce e ci hanno dato in cambio degli spiriti maligni
che giacciono in bottiglie e vesti fatte con erba e non con pellicce di
castoro o di lince. Queste stoffe non serbano calore e i nostri uomini
muoiono di strane malattie. Io, la Volpe, non ho moglie... perchè?
Due volte, le ragazze che mi piacevano sono partite per
l’accampamento dei Lupi; oggi, ho messo da parte pelli di castoro, di
moose e di cariboo, per ingraziarmi Thiling-Tinneh e sposare sua
figlia Zarinska. Ebbene! Ella ha già calzato i pattini ed è bell’e pronta
a guidare i cani del Lupo... Non parlo solo per me: lo stesso è
accaduto all’Orso. Anch’egli desiderava tanto d’essere il padre dei
figliuoli di Zarinska, ed aveva in serbo numerose pelli di bestie per
ottener l’intento... Parlo in nome di tutti i giovani che non hanno
moglie. I Lupi sono insaziabili, e si prendono sempre la parte
migliore del bottino, lasciando quel che loro avanza, ai Corvi.
«Guardate Gugkla!», esclamò egli, accennando col dito a una donna
inferma: «le sue gambe contorte come i fianchi d’un canotto di
betulla le impediscono di raccogliere legna e di portare il cibo ai
cacciatori. I Lupi se la son presa?
— È vero, è vero! — acclamarono gli uomini della tribù.
— Ecco Moyri, alla quale lo Spirito del Male ha torti gli occhi. I
ragazzi hanno paura quando i loro sguardi cadono su di lei: e si dice
che l’Orso le apra il cammino sul ghiaccio. È stata scelta, forse?
Risuonò l’applauso crudele.
— Guardate Pischet, seduta là. Le mie parole non giungono sino a
lei, che non ha mai udito la voce del marito e neppure il cicaleccio
del figliuolo, giacchè vive nel gran Silenzio Bianco. I Lupi si sono
curati di lei?... No! Essi scelgono la parte migliore e a noi tocca il
resto... Ebbene! Fratelli, d’ora in poi, non sarà più così! Noi non
permetteremo più che i Lupi si insinuino nei nostri accampamenti.
L’ora è venuta».
Nel momento in cui pronunciava queste ultime parole un immenso
chiarore purpureo, verde, giallo, e violetto, si distese da un punto
all’altro del cielo: era un’aurora boreale. Colla testa rovesciata
indietro e le braccia distese, l’oratore esclamò, terminando:
— Guardate! Gli spiriti dei nostri padri sorgono, e grandi cose stanno
per compiersi stanotte!
Egli indietreggiò di alcuni passi, e un altro giovane s’avanzò
timidamente, spinto dai compagni ch’egli sorpassava di tutta la testa.
Il suo largo petto scoperto, sembrava sfidare il freddo; egli oscillava
ora su un piede ora sull’altro, le parole gli si fermavano tra le labbra;
era in gran disagio. La sua faccia, orribile all’aspetto, recava i segni
dei colpi spaventosi che glie ne avevano tolta una parte. Egli
incominciò a colpire col pugno chiuso il suo vasto petto, che risuonò
come un tamburo, e la voce s’alzò, rumoreggiando come le onde
che rifluiscono da una profonda caverna.
— Io sono l’Orso... la Punta d’Argento e il Figlio della Punta
d’Argento. La mia voce rassomigliava ancora a quella d’una ragazza
quando già cacciavo la lince, il moose, il cariboo; allorchè il vento
soffiava terribile; io ho percorso le Montagne del Sud e ucciso tre
uomini dei Fiumi Bianchi, e quando questi sono diventati torrenti, ho
incontrato l’orso bianco, ma non gli ho ceduto il passo.
Egli tacque un momento e passò, in modo significativo, una mano
sulle sue orribili cicatrici.
— Io non rassomiglio alla Volpe. La mia lingua è gelida come
l’acqua. Io non sono capace di fare lunghi discorsi. Posso dire solo
poche parole. La Volpe annunzia che grandi avvenimenti si
compiranno questa notte. Bene! Le parole scorrono dalle sue labbra
come l’acqua dalla fonte, ma egli non è prodigo di azione. Questa
notte mi batterò col Lupo. L’ucciderò, e Zarinska verrà a sedersi
accanto al mio fuoco. L’Orso ha parlato.
Nonostante un pandemonio infuriasse intorno a lui, Mackenzie non
si mosse. Sapendo che la carabina non poteva servirgli così da
vicino, trasse le due rivoltelle, e se le pose innanzi pronte a
servirsene, e tolse i guantoni a sacco così che le mani erano appena
riparate dai guanti che incominciavano dal gomito. Sapeva che a
voler prendere tutti i suoi nemici insieme era come perdersi, ma,
fedele alla parola, era preparato a morire coi denti stretti. Ma l’Orso
tratteneva i suoi compagni, respingendo, col suo terribile pugno, i più
avventati. Quando il tumulto cominciò a placarsi. Mackenzie lanciò
uno sguardo in direzione di Zarinska. Formava un quadro magnifico.
Curva in avanti nei pattini, con le labbra socchiuse e le narici
frementi, era come una tigre pronta a balzare. I suoi grandi occhi
neri fissavano gli uomini della sua tribù con una espressione tra di
sfida e di timore. Era tale la tensione del suo animo che pareva
ch’ella non respirasse neppure. Con una delle mani raggrinzite si
premeva convulsamente il petto, e con l’altra teneva come in una
morsa il frustino pei cani. Sembrava una statua di pietra. Poi i suoi
muscoli s’allentarono; rovesciatasi indietro, emise un sospiro, e
lanciò a Mackenzie uno sguardo ch’esprimeva più che amore.
Thiling-Tinneh tentava invano di parlare, la voce sua si perdeva nel
clamore. Allora, Mackenzie s’avanzò. L’Orso incominciò a lanciare
una specie di urlo selvaggio continuo, ma Mackenzie si precipitò con
tanto furore sul nemico, che questi indietreggiò e non fece uscire
altro dalla sua gola che un suono soffocato. Degli scoppi di risa
salutarono la sua sconfitta, e i compagni del vinto, acquetatisi,
stettero volentieri ad ascoltare.
— Fratelli, — esclamò Mackenzie. — L’uomo bianco, che vi
compiacete di chiamare il Lupo, è venuto fra voi con buone parole.
Venne da amico, da fratello, con labbra che non hanno detto
menzogne. Ma i vostri uomini hanno spiegato ciò che loro pesava
sul cuore, e il tempo delle buone parole è passato. Prima di tutto,
permettetemi di dirvi che il Shaman è un falso profeta: egli ha una
brutta lingua; i messaggi ch’egli vi porta non provengono dal
Portatore del Fuoco; i suoi orecchi non possono intendere la voce
del Corvo; ed egli si è preso giuoco di voi raccontandovi le parole
che ha immaginate. Egli non ha potere alcuno. Ricordatevi il
passato. Quando dovevate uccidere i vostri cani e mangiarli, allorchè
i vostri stomachi soffrivano perchè non si nutrivano d’altro che di
petto d’animali e di cordicelle dei vostri moccasins; quando i vecchi e
le donne d’età inoltrata s’addormentavano, per non svegliarsi più, e i
neonati morivano sul seno inaridito delle loro madri, e tutto era tetro
attorno a voi, e voi perivate in gran numero, come il salmone al
momento del passaggio, e la carestia faceva strage. Ebbene! è forse
venuto il Shaman a togliere ogni affanno ai vostri cacciatori? Ha egli
dato della carne ai vostri stomachi affamati? Ve lo ripeto: il Shaman
non ha alcun potere; perciò, gli sputo in faccia!
Sebbene sorpresa a quella specie di sacrilegio, la folla non fece
udire alcuna protesta. Alcune donne si spaventarono, ma parecchi,
fra gli uomini, parvero attendere un miracolo. Tutti gli occhi erano
fissi sulle due figure centrali. Il prete-medico sentì tutta l’amarezza di
quell’ora crudele, il potere gli sfuggiva, egli aprì la bocca per
minacciare, ma indietreggiò subito davanti all’atteggiamento feroce,
ai pugni stretti e agli occhi scintillanti di Mackenzie; il quale
sogghignò e proseguì:
— Sono morto, forse? Il fulmine mi ha colpito? Son cadute le stelle
dal cielo per distruggermi? Bah! l’ho finita col cane. Ora, vi parlerò
del nuovo popolo, che è il più possente di tutti e regna su tutti i
paesi. Prima di tutto, noi cacciamo soli, come faccio io; poi,
cacciamo in compagnia, e, infine, ci spargiamo in massa sui paesi,
come il cariboo in certe stagioni dell’anno. Quelli che noi
conduciamo nelle nostre capanne vivono, gli altri, quelli che restano,
muoiono. Zarinska è una giovane graziosa e robusta, nata per
diventare la madre di Lupi. E ancor io morissi, ella sarà tale, giacchè
i miei fratelli sono numerosissimi e seguiranno la traccia dei miei
cani. Ascoltate la legge del Lupo: «Chiunque ucciderà un Lupo sarà
punito con la morte di dieci dei suoi». Parecchi paesi hanno già
pagato questo tributo, e sarà sempre così.
— Ora, io mi rivolgo alta Volpe e all’Orso. Tutti e due hanno,
com’essi dicono, posto gli occhi sulla giovane. Ebbene? io l’ho
comprata! Thiling-Tinneh s’appoggia in questo momento sulla
carabina che gli ho data io, i miei regali sono tutti nella sua tenda.
Tuttavia, io sarò giusto coi giovanetti. Alla Volpe, la cui lingua è
disseccata dalle parole ch’egli ha pronunziate, io darò cinque grossi
pacchi di tabacco, che serviranno a inumidirgli la bocca e a
permettergli di pronunziare dei discorsi in consiglio. Quanto all’Orso,
di cui sono orgoglioso, gli offro due coperte, venti coppe di farina, il
doppio del tabacco offerto alla Volpe, e, se vuole seguirmi d’altra
parte delle Montagne dell’Est, una carabina simile a quella di Thiling-
Tinneh. Altrimenti?... ebbene! Vedremo!... il Lupo è stanco di parlare,
e vi ripete per l’ultima volta la legge: «Chiunque farà perire un Lupo,
sarà punito con la morte di dieci dei suoi».
Così detto, Mackenzie, riprese la posizione di prima, un po’ indietro;
ma, in fondo al cuore, provava una grande ansia. La notte era molto
oscura: Zarinska s’accostò a lui per parlargli, ed egli ascoltò con la
maggiore attenzione tutto quanto ella disse circa la bravura
combattiva dell’Orso col suo coltello.
La lotta fu decisa in breve: in un batter d’occhio, un gran numero di
piedi calzati di moccasins ingrandì lo spazio della neve battuta
presso il fuoco. Si parlava molto della sconfitta apparente dello
Shaman; c’era chi diceva ch’egli teneva per sè la sua potenza senza
manifestarla per un po’, e chi commentava le vicende del passato,
dando ragione al Lupo.
L’Orso s’avanzò verso il mezzo del terreno segnato pel
combattimento, tenendo in mano un lungo coltello da caccia di
fabbricazione russa. La Volpe richiamò l’attenzione sulle rivoltelle di
Mackenzie, che si sciolse la cintura e ne cinse Zarinska, alla quale
affidò anche la carabina. Ella fece un cenno del capo per mostrare
che non sapeva servirsene, giacchè una donna non aveva punto
occasione di maneggiare cose così preziose.
— Dunque, se sono minacciato alle spalle, grida con tutte le tue
forze: «Marito mio!» Non così, ma a questo modo: «Marito mio!...».
Egli rise, udendola ripetere le sue parole, le pizzicò la gola e rientrò
nel cerchio. Non solo l’Orso era molto più grande di Mackenzie, ma
aveva un coltello almeno di due pollici più lungo di quello dell’altro.
Mackenzie, che aveva più d’una volta guardato bene in faccia degli
uomini, comprese che stava per lottare contro un nemico
formidabile. Pure, il luccichìo dell’acciaio sotto la luce, gli fece
battere più forte il polso e risvegliò in lui l’istinto dominatore della
razza.
Di tanto in tanto, Mackenzie, era respinto vicinissimo al fuoco e
all’estremo del terreno, e, ogni volta, la tattica familiare ai pugilisti lo
riconduceva al centro. Neppure una voce s’alzava in suo favore,
mentre applausi, incitamenti e avvertimenti erano prodigati all’Orso.
Ogni qualvolta i coltelli s’incontravano, Mackenzie, stringeva i denti
maggiormente, e dava o parava i colpi con una colma coscienza
della sua forza. Dapprima, egli sentì pietà per l’avversario, ma
questo sentimento cedette in breve all’istinto di conservazione, che,
a sua volta, cedette al piacere d’uccidere. Diecimila anni di cultura
sparirono e non rimase che un abitante delle caverne che lottava per
la donna da lui eletta.
Due volte toccò l’Orso senz’esserne toccato, ma, la terza volta, sentì
la lama dell’avversario, e, per iscansarla, toccò con la mano libera il
braccio armato dell’Orso. Vennero alle mani. Mackenzie allora si
rese conto dell’immensa forza di questi: i muscoli tesi gli si
annodavano dolorosamente, nervi e tendini sembravano spezzarsi,
dallo sforzo, la lama di momento in momento s’avvicinava sempre
più. Egli tentò di svincolarsi, ma non fece altro che perder forza,
mentre la cerchia degli spettatori rivestiti di pelli di bestie, si
stringeva per vedere la sconfitta e il colpo finale. Allora, con tutta
l’astuzia d’un lottatore esperto, Mackenzie si gettò un po’ da lato e
diede un gran colpo di testa all’avversario. L’Orso indietreggiò
involontariamente e perse, così, il centro di gravità, mentre
Mackenzie, si lanciava su di lui con tutto il suo peso e lo precipitava
sulla neve spessa e dura. L’Orso inciampò e cadde sul dorso, lungo
disteso.
— O marito mio! — risuonò la voce di Zarinska, vibrante di pericolo.
Al rumore del distendersi d’un arco, Mackenzie si curvò a terra, ed
ecco una freccia, passando sopra di lui, colpire l’Orso al petto, nel
momento in cui stava per gettarsi sul nemico, strisciante innanzi a
lui. Mackenzie si rialzò subito. L’Orso giaceva, immobile, ma
dall’altro lato del fuoco, lo Shaman si preparava a lanciare una
seconda freccia.
Mackenzie prese il suo pesante coltello per la lama e lo lanciò nello
spazio. Fu come il guizzo d’un lampo attraverso il fuoco: la lama
s’affondò sino al manico nella gola dello Shaman, il quale vacillò un
momento e cadde colla persona in avanti tra le ceneri ardenti.
Clic! clic!... La Volpe s’era impossessata della carabina di Thiling-
Tinneh e cercava invano di sparare. A un tratto, abbassò l’arma
udendo lo scroscio di risa di Mackenzie.
— La Volpe non sa ancora servirsi di quel gingillo? È ancora come
una donna. Vieni! Portamela e ti mostrerò come usarla!
La Volpe esitava.
— Vieni, dico!
La Volpe finì coll’avvicinarsi con passo pesante, a testa bassa, come
un cane battuto.
— Ecco come si fa, così e così! — e ficcata una palla nella carabina,
col cane alzato, portò l’arma alla spalla.
— La Volpe ha detto che grandi cose avverranno questa notte, e non
s’è ingannata. Vi sono state delle grandi gesta, ma quelle della Volpe
non sono le più notevoli. Ha egli ancora l’intenzione di condurre
Zarinska nella sua capanna? Vuol seguire la strada presa dallo
Shaman e dall’Orso?... No?... Bene!
Mackenzie si voltò, con aria di supremo disprezzo, e strappò il
coltello dalla gola del prete-medico.
— C’è altri giovanotti desiderosi di seguire la stessa sorte? Se vi
sono, il Lupo li ucciderà a due o tre per volta, finchè non ne rimanga
neppur uno. No? Bene! Thiling-Tinneh, ti dò questa carabina la
seconda volta. Se ti capitasse, col tempo, di viaggiare fino al paese
bagnato dal Yukon, sappi che vi sarà sempre per te, al fuoco del
Lupo, un posto e vitto abbondante. Il giorno è prossimo. Io me ne
vado, ma, forse, ritornerò. E per l’ultima volta, ricordatevi della legge
del Lupo!
Agli occhi di tutti, egli sembrava un essere soprannaturale quando
raggiunse Zarinska. La giovane si mise subito alla testa del tiro, e i
cani non tardarono a partire. Pochi minuti dopo, sparivano nel folto
della foresta. Mackenzie, da parte sua, attendeva. Dopo un po’ ficcò
i piedi nei pattini per seguir lo stesso cammino.
— Il Lupo non ricorda i cinque pacchetti di tabacco?
Mackenzie si voltò, con aria furibonda, verso la Volpe, ma rimase
colpito dalla comicità della cosa:
— Te ne darò uno piccolo.
— Come vuole il Lupo, — rispose la Volpe, con voce mite,
stendendo la mano.
 INDICE

Jack London pag. 5

IL RICHIAMO DELLA FORESTA.

Cap.
I — Verso la vita primitiva pag. 31
II — La legge della mazza e dei denti 53
III — La bestia primordiale preponderante 73
IV — Colui che ha guadagnato il primato 101
V — La fatica del tiro e del cammino 119
VI — Per l’amore di un uomo 149
VII — Il richiamo della voce 177

IL FIGLIO DEL LUPO 213

 I ROMANZI E LE NOVELLE
di JACK LONDON

Di questo grande scrittore americano, già

universalmente noto, la nostra Casa Editrice inizia, e
continuerà a mano a mano, la prima ed unica
pubblicazione di tutte le opere a cura di Gian Dàuli, il
quale fu il primo a segnalare Jack London al pubblico
italiano come uno dei genî più originali e possenti che
possa vantare la letteratura anglo-sassone.

IN CORSO DI STAMPA:

ZANNA BIANCA (White fang) — Romanzo.

IN PREPARAZIONE:

MARTIN EDEN — Romanzo.

L’AMORE DELLA VITA — Romanzo.
IL TALLONE DI FERRO — Romanzo di previsione
sociale.
IL FIGLIO DEL LUPO — Novelle.

OGNI VOLUME LIRE OTTO

«.... Hélas! Jack London avait le genie qui voit ce qui

est caché à la foule des hommes et possedait une
science qui lui permettait d’anticiper sur les
temps....».
ANATOLE FRANCE.