**Multiple Choice Questions:**

1. What are the two main categories of research study designs mentioned in the text?

- A) Retrospective and Prospective

- B) Experimental and Observational

- C) Longitudinal and Cross-Sectional

- D) Clinical Trials and Epidemiological

**Answer: B) Experimental and Observational**

2. Which of the following is not considered an observational study design?

- A) Cohort study

- B) Case–control study

- C) Experimental study

- D) Cross-sectional study

**Answer: C) Experimental study**

3. What is the primary purpose of cohort studies?

- A) To determine prevalence

- B) To establish causation between risk factors and diseases

- C) To compare groups retrospectively

- D) To investigate predictive risk factors and health outcomes

**Answer: D) To investigate predictive risk factors and health outcomes**

4. Which study design is best suited for determining the prevalence of a condition?

- A) Cohort study

- B) Case–control study

- C) Cross-sectional study

- D) Experimental study
 **Answer: C) Cross-sectional study**

5. What is the primary advantage of using a cohort study?

- A) Ethically safe

- B) Cost-effective

- C) Can establish causation between risk factors and diseases

- D) Good for studying rare diseases

**Answer: C) Can establish causation between risk factors and diseases**

6. Which calculation is used to estimate the risk of developing an outcome in the exposed group
relative to the non-exposed group in cohort studies?

- A) Relative Risk (RR)

- B) Odds Ratio (OR)

- C) Attributable Risk (AR)

- D) Prevalence

**Answer: A) Relative Risk (RR)**

7. What is the primary purpose of cross-sectional studies?

- A) To establish causation between risk factors and diseases

- B) To determine the prevalence of a condition

- C) To investigate predictive risk factors and health outcomes

- D) To compare groups retrospectively

**Answer: B) To determine the prevalence of a condition**

8. Which study design is best suited for answering questions about the frequency of an outcome?

- A) Cohort study

- B) Case–control study
 - C) Cross-sectional study

- D) Experimental study

**Answer: C) Cross-sectional study**

9. What is a key limitation of case-control studies?

- A) They can establish direct causation

- B) They are cost-effective

- C) They involve matching appropriate control groups

- D) They establish odds, not direct causal relationships between risk factors and illness

**Answer: D) They establish odds, not direct causal relationships between risk factors and illness**

10. Which calculation is used to estimate the proportion of disease cases that can be attributed to
the exposure in case-control studies?

- A) Relative Risk (RR)

- B) Odds Ratio (OR)

- C) Attributable Fraction (AF)

- D) Prevalence

**Answer: C) Attributable Fraction (AF)**

**Short Answer Questions:**

1. What are the two main types of observational studies mentioned in the text?

- **Answer: Cohort and case-control studies.**

2. Briefly explain the purpose of cohort studies.

- **Answer: Cohort studies investigate predictive risk factors and health outcomes over a period of
time, helping to establish causation between risk factors and diseases.**

3. What is the primary advantage of cross-sectional studies?

 - **Answer: Cross-sectional studies provide an efficient and fast option for research, representing
the population without requiring exact participant continuity.**

4. Describe the primary purpose of case-control studies.

- **Answer: Case-control studies aim to identify the source of existing illnesses or epidemics by
comparing exposure histories between a group with a health issue (case group) and a matched
control group without the health issue.**

5. What calculation is used to estimate the risk of developing an outcome in the exposed group
relative to the non-exposed group in cohort studies?

- **Answer: Relative Risk (RR).**

6. Explain the concept of confounding factors in case-control studies.

- **Answer: Confounding factors refer to common exposures linked to the health issue being
studied, which must be carefully differentiated to accurately assess the impact of risk factors.**

7. Briefly describe the two main types of cohort studies mentioned in the text.

- **Answer: Prospective cohort studies follow two groups of cohorts (exposed and unexposed)
prospectively over time, while retrospective cohort studies use previously collected data to
investigate outcomes of interest.**

**Multiple Choice Questions:**

1. What is the primary purpose of cohort studies?

- A) To establish causation between risk factors and diseases

- B) To compare groups retrospectively

- C) To determine prevalence

- D) To investigate predictive risk factors and health outcomes

**Answer: D) To investigate predictive risk factors and health outcomes**

2. Which study design is best suited for determining the prevalence of a condition?

- A) Cohort study

- B) Case–control study
 - C) Cross-sectional study

- D) Experimental study

**Answer: C) Cross-sectional study**

3. What calculation is used to estimate the risk of developing an outcome in the exposed group
relative to the non-exposed group in cohort studies?

- A) Relative Risk (RR)

- B) Odds Ratio (OR)

- C) Attributable Risk (AR)

- D) Prevalence

**Answer: A) Relative Risk (RR)**

4. What is the primary purpose of cross-sectional studies?

- A) To establish causation between risk factors and diseases

- B) To determine the prevalence of a condition

- C) To investigate predictive risk factors and health outcomes

- D) To compare groups retrospectively

**Answer: B) To determine the prevalence of a condition**

5. What is a key limitation of case-control studies?

- A) They can establish direct causation

- B) They involve matching appropriate control groups

- C) They establish odds, not direct causal relationships between risk factors and illness

- D) They are cost-effective

**Answer: C) They establish odds, not direct causal relationships between risk factors and illness**

**Short Answer Questions:**

1. Describe the primary advantage of cross-sectional studies.

- **Answer: Cross-sectional studies provide an efficient and fast option for research, representing
the population without requiring exact participant continuity.**

2. Briefly explain the concept of confounding factors in case-control studies.

- **Answer: Confounding factors refer to common exposures linked to the health issue being
studied, which must be carefully differentiated to accurately assess the impact of risk factors.**

3. What calculation is used to estimate the risk of developing an outcome in the exposed group
relative to the non-exposed group in cohort studies?

- **Answer: Relative Risk (RR).**

4. Briefly describe the two main types of cohort studies mentioned in the text.

- **Answer: Prospective cohort studies follow two groups of cohorts (exposed and unexposed)
prospectively over time, while retrospective cohort studies use previously collected data to
investigate outcomes of interest.**

**Multiple Choice Questions:**

1. Which types of study designs are collectively referred to as observational studies?

- A) Experimental and cohort studies

- B) Observational and cross-sectional studies

- C) Cohort, cross-sectional, and case-control studies

- D) Prospective and retrospective studies

**Answer: C) Cohort, cross-sectional, and case-control studies**

2. What is the primary purpose of cohort studies?

- A) To establish causation between risk factors and diseases

- B) To compare groups retrospectively

- C) To determine prevalence

- D) To investigate predictive risk factors and health outcomes

 **Answer: D) To investigate predictive risk factors and health outcomes**

3. Which study design is best suited for determining the prevalence of a condition?

- A) Cohort study

- B) Case–control study

- C) Cross-sectional study

- D) Experimental study

**Answer: C) Cross-sectional study**

4. What calculation is used to estimate the risk of developing an outcome in the exposed group
relative to the non-exposed group in cohort studies?

- A) Relative Risk (RR)

- B) Odds Ratio (OR)

- C) Attributable Risk (AR)

- D) Prevalence

**Answer: A) Relative Risk (RR)**

5. What is the primary purpose of cross-sectional studies?

- A) To establish causation between risk factors and diseases

- B) To determine the prevalence of a condition

- C) To investigate predictive risk factors and health outcomes

- D) To compare groups retrospectively

**Answer: B) To determine the prevalence of a condition**

**Short Answer Questions:**

1. Describe the primary advantage of cross-sectional studies.

- **Answer: Cross-sectional studies provide an efficient and fast option for research, representing
the population without requiring exact participant continuity.**
2. Briefly explain the concept of confounding factors in case-control studies.

- **Answer: Confounding factors refer to common exposures linked to the health issue being
studied, which must be carefully differentiated to accurately assess the impact of risk factors.**

3. What calculation is used to estimate the risk of developing an outcome in the exposed group
relative to the non-exposed group in cohort studies?

- **Answer: Relative Risk (RR).**

4. Briefly describe the two main types of cohort studies mentioned in the text.

- **Answer: Prospective cohort studies follow two groups of cohorts (exposed and unexposed)
prospectively over time, while retrospective cohort studies use previously collected data to
investigate outcomes of interest.**

5. What distinguishes case-control studies from cohort studies?

- **Answer: Case-control studies involve comparing groups retrospectively, focusing on identifying

possible predictors of outcomes, while cohort studies investigate predictive risk factors and health
outcomes longitudinally.**

**Multiple Choice Questions:**

1. What are the primary types of observational studies mentioned in the text?

- A) Prospective and retrospective studies

- B) Experimental and cross-sectional studies

- C) Cohort, case-control, and cross-sectional studies

- D) Longitudinal and retrospective studies

**Answer: C) Cohort, case-control, and cross-sectional studies**

2. Which study design is specifically used to study incidence, causes, and prognosis?

- A) Cohort study

- B) Case–control study

- C) Cross-sectional study

- D) Experimental study
 **Answer: A) Cohort study**

3. What distinguishes cohort studies from clinical trials?

- A) Cohort studies involve administering interventions to participants.

- B) Cohort studies investigate health outcomes over time without intervention.

- C) Cohort studies cannot establish causation between risk factors and diseases.

- D) Cohort studies are less ethical than clinical trials.

**Answer: B) Cohort studies investigate health outcomes over time without intervention.**

4. What calculation is used to measure the risk of developing an outcome in the exposed group
relative to the non-exposed group in cohort studies?

- A) Relative Risk (RR)

- B) Odds Ratio (OR)

- C) Attributable Risk (AR)

- D) Prevalence

**Answer: A) Relative Risk (RR)**

5. Which study design is best suited for determining prevalence at a specific point in time?

- A) Cohort study

- B) Case–control study

- C) Cross-sectional study

- D) Experimental study

**Answer: C) Cross-sectional study**

**Short Answer Questions:**

1. What is the primary objective of cohort studies?

 - **Answer: The primary objective of cohort studies is to investigate predictive risk factors and
health outcomes longitudinally without administering interventions.**

2. Describe one advantage and one disadvantage of cross-sectional studies.

- **Answer: Cross-sectional studies provide an efficient way to determine prevalence in a

population at a specific time without requiring participant continuity. However, they cannot establish
causation between variables, only correlations.**

3. Briefly explain the purpose of case-control studies.

- **Answer: Case-control studies aim to compare groups retrospectively to identify possible

predictors of outcomes, particularly for rare diseases or outcomes.**

4. What distinguishes prospective cohort studies from retrospective cohort studies?

- **Answer: Prospective cohort studies follow cohorts prospectively over time, while retrospective
cohort studies use previously collected data to investigate outcomes of interest.**

5. How do observational studies differ from experimental studies?

- **Answer: Observational studies, such as cohort, case-control, and cross-sectional studies,

observe outcomes without intervention, while experimental studies involve administering
interventions to participants to determine causality.**

**Multiple Choice Questions:**

6. Which type of study design compares groups retrospectively to identify possible predictors of
outcomes?

- A) Cohort study

- B) Case–control study

- C) Cross-sectional study

- D) Experimental study

**Answer: B) Case–control study**

7. In which type of cohort study are cohorts followed prospectively over time?

- A) Retrospective cohort study

- B) Cross-sectional cohort study

 - C) Prospective cohort study

- D) Longitudinal cohort study

**Answer: C) Prospective cohort study**

8. Which calculation is used to estimate the excess risk of the outcome attributable to the exposure
in cohort studies?

- A) Relative Risk (RR)

- B) Odds Ratio (OR)

- C) Attributable Risk (AR)

- D) Prevalence

**Answer: C) Attributable Risk (AR)**

9. What type of questions are best answered by cross-sectional studies?

- A) Prognosis

- B) Aetiology

- C) Frequency

- D) Diagnosis

**Answer: C) Frequency**

10. What is the primary limitation of case-control studies?

- A) Inability to establish causation

- B) Ethical concerns

- C) Difficulty in selecting control groups

- D) Lack of historical information

**Answer: A) Inability to establish causation**

**Short Answer Questions:**

6. Explain the term "observational study" and provide an example.

- **Answer: An observational study observes outcomes without intervention. An example of this is

a cohort study that tracks the development of diseases in a group of individuals over time.**

7. Describe one advantage and one disadvantage of prospective cohort studies.

- **Answer: One advantage of prospective cohort studies is that they can establish temporal
relationships between exposures and outcomes. However, a disadvantage is that they can be costly
and time-consuming due to the need for long-term follow-up.**

8. What distinguishes retrospective cohort studies from prospective cohort studies?

- **Answer: Retrospective cohort studies use previously collected data to investigate outcomes of
interest, while prospective cohort studies follow cohorts prospectively over time.**

9. Briefly explain why cross-sectional studies cannot establish causation.

- **Answer: Cross-sectional studies provide a snapshot of a population at a specific time, making it

impossible to determine the temporal sequence of events necessary to establish causation.**

10. What is the primary purpose of case-control studies?

- **Answer: The primary purpose of case-control studies is to compare groups retrospectively to

identify possible predictors of outcomes, particularly for rare diseases or outcomes.**

**Multiple Choice Questions:**

11. Which type of study design is suitable for investigating the prevalence of a condition or belief?

- A) Cohort study

- B) Case–control study

- C) Cross-sectional study

- D) Experimental study

**Answer: C) Cross-sectional study**

12. In which type of cohort study are cohorts defined from a previous point in time and not followed
up in the future?
 - A) Prospective cohort study

- B) Retrospective cohort study

- C) Longitudinal cohort study

- D) Observational cohort study

**Answer: B) Retrospective cohort study**

13. What is the primary limitation of cross-sectional studies?

- A) Inability to determine prevalence

- B) Difficulty in selecting control groups

- C) Cannot establish direct causation

- D) Lack of historical information

**Answer: C) Cannot establish direct causation**

14. Which calculation is used to measure the odds of exposure among cases relative to the odds of
exposure among controls in case-control studies?

- A) Relative Risk (RR)

- B) Odds Ratio (OR)

- C) Attributable Risk (AR)

- D) Prevalence

**Answer: B) Odds Ratio (OR)**

15. What distinguishes prospective cohort studies from retrospective cohort studies?

- A) Prospective studies use previously collected data, while retrospective studies follow cohorts
prospectively over time.

- B) Retrospective studies use previously collected data, while prospective studies follow cohorts
prospectively over time.

- C) Prospective studies follow cohorts prospectively over time, while retrospective studies use
previously collected data.

- D) Retrospective studies follow cohorts prospectively over time, while prospective studies use
previously collected data.
 **Answer: C) Prospective studies follow cohorts prospectively over time, while retrospective
studies use previously collected data.**

**Short Answer Questions:**

11. Define the term "case-control study" and provide an example.

- **Answer: A case-control study compares individuals with a particular condition (cases) to those
without the condition (controls), retrospectively analyzing exposure histories to identify potential risk
factors. An example is a study investigating the association between smoking and lung cancer by
comparing lung cancer patients (cases) with non-cancer patients (controls) to assess their smoking
history.**

12. Discuss one advantage and one disadvantage of cross-sectional studies.

- **Answer: One advantage of cross-sectional studies is their efficiency in providing a snapshot of a

population at a specific time, allowing for quick assessment of prevalence. However, a disadvantage
is their inability to establish causation due to their cross-sectional nature, limiting the ability to
determine temporal relationships between variables.**

13. Explain the significance of relative risk (RR) in cohort studies.

- **Answer: Relative risk (RR) measures the risk of developing an outcome (e.g., disease) in the
exposed group relative to the non-exposed group in cohort studies. It helps quantify the strength of
association between an exposure and an outcome, providing insights into the potential causal
relationship between them.**

14. Describe the primary purpose of retrospective cohort studies.

- **Answer: Retrospective cohort studies use historical data to investigate outcomes of interest,
focusing on cohorts defined from a previous point in time. They are valuable for tracking the progress
of diseases with long latency periods, examining rare conditions, or when obtaining exposure data in
real-time is challenging.**

15. Differentiate between observational and experimental study designs.

- **Answer: Observational study designs, such as cohort, case-control, and cross-sectional studies,
observe outcomes without intervention, focusing on natural associations between variables. In
contrast, experimental study designs involve intentional manipulation of variables to establish cause-
and-effect relationships, typically through randomized controlled trials (RCTs).**