WOOD

Wood comprises the tissue of stems and roots of various plants, but the wood used as an
engineering material is obtained from the trunks of forest trees.

Types of Trees: According to the mode of their growth, trees are classified as endogenous and
exogenous trees. Endogenous trees – this class of trees grow inwards by depositing each fresh layer
internally. Thus, in this type of trees, the oldest layer is at the outermost. The examples of endogenous
tress are Bamboo, Coconut, Palm, etc. Exogenous trees – This class of trees grows by forming
successive annular rings on the outside, under the bark. Thus, the oldest annular ring in this type of tree is
at the innermost portion. The rings formed by new deposits are called annular rings, since every year a
ring is deposited. In fact the age of tree can be found by counting such rings in the cross section.

STRUCTURE OF A TREE

Wood is an organic substance composed principally of cellulose(40 to 55%), hemicellulose (15 to

25%) and lignin (15 to 30%). The unit of wood structure is called the cell, a general term for diverse
wood elements such as tracheids or fibers, rays, and resin ducts or vessels. The characteristic, size, shape,
wall thickness, structure, and arrangement of cells in different species account for variations in density
and strength.

Rate of growth is measured by the number of annual rings per meter counted along a line
perpendicular to the rings across a right section of the tree.

Grain is a term usually employed to indicate the direction of fibers with respect to the main axis
or the surface of a piece of wood; the grain may be cross, diagonal, edge, and flat or slash. It also refers to
the arrangement of the fibers themselves, which may be straight, curly, or spiral grain.
Pith – is the innermost central portion of the tree and is called the medulla. It is usually 12.5 mm in
diameter but some times it is hardly visible. It is actually the original sapling of the tree, which dies up
once the tree grows.

Heart wood – is the hard portion surrounding the pith. This portion is a bit darker in colour. Strong and
durable timber required for engineering purposes is obtained from this portion.

Sap wood (alburnum) – is the portion surrounding the heart wood and lies between the heart wood and
the cambium lalyer. It is a region of growth and contains a lot of sap. It is lighter in colour as well as in
weight compared to heart wood.

Cambium layer – is the thin layer of sap present between sap wood and inner bark, which is yet to get
converted to sap wood.

Inner bark – is the inner skin or layer which surrounds the cambium layer and gives protection to the
sap.

Outer bark (Cortex) – is the outermost protective layer consisting of cells of wood fibres. Cracks and
fissures may be observed in it.

Medullary rays – are thin radial fibres extending from the cambium layer to the pith and can be seen as
radial lines in the cross-section.

GENERAL PROPERTIES OF TIMBER

Colour – the colour of wood may be uniform, mottled or streaked. It varies from creamy white to jet
black through varying shades like grey, yellow, pink, brown and purple. In general, wood with dark and
uniform colour is stronger and is preferred for construction works.

Odor – When freshly cut, many varieties of wood have a characteristic smell. It gradually reduces after
exposure to atmosphere. Teak has a characteristics smell of old leather while Deodhar has a pungent
aromatic scent.

Density – is an important property because denser wood are considered to be stronger. However, while
finding the density, care should be taken to weigh dry wood, since a wet wood can give more weight.
Based on the density, timber may be grouped into the following three types:

a) Light to very light wood – Density lesser than 5.5 N/mm3

b) Moderately heavy wood – Density between 5.5 to 7.5N/mm3
c) Heavy to very heavy wood – Density more than 7.5N/mm3

The density values are determined at a specific moisture content, say 12%.

Hardness – is measured by resistance to scratching. Based on the hardness, timber is grouped into the
following three types:

a) Soft to very soft timber – Finger nail can cause markings.

b) Moderately hard timber – No marking by nail but markings may be caused readily with knife.
c) Hard to very hard timber – Knife markings caused with great difficulty.
Grain – refers to the direction or alignment of the cells. Type of grains:

a) Edge Grain
b) Cross Grain – refers to wood whose fibers do not run parallel to the edges of the board.
c) Open Grain – visible open pores on the face.
d) Straight Edge Grain – if cut is made at approximately 90° to annular rings this grain are
obtained.
e) Flat Grain – if annular rings are cut between 0° and 45°.
f) Spiral Grain – is an arrangement of the fibres in a board which results from their growth
g) Diagonal Grain – refers to surface grain which runs at an angle to edges of the board
h) Close Grain – refers to a type of wood in which the fibre bundles are very closely packed
together.
i) Wavy Grain – if it is having this grain the wood will be weak, but it may add to its aesthetic
view.

Texture – this refers to size and distribution of cells but not to alignment. Majority of wood have even
texture. However, some woods, like teak, exhibit uneven texture due to difference in the size and
distribution of cells in different parts of the growth rings.

PROPERTIES OF GOOD TIMBER

Color – should be uniform and dark.

Odor – is sweet when good timber is cut freshly. Unpleasant smell indicates decaying in timber.
Soundness – a clear ringing sound when struck indicates good timber while a dull heavy sound indicates
decayed timber.
Texture – if fine and even for a good timber.
Grains – if close indicate good timber.
Density – is high for a good timber.
Hardness – a timber is good, if markings can be made on it with difficulty by knife.
Shape – a good timber should be capable of retaining its shape.
Durability – good timber is the one which is capable of resisting the actions of fungi, insects, chemicals
and physical agencies.
Toughness – timber should be capable of resisting shock loads.
Mechanical wear – a good timber should not deteriorate due to mechanical wear, i.e. abrasion. This
property is very much required if the timber is used for flooring.
Strength – timber should have high strength in bending, shear and direct effects.
Modulus of elasticity – timber with high modulus of elasticity is preferred in building construction.
Water permeability – a good timber should have low water permeability. This is measured by the
quantity of water filtered through a unit surface area of a specified thickness of wood.
Workability – timber should be easily workable. It should not clog the saw and should be capable of
being planed.
Defects – a good timber is free from serious defects like dead knots, flaws, shakes etc.

DEFECTS IN TIMBER

1. Natural defects - the defects which develop during the growth of a tree are termed as natural defects.
Knots – the left over portion of the branch becoming part of the trunk.
 Shakes – if a tree is allowed to stay on beyond its age of maturity, some portion of it start decaying
by losing oils, resins and gums causing ruptures. Depending upon the portion and shape of rupture,
shakes are classified into cup shakes, ring shakes, heart shakes, star shakes and radical shakes.

Twisted fibres – this defect is developed in a tree which is turned constantly in one direction by
wind. The fibres of such trees are twisted. When cuts are made to make planks, many of the fibers
are cut.

Wind cracks – cracks on the outside of the log due to shrinkage of the exterior portion caused by
atmospheric influences are referred to as wind cracks.
Rind galls – if branches are not properly cut, peculiar swelling is found on the body of the tree, which is
called as rind gall. Timber in this part is very weak.

2. Defects due to seasoning

3. Defects due to fungi – Rotting is the most common word used for disintegration of wood due to fungal
action. Fungi are microscopic plant organisms that attack and live on wood tissues and their cell contents.
Factors which promote the attack by fungi are: requisite amount of moisture content, enough air, suitable
temperature and adequate food materials.

4. Defects due to insects

Beetles and termites are the two main insects which live on the material of timber. Marine borers
found in marine atmosphere make their shelters by boring timber

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5. Defects due to conversion – defects may arise due to improper handling of planning and chiseling
tools. As a result some portion may break way and in some portions chisel markings may be left.

Physical Properties

1) Hygroscopicity – wood attracts water to both the cell walls and the cell cavities. Inbibed
water is in the cell walls; free water in the cell cavities. The cell wall must be saturated
 before free water can exist. The moisture content at the critical stage when the cell walls
are saturated but no free water exists is called the fiber-saturation point (FSP), which for
most woods varies from 25 to 30 %, Moisture content is expressed as the percentage of
water, by mass, in wood dried at a temperature of 103+2oC.
2) Shrinkage of wood is due to drying of the cell walls. No shrinkage occurs until the
moisture content reaches the fiber-saturation point. The shrinkages of air-dry and kiln-dry
wood are about one-half and three-fourths the oven-dry shrinkage respectively.
3) Density – the density of wood is , of course, greatly influenced by the moisture content.
In order to obtain densities for comparison, a specific moisture content must be specified
at which the volume is to be measured. The wood substance, which is the cell-wall
material, has a relative density of about 1.5 regardless of species.
4) Other properties- the coefficient of thermal expansion for woods is quite small and
becomes negligible when compared with the dimensional changes brought about by
moisture variations. Wood also has low heat conductivity.

Seasoning

A freshly felled tree contains a high percentage of moisture in the form of sap in its cells. This
percentage may be as high as 50 to 60 which is to be reduced to about 8 to make timber useful for
engineering works. The process of removing surplus moisture from freshly felled tree is known as
seasoning. During seasoning, care is taken to see that moisture is removed uniformly and gradually taken
from all parts of the timber. The ff. are the advantages of seasoning:
a. it reduces the weight of timber, resulting into savings in handling and transporting costs.
b. it increases resistance to attack by fungi and insects since they need higher moisture content.
c. tendency to shrink and warp is reduced.
d. it improves the strength of the timber
e. seasoned timber can be worked easily
f. seasoned timber provides a good surface to receive preservatives like paints and varnishes.
Methods used for seasoning may be grouped into:
1. Natural Seasoning - natural air brings about seasoning of the timber. Disadvantages are:
- it is a very slow process and may take several months for seasoning.
- No control can be exercised as seasoning depends upon climatic conditions.
- Drying of different sections may not be uniform
- Rapid drying of ends may result into end splitting
- Moisture content may not be brought down into desired level
- Needs special precautions to avoid fungi and insect attack
- Large space is required for seasoning

2. Artificial Seasoning – to overcome the problems faced in natural seasoning, artificial seasoning is
used.
Methods :
a. water seasoning – logs and cut timber are kept fully immersed in water, preferably in a
steam for 2 to 4 weeks until sap, sugar and gum get leached out. This method is quick
and economical, however, timber becomes weak and brittle.
b. Boiling – timber is kept in water (or steam) and the water is boiled. After 3 to 4 hours
timber is taken out and kept in sheds for natural drying. This method is costly.
c. Kiln seasoning – is an air tight chamber in which hot air can be forced in for circulation.
Converted timber pieces are stacked in the chamber such that spaces are left for free air
circulation. Hot air gradually enters the inside of the timber and drives out moisture.
Stationary kiln consists of one compartment which is provided with all control devices to
maintain humidity and temperature of air forced in. The kiln is shut down and the timber
 is taken out. Progressive kiln is adopted for large scale seasoning. In this, a carriage,
carrying individual timber logs or stacks of timber travel from one end of the kiln to
another end. The temperature and humidity varies in the different zones of the kiln.
d. Chemical seasoning – consists of dipping the timber in an aqueous solution of chemical
salt and then carrying out seasoning in the ordinary way. The coating with chemical
prevents fast drying of the surface of timber and hence uniform seasoning takes place.

Applying Preservatives

To prolong the life of the timber, preservatives are applied on seasoned woods. Various
preservatives available may be grouped into the following four.
a. water soluble type – leachable – these preservatives are chemical salts, organic or
inorganic, which are soluble in water. Zinc chloride, boric acid, sodium fluoride, sodium
penta-chlorophenate and bezene hexachloride are the common chemicals used. The
preservative solution is applied on the surface of the timber
b. water soluble – fixed – the problem of leaching of preservative can be overcome by
adding a fixative salt, usually sodium or potassium dichromate. The preservative is
applied cold and the treated timber is allowed to dry for 3 to 6 weeks for the completion
of fixation process.
c. Oil type – coal tar and creosote oil belong to this type of preservative
d. Organic solvent type – this are commonly known as oil paints. Ex. Solignum paints
which are highly toxic in nature and hence preserve timber from fungi and insect attacks.

Tests

1. Compression test – specimens for compression tests of small, clear pieces of wood parallel and
perpendicular to the grain are 50x50x200 mm rectangular prisms. Wood under compressive
loading exhibits a behavior peculiar unto itself. It is an isotropic material, being composed of
cells formed by organic growth that align themselves to form a series of tubes or columns in the
direction of the grain. For loads normal to the grain, the load that causes lateral collapse of the
tubes or fibers (crushing) is the significant load. For loads parallel to the grain, not only is the
“elastic” strength important but so is the strength at rupture. Rupture often occurs because of
collapse of the tubular fibers as columns. Various types of failure of wood loaded parallel with
the grain are described below:

a) method of compression test of wood perpendicular (normal) to the grain

b) method of compression test of wood parallel to the grain
c) crushing (plane of rupture approximately horizontal).
d) Wedge split (note the direction of split, radial or tangential).
 e) Shearing ( plane of rupture at acute angle with horizontal).
f) Splitting
g) Shearing and splitting parallel to grain, (usually occurs in cross-grained pieces).

2. Shear test – for direct shear test of wood, a special tool and specimen developed by the Forest
Products Laboratory are used as shown below:

Method of testing wood in direct shear

3. Bending test- the designations of various modes of failure of wood are indicated below

a) Simple tension (side view)

b) Cross-grain section (side view)
c) Splintering tension (tension face)
d) Brash tension (tension face)
e) Compression (side view)
f) Horizontal shear (side view)

4. Tension test
Specimen for test parallel to the grain Specimen for test perpendicular to the grain

Standard tension specimens for wood

PLYWOOD

Plywood consists of several thin sheets of wood, called veneers in the trade, bonded with
synthetic resin. The resin accounts for only 4 or 5 % of the total mass, but it is an essential element. Thus
modern plywood had to await the development of plastic adhesives.

Engineering uses of plywood include applications as concrete forms, walls, floors, roofs and
gusset plates. It is available in the form of rectangular panels of various standard dimensions up to about
3.6 m in lengths, 1.5 m in width, and 30 mm or more in thickness. A traditional commercial size is 4 ft x
8 ft. The panels are typically composed of an odd number of plies, with the grain direction alternating at
right angles. The grain of the outside layers usually runs in the direction of the longer dimension of the
panel.

The characteristics of plywood, especially moisture resistance, depend to a large extent on the
adhesive chosen. Phenol-formaldehyde (PF) is very strong, but it is expensive. For plywood not subjected
to weather, less expensive urea-formaldehyde (UF) is generally used, which may be fortified with
melamine-formaldehyde.

Production

The veneer is usually obtained by rotary shaving of a log. To form the finished plywood, the
prepared plies are arranged symmetrically with respect to the core as regards species, thickness, and
direction of grain. The grade, however, may be different for the front and back face veneers. Adhesive is
spread on the veneers, which are then subjected to cold-pressing (at room temperature) or hot pressing (at
75 to 190 oC). Thermoset adhesives may be set at the same time. Most panels are pressed flat, but forms
curved in one or both directions can be used to make “molded plywood”. Because the presses are very
expensive, the time of set becomes economically critical factor. For some panels which are very long,
they must be jointed by scarf joint. Typical plywood tests include shear tests on specimens such as the
one shown.

a) finger joints b) scarf joint

Plywood Joints Specimen for ply shear test.