BULLETIN of the International Association of ENGINEERING GEOLOGY 1

de I'Association Internationale de G#OLOGIE DE FINGENIEUR Paris - No 54 - Octobre 1996

MINERALOGICAL AND ENGINEERING PROPERTIES OF PROBLEMATIC EXPANSIVE CLAYEY

BEDS CAUSING LANDSLIDES

CARACTI~RISTIQUES MINI~RALOGIQUES ET GI~OTECHNIQUES DE LITS ARGILEUX EXPANSIFS ,~

IJORIGINE DE GLISSEMENTS DE TERRAIN

AL-HOMOUD A.S.*, KttOURY H.**, AL-OMARI Y.A.**

Abstract
Many landslides have occurred at slope cuts-embankments adjacent to the Amman-Na'ur-Dead Sea and Irbid-Jerash-Amman highways in Jordan, especially
during the last four years that were characterized by exceptional raifall dud ng winter. Clayey beds found in the foundations of the failing areas were responsible
for the occurrence of these landslides.
This paper presents the results of research evaluating the chemical and engineering properties of the clayey beds in the Kurnub Sandstone Unit and the Ajlun
Group of the Upper Cretaceous at twenty four landslide locations along the Amman-Na'ur-Dead Sea and Irbid-Jerash Amman highways. The clay minerals
associated with the clayey beds were characterized and correlated with their engineering properties. The relationship between clay minerals, chemical and
engineering properties of clayey beds and the foundation failures were also identified.
The study included field visits to twenty four landslides sites to identify the problem, collect samples from the foundation along the slip surface, draw profiles
and columnar sections.
Chemical analysis was carried out for the whole rock sample and for clay samples. Tests were also conducted to evaluate the physical and engineering
properties of the samples.
Results showed that most of the landslides occurred within the upper part of the Kurnub Sandstone and the Na'ur formation.
Quartz, calcite and dolomite are the non-clay minerals and Mixed-Layer (I/S) and kaolinite are the clay minerals identified for samples obtained from the
studied areas.
The jointed rocks allowed water to penetrate through the joints and reach the clayey beds. The ability of the mixed-layer (I/S) clays to expand in the presence
of water resulted in the reduction of shear strength during rainfall, thus initiating the sliding process. The doub[e-layer effect was noticed in samples with
higher (I/S) content which gave tile highest swelling potential, highest Liquid and Plastic Limits, and the lowest angle of friction.

Rdsumd
De nombreux glissements de tarrain se sont pr,,xlaits dans des do,blais des autoroutes Amman-Na'ur-Mer Morte et Irbid-Jerash-amman en Jordanie. en
particulier au tours des deux demi~res anndes, qui ont ~to, caracto,riso,es par des chutes de pluie exceptionnelles en hiver. Les lits argileux pro,sents dans [es
zones atteintes sont 5. I'origine de ees glissements. Le pro,sent article presente les resultats des recherches sur [es propridtds chimiques et go,otecbniques de
ces lits argileux, ~.partir des pr~l~vements effectuo,s sur 24 glissements. Les relations entre la nature et la quantito, de mindraux argileux et leur comportement
en place dans les glissements sont dgalement o,tudio,s.
L'o,tude inclut des visites de terrain sur les 24 sites, la collecte d'dcbantillons le long des surfaces de glissement, des profils et des coupes s0.rides.
Les analyses chimiques ont portd sur les o,chamillons globaux et sur les argiles.
Le quartz, la calcite et la dolomite sont les mino,raux non argileux les plus r@andus et les interstratifio,s et la kaolinite sont les mino,raux argileux rencontrds
dans les seeteurs o,tudids.
Les roches fissuro,es ont permis 5. l'eau de pdndtrer jusqu'aux lits argileux. Les niveaux 5 mindraux argileux interstratifids ont gonfld ro,duisant la rdsistance
au cisaillement duram les pluies, ddclcnchant ainsi le processus de glissement.

Introduction
C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f c l a y m i n e r a l s m a y p l a y a s i g n i f i c a n t role
in c o n t r o l l i n g t h e s t a b i l i t y o f f o u n d a t i o n s . F o r e x a m p l e ,
smectites, expansive clays with high swelling potential,
c o n s o l i d a t i o n a n d l o w s h e a r s t r e n g t h m a y r e s u l t in t h e
damage of structures including roads, airports, railways,
retaining walls, dams, bridges, and building foundations,
etc.
f o u n d a t i o n s p l a y a m a j o r role in c o n t r o l l i n g t h e i r s t a b i l i t y ,
e s p e c i a l l y w h e n w a t e r is i n t r o d u c e d into t h e f o u n d a t i o n a n d
accumulates within the clayey material. Smectites may
a b s o r b a s i g n i f i c a n t q u a n t i t y o f w a t e r t h a t r e s u l t in t h e
reduction of shear strength of the foundation bedrock.
T h e full u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e b e h a v i o r o f e x p a n s i v e c l a y s
will h e l p in m i n i m i z i n g n u m b e r o f t h e s e e n g i n e e r i n g p r o b -
lems.

Landslides of slopes and embankments are main engineer- In J o r d a n , n u m e r o u s o f l a n d s l i d e s h a v e o c c u r r e d d u r i n g t h e

i n g p r o b l e m s w h e r e t h e e x i s t e n c e o f e x p a n s i v e c l a y s in t h e last fifty y e a r s a l o n g r o a d s a n d h i g h w a y s d u r i n g h e a v y

" Jordan University of Science and Technology, P.O. Box 3030, Irbid-Jordan.
*~' Jordan University, Amman-Jordan.
 14

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2~*037 Irbid~ i .'7.,
i ~'~" .

J
SYRIA
/ P,--- /"
/ !}Irbid ~ ",, .i

ii ~Start of Projetf
i .

/ M X I~/" --" ~{

51
La.dl / /
I
I / KEY
/ / 9 MajorCity
t a ~ . SecondaryCity
i _.International
j M Boundary
1 / I Sr 0 ~0 klTi

&I+973 . _ _ ~i ./ ( 2 1 "
..\ /

o=

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% OL Old LandsLide

i
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57+3L3
0 18 3.6 5.4- rn
To t:-- '-
AMMAN Scale

Fig. 1 : Location Map of Irbid-Jerash-Amman Highway Showing the Sites of Major Landslides.

rainfall periods. These landslides occurred at the sites of
embankments and slope cuts. Clays were present in the
foundations of failed material at these sites. Moreover, the
roads and highways that suffered landslides were charac-
terized by poor surface and subsurface drainage. The
majority of these landslides occurred along Irbid-Jerash-
Amman and Amman-Na'ur-Dead Sea.
Location maps showing Irbid-Jerash-amman and Amman-
Na'ur-Dead Sea highways are given in Figure 1 and 2
respectively. Sites of major landslides that took place along
these highways are also shown on these maps.
Expansive clays exist in the foundations of these landslide
areas. Expansive clays are present in many outcropping
beds in different areas in Jordan. The clayey beds of the
foundations of most landslide area belong to the Kurnub
Sandstone Unit and the Ajlun Group of the Upper Creta-
ceous.
Previous geotechnical studies at the sites of these land-
slides, e.g. A1-Homoud et al. ( 1994 (a, b), 1995 (a, b, c) and
1997) Dames and Moore (1993), Parsons Brinckerhoff
(1987) were directed towards studying the geology of land-
slide areas, evaluating the physical and engineering prop-

3 5" 3 6' ~ # ~ S N I
9 SYRIA ~ u~i~
3# I~anis| ~' gacl@ / presence of the n o n - d a y minerals. They added that there is
JORDAN ,,
9 Pet r (:
"/[ Z ~,QK..
30 # 30~
SAUD [
ARABIA
~aba
0 50 100
Z9~ L. , --__.z
Fig. 2 : Location Map of Amman-Na'ur-Dead Sea Highway Showing the
Sites of Major Landslides.
erties of the foundations materials (i.e. shear strength,
Atterberg limits and grain size distribution), performance
of slope stability analyses to evaluate the mechanism of
failure and identify proper shear strength parameters to be
used /or the analysis of the remediations. Solutions sug-
gested to stabilize the landslide areas include 9 reduction of
inclination of cut slopes, construction of retaining struc-
tures, reconstruction of embankment after removal of the
weak foundation material, installation of proper surface
and subsurface drainage, reinforcement of the weak layers
at sliding cut areas by anchors and steel bars, and others.
However, previous studies at the sites of these landslides
did not address the importance of chemical properties and
mineralogical characteristics of foundation clays and their
correlation with other physical and engineering properties
(e.g. swelling potential, shear strength parameters, etc.) and
their rote in the occurrence of landslides. The lack of
understanding of the relationship between the mineralogi-
cal characteristics and engineering properties of the clayey
beds has led to difficulties in solving the problem of land-
sliding.
This research was directed towards bridging this gap and
developing a better understanding of the landslides to assist
in the design of future projects.
The chemistry and mineralogy of the soil together with the
clay fabric could greatly influence Atterberg limits.
15
Hawkins et al. (1986) concluded that there is a positive
correlation between Atterberg limits and the clay minerals
content. Sridharan et al. (11988) stated that the liquid limit
of kaolinitic soils is a function of clay fabric.
The type and the clay minerals content together with the
chemistry of the pore fluid could greatly influence Atter-
berg limit. This fact was discussed by several authors.
~e] {[ e h Hawkins et al. (1986) concluded that soils composed of
clay minerals other than montmorillonite may show a great
variations in the values of Atterberg limits as a result of the
a negative correlation between the calcite content (i.e. a
non-clay mineral) and the plasticity index.
Sridharan et al. (1988), concluded that soils with a greet
degree of particle flocculation would posses a higher liquid
limit than soils with a more parallel particle attraction and
repulsion forces and have a prominent role in determining
the liquid limit of kaolinitic soils. The forces in turn deter-
mine the particle arrangement (clay fabric) which regulate
the liquid limit values. This leads to a conclusion that the
liquid limit of kaolinitic soils is a function of clay fabric,
and Atterberg limits increase with the increase of clay
minerals content and in particular montmorillonite
(Hawkins et al., 1986; and Sridharan, 1988).
The swell potential may be defined as the percent of vertical
Km increase in height of a soil sample laterally confined when
29'
saturated with water from the initial conditions of moisture,
density, and overburden pressure (Ramana, 1993).
The amount of potential volume change is dependent on the
mineralogical composition : clay mineral type, clay min-
eral content and exchangeable cations (Mohammed et al.,
1981).
The potential swell is found to increase with the increase
of the liquid limit values and to decrease with the increase
of the initial water content. This conclusion was ascer-
tained by Ramana (1993).
Olson and Mesri (1970) suggested that the factors deter-
mining the volume change behavior: the shearing resis-
tance, clay fabric and attractive forces arise from
physico-chemical mechanisms.
Sridharan et al. (1973) proposed that the volume change
behaviour of Kaolinite is governed by shearing resistance
at interparticle level, apart from the physical component.
The attractive forces arising from physico-chemical
mechanisms contribute to shearing resistance. These forces
mainly include Van der Waal forces.
Shear strength parameters are a function of chemical and
physico-chemical effects. The mechanical effects are rep-
resented by the interactions between the particles that are
controlled by size. shape, packing and physical properties
of the individual particle, and to the friction between them
(Olson, 1974). The chemical effects are applied to interac-
tions through diffuse double layers, Van der Waal forces
and ionic forces (Olson, 1974). The interaction between the
grains is a function of the ambient fluid (Horn and Deere,
1962) and since the fluid is chemically adsorbed, it is not
possible to separate the physical and chemical effects com-
pletely.
 16
For this study, samples were obtained from clayey beds at
twenty four different landslide locations along the Irbid-
Jerash-Amman and Amman-Na'ur-Dead Sea highways in
Jordan. the presence of expansive clays at these locations
was known to be a major element influencing slope stabil-
ity. the clayey beds at these locations belong to the Kurnub
Unit and the Ajlun Group of the Upper Cretaceous.
Samples were subjected to different tests to evaluate their
physical, chemical, mineralogical, and engineering proper-
ties. Columnar sections and geological profiles were drawn
for the beds at each site. Disturbed clay samples were
obtained from locations along the slip surface at each
landslide site.
This paper presents also briefly the geological characteris-
tics of the landslide areas from which clay samples were
obtained, mineralogical characterization of the studied
clayey samples, and their engineering properties.
Materials and methods
Stratigraphy of the Study Areas
The Kurnub Sandstone rocks and the Na'ur (AI/2) and
Fuheis (A3) Formations are exposed in the investigated
area. These belong to Cretaceous rocks (Table 1).
Cretaceous rocks cover more than 60 % of Jordan territo-
ries and are differentiated into two parts, the lower part
which is known as the Kurnub Sandstone and is of conti-
nental origin, and the upper part which is of marine origin.
The upper part is divided into two groups, the Ajlun Group
at the bottom and the Belqa Group at the top of the se-
quence. The Kurnub Sandstone consists mainly of friable
sandstone. The sandstones are varicoloured and are of fine
sand size. The rocks intercalated with siltstones and
claystones.
The claystone intercalations are dominant within the upper
part of the Kumub Sandstone and are lenticular in shape
with limited extensions (10' s of meters). The upper bound-
Table L: DifferentStratigra9hic Nomenclatureof Cretaceous Rocks (after Shtewi, 1994).
System Series Group*
Early Paleogene Paleocene
Mastrichtian
Campanian Belqa
Santonian
Coniacian
Late Cretaceous
Turonian
Ajlun
Cenomanian
Early Cretaceous Kurnub(Hathira) Sandstone
Quennell(1951) and MacDonaldet aL (1965).
** Masri (1963) and Parker (1969).
*** Bender (1974).
ary of the Kurnub Sandstone is easily distinguished by the
presence of green glauconitic sandstone bed.
The Na'ur formation is composed of marlstone, claystone
and partly of marly limestone a n d nodular limestone. The
Fuheis Formation is composed of marly limestone, lime-
stone and dolomitic limestone. The lower part of this for-
mation is exposed in some localities of the two studied
areas.
Field Work
During 1993 detailed field investigations were carried out
along Irbid-Jerash-Amman a n d Amman-Na'ur-Dead Sea
highways. Investigation was based on 1 " 25000 geological
map published by the Central Water and the Natural Re-
sources Authorities in Jordan. Geological survey indicated
that the two highways wereconstructed within Cretaceous
sedimentary rocks.
Field work included the assessment and selection of the
type section along each highway, sampling, and sketching.
It concentrated on observations that reflect the relationship
between the failure mechanism and the presence of clayey
beds in the landsliding areas. Figures 3 and 4 show the type
sections for the two study areas, respectively.
Sampling
Based on the type sections of Jerash area (Fig. 3) and of
Na'ur area (Fig. 4), twenty four disturbed trench samples
were collected from the clayey beds of the Kurnub and
Na'ur Formations along the two highways.
The locations of the collected samples are given in Table 2.
The twenty' four samples from the two studied areas were
as follows. Twelve samples were collected from Irbid-
Jerash-Amman h i g h w a y samples J 1, J2, J3, J4 were col-
lected from the Kurnub Sandstone Formation and samples
J5, J6, J7, J8, J9, Jl0, Jl l and J12 were collected from the
Na'ur Formation (A1/2) (Fig. 3). Another twelve samples
Formation** Member***
B3 Muwaggar Chalk-Marl
B2b Phosphorite
Amman
B2a SilicifiedLimestone
B1 E1-Ghudran
Massive Limestone
A7 Wadi Sir
A5-6 Shueib
EchinoidalLimestone
A4 Hummar
A3 Fuheis
Nodular Limestone
A1-2 Na'ur
 17

,GROUP 'J U~ot.c~., :Sample' ~

j,je

~j5

- = -_-)
2-- )

2 " "'-' "' . dk

C
. .

E'-
r162 . :" = ' :_ i\
~-
2 =_----- ~ J3
< -_- iI
rr

c
-7 8m

0m

X SCALE

L=~GEND

"~I0m 5al~astone Silt-,- Oolom. Nodular Mazly Maristone

Cla~stoor Sandstone Mar!su~nr Limestone

Sandy, Clav~tone Gloucomte Marly Limestone Dolom.

SCALE J1 Dolormte C~aystone Limestone

Fig. 4 : Type Section of Nu'ur Area.

Fig. 3 : T y p e S e c t i o n o f J e r a s h A r e a ( L e g e n d as in F i g u r e 8).

(L.O.I.) was determined at the Arab Company for White

were collected from Amman-Na'ur-Dead Sea highway;
samples Nl and N2 were collected from the Kurnub Sand-
stone Formation and samples N3, N4, N5, N6, NT, NS, N9,
N 10, N ll and N l2 were collected from the Na'ur Forma-
tion (Fig. 4).
Experimental Program
Samples collected from twenty four sites were subjected to
petrographical and mineralogical analysis using the polar-
ized microscope and the X-ray diffraction (XRD) tech-
niques. Scanning electron microscope (SEM) technique
was also used for samples obtained from twelve sites. The
mineralogical investigation was conducted for rock sam-
ples at the Geology Department, University of Jordan.
Chemical analysis was conducted using X-ray Fluores-
cence (XRF) technique at laboratories of the Natural Re-
sources Authority (NRA) and the Arab Company for White
Cement Industry (ACWCI) in Jordan. Loss on Ignition
Cement Industry Laboratory.
The following physical and engineering properties were
determined for samples obtained from thirteen selected
sites based on experiments conducted at the Soil Mechanics
Laboratory at the Civil Engineering Department at Jordan
University of Science and Technology (JUST): liquid
limit, plastic limit, specific gravity, grain size distribution,
free swell potential, compression index, preconsolidation
pressure, optimum water content, maximum dry density,
unconsolidated undrained translatory direct shear cohesion
(both peak and residual) and angle of friction (both peak
and residual), secant modulus, initial modulus, and strain
at failure (for both first time shear and reshear after failure).
The grain size distribution was determined using hydrome-
ter test method and size fractionation technique using a
computerized size fractionation analyzer available at the
Earth Science and Environment Department. Yarmouk
University, Jordan.
 18

Table 2 : Locations of the Studied Samples Along Amman-Na'ur-Dead washed with 1 : I methanole and acetone through cen-
Sea and lrbid-Jerash-Amman Highways. trifugation.
Highway Sample No.* Station (km) 3. 0.3 M sodium citrate was used to remove iron-oxides.
Amman-Na'ur-Dead Sea J1 41 + 600 Sodium acetate was used as a buffer of pH = 5 to stabilize
J2 40 + 600 the pH.
J3 39 + 200
J4 42 + 800 The clay size fraction (i.e. s m a l l e r than 2 microns) was
J5 42 + 275 separated after treatment using ultrasonic probe and cen-
J6 45 + 300 trifugation. The clay size fraction was suspended again in
I7 46 + 100 distilled water and the suspension of each sample was
J8 45 + 300
J9 35 + 500 dropped on the three glass slides using a dropper. The
J10 55 + 150 samples were dried at room temperature over night. The
Jl 1 56 + 280 first air dried preparation was untreated, the second was
J12 55 + 100 saturated with ethylene glycol, and the third was heated up
Irbid-Jerash-Amman N1 15 + 000 to 550~ for two hours. The w h o l e oriented preparation
N2 15 + 000 were X-rayed. The clay m i n e r a l s in the (< 2 btm) fraction
N3 15 + 350 were identified from the basal reflections obtained from the
N4 15 + 500
N5 15 + 600 sheet-like structure. Mixed layer I/S was identified accord-
N6 14 + 750 ing to the method of Reynolds and Hower (1970)
N7 19 + 000
N8 10 + 600
N9 l0 + 500 X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF) T e c h n i q u e s
N10 10 + 300
Nll t0 + 300 The X-ray fluorescence (XRF) technique was used for the
N12 I0 + 300 determination of the chemical constituents of the samples.
* N refers to Amman-Na'ur-Dead Sea highway: J refers to All the twenty four samples w e r e subjected to chemical
Irbid-Jerash-Amman highway. analysis using W D X R F (Model 2023) with 40 kv, at the
labs of the N R A and the X R F device available at the
A C W C I labs. The percentages of the major oxides (i.e.
Thin Section Petrography SiO2, AL203, MgO, K20, Fe203, MnO, CaO, TiOe, SO3,
Na:O, P205, CL, Cr) were determined. The whole rock
All the twenty four samples were studied under the polar- samples were ground using a T i m a Mill, then 0.8 gm of
ized microscope. After thin section were prepared the im- each sample was weighted, and 7.2 gm of Li2B.,O7 were
pregnation method was used for most of the samples added and the mixture was well mixed. The mixture was
because of their softness. Silicon carbide was used as an then fused in a flexure machine. T h e loss on ignition (L.O.I)
abrasive material Kerosene was used instead of water dur- was carried out to determine the amount of volatile con-
ing the grinding process till the desired thickness (120-30 .a) stituents. One gram of each sample was weighted in an
was reached. The thin sections were cleaned by acetone empty crucible. The crucible was heated to 950~ for two
before the examination under the polarized microscope. hours. After cooling in a desiccator, the (L.O.I.) was calcu-
lated.
X-Ray Diffraction Analysis (XRD)
Scanning electron Microscope ( S E M )
A PW Phillips Diffractometer was used to determine clay
minerals for the following conditions" scanning r a t e T w e l v e samples were subjected to SEM study, six (6) from
2~ chart speed : 2 cm/minute. 30 kv - 25 ma and each highway outcrops. Fresh undisturbed samples were
Cu-Kc~ radiation. Random runs were carried out for the sliced into suitable volume, m o u n t e d on a (I0 mm) alumi-
whole rock samples to identify the non-clay (primary) num stub, then coated by a thin layer of gold using an
minerals. The preparations were scanned from 2-60 (20). evaporator. Coating is used to prevent the build up of
In order to identify the clay minerals and to enhance the electrons on the surface by conducting away static electric-
based reflections, oriented glass preparations (i.e. slides) ity.
of treated (< 2 .am size fraction) were X-rayed. Eleven
samples from Irbid-Jerash-Amman highway and nine sam- Engineering Tests
ples from A m m a n - N a ' u r - D e a d Sea highway were chosen
for the determination of the clay minerals. The twenty Engineering tests were carried out following the American
samples were treated to remove organic matter, carbonates Society for Testing and Materials ( A S T M ) Standards.
and iron oxides. The chemical treatment is described as These tests were : grain size distribution (both hydrometer
follows : test method and computerized grain size analyzer), liquid
limit, plastic limit, specific gravity, Harvard Miniature
1. Sodium hypochloride (NaOCL) was used to oxidize the
(kneading compaction), free swell potential, consolidation
organic matter, then washed with 1" 1 methanole and
and unconsolidated undrained translatory direct shear tests.
acetone through centrifugation.
Samples from thirteen representative sites were selected for
2. Ammonium acetate (NH4OAC) "pH = 5" was used to these tests based on the results o f mineralogical and chemi-
remove the carbonate substance, then the sample was cal tests (i.e. X R F and X R D tests results).
 19

The concept behind the computerized grain size analyzer
is to introduce a special cell that contains particles sus-
pended in distilled water into a path of a laser beam which
diverts the light through diffraction. The device is con-
nected to a programmed computer. The program is able to
calculate the grain diameter in the tested sample and to plot
the cumulative frequency distribution with a logarithmic
scale based on statistical issues.
Kneading compaction test was carried out in accordance
with A S T M D698. Consolidation test was carried out in
accordance with A S T M D2435-90, and translatory direct
shear test was carried out in accordance with
A S T M D3080-90.
For swell potential and consolidation tests, the samples
were prepared at a dry unit weight (7<0 of 1.8 g/cm ) and
water content (w %) of I5 %. For translatory direct shear
test samples were prepared ar dry unit weight (Td) of
1.8 g/cm~and water content (w %) of 30 %.
In direct shear test, shearing was continued until the shear
force passes its m a x i m u m value and became constant or
decreases; representing the failure condition. Shear tests
were carried out at normal stresses of 96, 192, 287 and
383 kPa.
After the failure condition is reached for each vertical load
increment, the sample is sheared again (resheared) follow-
ing the same procedure as that of first time shear but along
an existing failure surface. This was carried out to represent
the case of the land failures that took place within clayey
beds along previous failure planes. Infact this represent the
case of landslides in Jordan that take place at areas that has
suffered from many landsliding incidents in the past as a
result of tectonic movements, earthquakes, and heavy rain-
fall. considering the fact that these areas are within the
Jordan rift system.
Results and discussion
Mineralogical and Chemical Results
X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) Results
Non-Clay (Primary) Minerals
The characteristic diffraction peaks were obtained for non-
clay minerals identified in the studied samples.
Calcite was identified by its characteristic diffraction
peaks. The results agreed with the A S T M card No. 5-586.
Calcite is characterized by its sharpest peak that appears at
3.04A ~ (104) and 29.5. Figure 5 shows different X-ray
diffractograms for calcite as one of the identified non-clay
minerals. This mineral is recorded in all the samples of
A1/2 Formation of the two highways except for samples
J l l and J12 as indicated in Table 3.
Quartz was identified by its characteristic diffraction
peaks. This agree with the A S T M card No. (5-490). The
strongest characteristic peak rises at 3.34 A ~ (101).
Figure 5 shows the X-ray diffractograms where quartz ap-
pears with other non-clay minerals. The (10l) peak was
used as an internal standard on which the peaks of other
non-clay minerals was calibrated. Quartz was recorded in
all samples with the except of samples N3, N6 and J [ 0 of
the A I / 2 Formation. It was also recorded in all the samples
of Kurnub Formations. Table 3 shows the quartz distribu-
tion in the studied samples.
D o l o m i t e ' s characteristic diffraction peaks agree with the
A S T M card No. (11-87). D o l o m i t e can be identified by the
strongest peak at 2.88 A" (104) and 31.0. Figure 5 shows
dolomite presence in the studied samples. Dolomite is
recorded in most of the samples of A1/2 Formation but not
in the samples of the Kurnub Formation (Table 3).

Table 3 : Clay arid Non-Clay Minerals Identified in the Studied Samples Based on XRD-Results.

Sample Code I/S K

N1 X X X
N2 X X X
N3 X X X X
N4 X X
N5 X X X X
N6 X
N7 X X X X
N8 X x
N9 X X X
N10 X X
Nll x
N12 X X
Jl X X
J2 X X
J3 X
J4 X x
J5 X X X X
J6 X X X X
J7 X X X
J8 X ' X X X
J9 X I • X X
J10 X J X X
Jll X I x X X
J12 X X X
Index : IIS : Illite/Smectite (mixed layer), K : Kaolinite, I Illite, Q : Quartz, C : Calcite, D : Dolomite and P : Pyrite.
 20

The X-ray diffraction patterns of Kaolinite vary consider-

ably because of the unit cells parallel to the b-axis (ASTM,
1983). Ordered and disordered Kaolinite can be differen-
tiated by the sharpness and intensity of the basal reflection
o o .., i<i ~ M~ and by the presence and intensity of the (020, 110 and 111)
0 reflections.
l/ Ord
K K b. Mixed-Layer (Illite/Smectite "'US") : Mixed-layers (I/S)
OK ^ iv, K
characterized by high scattering at low angles.
On the basis of matching the diffraction patterns of the
Q K K
glycilated samples with the calculated one-dimensional
diffraction profiles of Reynolds and Hower (1970), the
disordered mixed-layer (I/S) was recorded in all the
~ 1 7 6 <
treated samples except for N8 and NI0 of the A1/2 For-
mation samples, as given in Table 3. The diffraction peak
CC C C C 0 C
(001)10/(003)17 appears at (11-12) A ~ in dry oriented runs.

(00-/!) K

50 40 30 20 ~0 2d
Ws
Fig. 5 : RandomX-Ray Diffractograms. C : Calgite; D : Dolomite: Q : (0@)/(002) N
Quartz; K: Kaolinite;P : Pyrite; I/S : MixedLayer (Illite/Smec-
tire).

Pyrite's characteristic diffraction peaks agree with the

ASTM card No. (6-0710). The strongest peak of pyrite
appears at 1.63 A ~ and 56.45. Pyrite is recorded only in lls /
sample J1 of the Kurnub Formation of Irbid-Jerash-Amman {002)/(003) ,/'
Highway as shown in Table 3.

Clay Minerals

The three prepared slides (normal, heated and glycolated)

of each sample of the 20 treated samples were X-rayed. The
treatment of clay samples with ethylene glycol permits the
organic complex to intercalate systematically into the lat-
tice of smectite and usually replaces the inter layer water.
S /r
f
Glycotation method can helps in the identification of the
mixed-layer type of clays with expandable layers, heating /
of the oriented clay samples to 550~ for two hours de-
stroys the kaolinite structure as a result of dehydroxylation

<j/
and the smectite layers collapse to 10 A ~ Table 3 summa- I
rizes the identified clay minerals of the studied samples.
The following clay minerals were identified by the X-ray
diffractometer :
a. Kaolinite : The most intense basal reflections of kaolinite I
appear at 7.19 A~ (001) and 3.57 A ~ (002). kaolinite basal
reflections are not affected upon glycolation, but the struc-
ture collapses and disappears upon heating to 550~ for
two hours. Figures 6 and 7 show the behavior of Kaolinite
upon treatment.
Kaolinite is identified in all the treated samples of the 20 ~6 ~o 6
J z4
Kurnub and A1/2 Formations except for sample J9. Ta-
ble 3 shows the occurrence of Kaolinite in the studied Fig. 6 : OrientedX-Ray Diffractograms for Sample N1. N : Normal; O :
samples. Glyeolated; H : Heated to 550"C.
 21

Upon glycolation the (001)101(002)i7 shifts to show the
collapse of the basal reflection. Upon heating to 550~ for
two hours it collapses to (10) A ~ basal reflection. Figures
6 and 7 show the behavior of mixed-layer (I/S) upon
heating and glycolation.
c. Illite : The basal reflections (001), (002) and (003) of i llite
appear at 10 A ~ 5 A ~ and 3.3 A ~ respectively. The peaks
of illite are not affected upon glycolation and heating to
550~ for two hours nor glycolation. Elite is recorded only
in one sample as given in Table 3.
Estimation of the Expandability of the Mixed-Layer ll-
lite/Smectite (IIS)
The expandability of the mixed-layer clays depends on the
type and the degree of ordering of the layers. The mixed-
layer clays are composed of two layers with two types of
negative charge. The high charge layers are the non-ex-
pandable, whereas the low-charge are the expandable one.
The two layers of the mixed layer clays are separated by a
small distance. The identified mixed-layer clays in this
work are the illite/smectite. The strongest peak of smectite
is 17 A ~ and for illite is 10 A ~ and the position of the peak
of I/S mixed-layer depends on the presence of smectite
layers and the degree of ordering. The peak position will
shift towards 17 A ~ if the Smectite % is higher than the illite
%. but if the itlite % is higher than the smectite % the
mixed-layer peak will shift towards the 10 A ~ position.
The expandibility can be estimated by determining the peak
position of (001) m/(002) lr and (002110/(003)17, then the
difference between the two positions could be plotted on
Reynolds and Hower (1970) modified curve for estimating
expandabilities. The estimated cxpandabilities are listed in
Table 4.

X-Ray Fluorescence Results

/s N The chemical results of the whole rock samples are listed

(001 ,tO02) in Table 5. The chemical analysis results are used to calcu-
i
(o0~)
/ late the mineral content of the tested samples using a
computer program prepared for this purpose developed by
Julio et al. (1992). Moreover, the results from the computer
program were verified using the "Data Handbook for Clay
Minerals and Other Non-Metalic Minerals" (Olphen and
\ ,J Fripiat, 1979). The results are given in Table 6.

71 r G
I!/ S / '"\ Petrographical Results
(oo?)/~,:x),s) ., ".--/
,
/ s\ r
K
/
/
All the samples which were chosen from the Kurnub Sand-
stone and A l/2 Formations were subjected for petrographic
l
work. The samples were selected from clayey and marly
/ clay or clayey marl in order to serve the objectives of the
study. Table 7 shows the rock type of each of the studied
samples.
i l/

Table 4 : Calculated Expandabilities in the I/S of the Studied Samples.

Sample No, % Smectite

J1 5

/ J2
J4
J5
J6
25
10
28
42
J7 50
J8 32
J9 80
J10 60
Jll 75
J12 50
NI 25
N2 30
N3 10
N5 42
N7 60
2o 1~ ~o ~. z~ N8 5
N9 15
Fig. 7 : Oriented X-Ray Diffractograms for Sample j6. N : Normal ; G : NIO 5
Gtycolated ; H : Heated to 550~ N12 30
 22

Table 5 : Chemical Composition of the whole Rock Samples.

Table 6 : Quantitative Mineral Content as Calculated from Table 6.

Sample No. US &/or I "%" K "%" Q "%" C "go" D "%" Amorphous Material, Sulfides, Iron
Oxides, Gypsum, Feldspar & Others "%"
N1 21 3l 32 16
N2 22 36 25 17
N3 6 8 49 38
N4 4 8 58 30
N5 35 E3 2 49 5 6
N6 11 4 2 74 10
N7 42 16 ll 7 7 17
N8 6 1 2 86 5
N9 35 7 10 33 8 7
N10 18" 26 48 8
Nil 13 2 3 50 30 2
NI2 20 !20 ii0 26 15 9
J1 19 21 23 I 37**
J2 23 46 9 22
J3 19 48 15 I8
J4 21 39 24 16
J5 26 I I1 7 33 17 6
J6 24 20 7 28 92 112
J7 51 20 12 15
J8 28 12 5 45 6 4
J9 55 3 7 11 20 4
J10 35 5 4 5O 4 2
Jll 16 10 4 14 47 9
J12 120 18 5 13 48 I 5
i
Index : IIS = Mixed layer. I = tllite, C = Calcite. P = Pyrite, K = Kaolinite. Q = Quartz, D = Dolomite.
This value represents illite percentage.
** 9 % of this value is pyrite.

The Kurnub Sandstone Formation Samples 2. M o n o m i n e r a l s 9

S a m p l e s J1, J2, J3, J4, N1 and N 2 are a r g i l l a c e o u s a n d have
r e v e a l e d the f o l l o w i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s :
1. Lithic g r a i n s : s a n d s t o n e lithics are rarely f o u n d and are
m a i n l y o f q u a r t z . T h e lithics are r o u n d e d to s u b r o u n d e d in
s h a p e and are well o b s e r v e d in s a m p l e J1,
a. Q u a r t z : Q u a r t z crystals are o b s e r v e d in all the K u r n u b
S a n d s t o n e s a m p l e s . T h e y are s u b a n g u l a r to r o u n d e d indi-
cating a m e d i u m to high d i s t a n c e o f transportatibn. The
clayey matrix is g r o w i n g at the e x p e n s e of q u a r t z crystals.
T h i s diagenetic feature is a c o m m o n p h e n o m e n o n in all
the studied s a m p l e s .
 2:3

Table 7 : StudiedRock Types.

Sample No. Rock Type

N1 Claystone
N2 Claystone
N3 Calcareous Claystone
N4 Calcareous Claystone
N5 Claystone
N6 Calcareous Claystone
N7 Claystone
N8 Calcareous Claystone
N9 Claystone
N10 Calcareous Claystone
NIl Calcareous Claystone
NI2 Calcareous Claystone
J1 Claystone
J2 Claystone
J3 Claystone
J4 Claystone
J5 Claystone
J6 Claystone A.
J7 Claystone
J8 Claystone
J9 Calcareous Claystone
Yl0 Claystone
Jll Claystone
J12 Claystone

b. Muscovite and Sericite : Muscovite and sericite crystals of

the size < 0.2 mm are parallel to subparallel and are well
identified in sample J l. These crystals are tabular and
f l ~ y in shape and are embedded in a clayey matrix. The
flakes are light brown to greenish with cloudy appearance.
Muscovite and sericite crystals are mostly the alteration
products of feldspars and are also, the result of possible
aggradational growth.
c. Pyrite: Pyrite crystals are recorded in sample J l. It is [3.
opaque and has an angular boundaries. Pyrite crystals are
surrounded by the clayey matrix together with the fine Fig. 8 : A : a. Euhedral Pyrite Crystals; b. Quartz Crystals (x 10 xpl).
seicite and muscovite crystals (Fig. 8). B : Typical MassiveTexture.

d. Feldspars : Feldspars occur as minor non-clay minerals in

the Kurnub Sandstone samples. Feldspars are rare com-
pared with quartz because of their chemical and physical
instability. Partial to complete decomposition of feldspar
crystals into clayey material is a common phenomenon.
Some unaltered euhedral to subhedral feldspar crystals are
colourless, although most of the crystals show cloudy or
brownish appearance as a result of partial alteration into
clay minerals.
6. Diagenesis: The common diagenetic feature is the
growing of the clayey material at the expense of quartz and
feldspar crystals. Recrystallization and aggradational
growth of the clayey material are other diagenetic features.
The A 1/2 Formation Samples

3. Matrix : The matrix form the groundmass of the clayey

The studied samples are J5, J6, J7, J8, I9, Jl0, J11, J12. N3,
samples. It is composed of fine clayey material and char-
N4, N5, N6, N7, N8, N9. NI0, N I [ and Nl2. They revealed
acterized by diagenetic growth along the laminae and re-
the following characteristics 9
crystallization into mica-like minerals.
4. Cement : Dark to reddish brown cement is common in 1. Monominerals :
all the studied samples. It is replacing the clayey matrix.
a. Quartz: It is very. common and is disseminated in the
The cement is cryptocrystalline and is dominated by the
clayey matrix. Quartz crystals are corroded and the edges
presence of iron oxides mainly hematite (FeaO3) and/or
are decomposed and replaced by clay minerals. They are
limonite (FeO. OH. nH20). The iron oxides are to be
fine to medium in size, and suhrounded in shape but most
supplied by descending solutions from the overlying sedi-
of the crystals are rounded and reflect a long distance of
ments.
transportation. Quartz crystals are less common in the
5. Texture: The general texture is mud-supported with A1/2 formation compared with the Kurnub argillaceous
laminations. samples.
 24
b. Feldspars : Feldspar crystals are rarely found. Relict of
twinned euhedral crystals are present, and are highly
altered and decomposed into clay minerals. It is believed
that these crystals are inherited.
c. Glauconite : Green to pale green glauconite is rounded in
shape. It is recorded in sample J5 only.
2. Matrix : The matrix is abundant and is found as fine to
very fine clayey material. Very fine dolomite rhombs of
diagenetic origin are replacing the matrix material.
3. Textures : The massive, laminated and mud-supported
textures are common. Crystal growth of micaceous mate-
rial along laminae planes is noticed (Fig. 8 B and 9).
4. Cement :
a. Dolomite : Dolomite crystals are abundant and occur as
very fine rhombs (Fig. 9 A). Dolomite crystals are dis-
seminated in the clayey matrix and are believed to be of
diagenetic origin. Dolomite crystals are recorded in most
of the studied samples.
b. Calcite : Calcite crystals are very common and occur as
micrite. Recrystallization of fossils and/or fossil remains
A.
R.
Fig. 9 : A : a. Euhedral Dolomite Crystals : b. Typical LaminatedTexture
(x i0 xpl). B : a. A and B-Cement: b. Calcite Crystals (x I0 xpl).
is common. Secondary spray calcite is also present with
rhombohedral cleavage usually filling pores and cavi-
ties which occur as A and B-cement (Fig. 9 B). Recrys-
tallization and neoforrnation of spray calcite is recorded
in some cases.
c. Iron Oxides : Iron-oxides are c o m m o n as acement material
in all the studied samples. The Fe-oxides are partially
filling the pores and replacing the matrix (Fig. 9 B).
5. Organisms 9 Forams (globigerina), gastropods, pelecy-
pods and nummulites are recorded in some of the studied
samples. These fossils reflect the marine origin of these
sediments. Shtewi (1994) concluded that the N a ' u r Forma-
tion was deposited in a shallow restricted marine environ-
ment. The Fossils and/or its remains were diagenetically
recrystalled into spary calcite in most of the cases9
6. D i a g e n e s i s Feldspars and quartz are diagenetically
altered into clayey material 9 The neoformation of fine dolo-
mite rhombs replacing the matrix is a very c o m m o n diage-
netic process. The fossil remains are also recrystalled to
spray calcite is a c o m m o n diagenetic feature usually filling
pores and cavities.
Scanning Electron Microscope Results
The SEM is an ideal technique for studying the morphology
and diagenetic features of the clay minerals. The following
minerals and diagenetic features are observed :
a. Dolomite crystals are recognized in most of the studied
samples. The SEM results confirmed the diagenetic forma-
tion of dolomite at the expense of clay minerals. This is
clearly observed in Figures 10B, 11A and 11C.
b. Kaolinite is present as individual isolated pseudohexago-
hal plates associated with the clayey matrix as shown in
Figures 10A and 1 lB.
c. The mixed-layer (I/S) is the most abundant identified
clay minerals in the studied samples. It occurs as plates and
flakes as shown in Figures 10, 11A and 12. The I/S flakes
show continuous growth and orientation parallel and sub-
parallel to each others and along foliation planes. The
foliation and orientation of the mixed-layer (I/S) is a com-
mon phenomenon and can be observed in Figures 10A, 10B
and 11A. The I/S laths are encountered by the diageneti-
cally formed rhombs of dolomite as shown in Figures 10A
and 11B.
Figures 10A, 10C and 12B show the high porosity of most
of the studied samples. It can be also observed from
Figure 13C that the pores are interconnected, so that the
water could easily penetrates through the pores into the
clayey beds. The foliation and laminae-like structure with
perfect orientation as shown in Figures 10A, 10B and 11A
is a c o m m o n texture in the studied samples.
Engineering Results
The two methods of determination of the grain size distri-
bution (hydrometer and computerized grain size analyzer)
were carried out for the thirteen tested samples.
 25
The results obtained from the computerized analyzer (sum-
marized in Table 8) are considered of higher accuracy
compared with the hydrometer results. Personal errors usu-
ally encountered in the hydrometer test are taken into
consideration in the computerized grain size analyzer.
The results of liquid limit and plastic limit are given in
Table 8. Samples classification following the Unified Clas-
sification System is shown in Figures 13 and 14, for sam-
ples from lrbid-Jerash-Amman and A m m a n - N a ' u r - D e a d
Sea highways, respectively. The results of the Specific
Gravity (Gs) for the tested samples are summarized in
Table 8.
The results of kneading compaction test (I-Iarverd Mini-
ature) were presented in the form of compaction curves
representing the relation between dry density and water
content. The maximum dry density and optimum water
content are obtained from these curves and listed in Table 8.
Fig. 10: A: Mixed-Layer IllS) and Kaolinite Show Typical Oriented
Laminae-Like Texture. B : Typical Parallel to Subparallel Lami-
nae-Like Texture. C : Thin Films of Mixed-Layer (I/S) and the
Caves. (a) Reflect the High Porosity.
The percentages of free swell (i.e. final swell) for the tested
samples were obtained and listed in Table 8. Consolidation
parameters were obtained from e-log P curves, these in-
clude : compressibility index (Co) and maximum past pres-
sure (Pp) as summarized in Table 8.
The results of the direct shear tests for the first time shear-
ing and the resheared samples were presented in the form
of stress-strain curves and used to obtain the following
parameters : angle of friction ~ and cohesion c at both peak
and residual shear stresses, strain at failure (el), secant
modulus ( E ~ ) and tangent (initial) modulus rein) were also
calculated from the stress-strain curves.
Detailed direct shear test results are given in Tables 9 and
10 for samples from A m m a n - N a ' u r - D e a d Sea and Irbid-
Jerash-Amman highways respectively. However. Table 8
summarize the peak values of shear strength parameters.
Fig. 11: A: a, Euhedral Dolomite Crystal of Diagenetic Origin;
b. Mixed-Layer (I/S) Laminated Texture, B : Euhedral Dolomite
Crystals of Diagenetic Origin. C : Kaolinite and Mixed-Layer(I/S)
Randomly Oriented.
 26

60

cH
5O

L,0.
~7 CL

~30-

P'J8 MH
:~ 20

37
10"

0
0 10 20 30 z,O 50 60 70 80 90 100
~quid '.,rail (L,L) (~I

Fig. 13 : Classification of the Irbid-Jerash-Amman Highway Samples.

B Legend: CL : Inorganic Clays of Low to Medium Plasticity ; CH :
Inorganic Clays of High Plasticity ; ML : Inorganic Silts and Very
Fig. 12 : A : Thin Films of Mixed-Layer (US). B : a. Kaolinite Crystal : Fine Sand with Slight Plasticity ; MH : Inorganic Silts, Fine Sandy
b. Oriented Mixed-Layer (I/S) Laminae. or Silty Soil. Elastic Silts.

Table 8 : Engineering Properties of the Studied Samples.

m
Sample Clay* Silt* Sand*
% % % % 1%
N2 34.7 57.5 7.8 1.52 30.0 2., 0.27 11.8 I 56.63 I 7.4 25.57
N3 14.7 76.4 8.9 2.00 15.0 2., ,8 ] 1.5 I 280.3 I 0.08 17.5 I 37.00 I 13.5 ] 33.50
N5 36.3 57.8 5.9 73 I 32.0 1.60 25.0 2.' '1 ]22.5 I143.6 ]0.29 13.2 ]48.S4 I 7.7 ]32.76
N7 37.0 62.0 1.0 64 I 30.0 1.68 20.0 2.' '2 ] 19.0 301.3 t 0.27 11.0 ] 93.69 I 5.7 { 63.74
N9 23.7 62.4 13.9 56 I 24.0 1.69 22.5 12.' I 10.O4 ~08.58 [0.26 14.5 I 48.00 } 8.2 I 39.09
10.1 77.5 12.4 39 [ 9.5 1.72 2010 2.: ;5 I 2.0 271.8 t 0.08 16.0 I 80.64 { 9.4 ] 31.58
J4 40.4 55.6 4.0 45 I 20.0 174 225 12q ,8 ] 10.2 ] 194.3 I 0.33 13.8 { 99.51 I 9.0 { 37.08
J6 29.3 65.3 +5.4 77 I 43.2 1.63 27.5 i2.' '4 ] 14.0 ] 227.5 I 0.27 13.4 i 90.61 I 7.8 { 23.84
J7 25.6 71.8 2.6 54 [ i6.0 1.63 26.3 122 '3 ]21.2 [ 255.6 10.28 14.5 I 99"51 I 9.4 I 36.50
J8 33.9 64.4 1.7 51 [ 23.0 1.72 23.7 12: '5'3
J9 48.2 50.8 1.0 99 I 52.0 1.45 33.7 12.' ]]27.2[
10.9 251.1
I 235.1 10.35
[0.14 15.3
10.4 79.19
I 68.14 ]/ 5.1
9.6 ]135.06
38.83
J10 40.5 57.9 i.6 62 [ 31.0 1.63 26.3 12., i8 ] 12.8 { 196.6 {0.17 12.6 I 81.68 [ 7.1 I 56.67
Jll 37.6 60.5 1.9 1.80 17.5 ~., ~ 0 . 1 4 16.1 30.14 9N 29.06
* : Values are from computerized Grain Size Analysis ; L.L. : Liquid Limit ; P.I. Plasticity Index; yj m,x : Dry Unit Weight ;
wo,,, : Optimum Water Content ; G : Specific Gravity ;
P~ : Maximum Past Pressure ; Cc : Compression Index ; FS : Free Swell ; 07, : Peak Internal Friction Angle for the First Time Shearing ; ~pr : Peak Internal
Friction Angle for the Resheared Samples ; epi : Peak Cohesion for the First Time shearing "and %rPeak Cohesion for the Resheared Samples.

Correlation between Chemical-lVlineralogical Characteris-
tics and Physical/Engineering Properties
Atterberg Limits
In this study, the maximum liquid limit (L.L.) and plasticity
index (P.I.) values are 99 % and 52 %, respectively, and are
reported for J9 sample. The grain size analysis for the same
sample indicated that it has the highest clay size content
(48 %). On the contrary sample N3 has the lowest values
of liquid limit and plasticity index (25 % and 9.5 %, respec-
tively). The clay content of sample N3 is also low (15%).
Results in Table 8 indicate that as the clay size content
increase, the plasticity index (P.I.) increase. This agrees
with the results of others (e.g. Sridharan er al.. 1988).
SEM results indicated that the mixed-layer (I/S) is the
major clay mineral present in the studied samples. It is also
concluded that most of the studied samples have a high
porosity and laminated textures.
Table 6 shows the abundance of the clay and non-clay
minerals in the studied samples. The comparison of this
table with results of Atterberg limits (Table 8), indicate that
samples with highest (I/S)% tend to have the highest
Atterberg limits, and the samples with the highest calcite,
quartz, and dolomite content tend to have the lowest Atter-
 27

Table 9 : Direct Shear Test Result for Amman-Na'ur-Dead Sea Highway Samples.

First Time Shearin Resheared

Sample Applied Secant Modulus Initial Modulus Horizontal Secant Modulus Initial Modulus Horizontal
Vertical E .... E,~ Displacement E,~. E,. Displacement
Stress kPa kPa kPa at Failure kPa kPa at Failure
(cm) (cm)

96 294.1 245.1 0.28 48.6 101.9 0.32

192 352.9 366.0 0.18 411.8 411.8 0.48
N2 784.3 0.18 4l 1.8 411.8 0.28
287 470.6
383 470.6 784.3 0.30 823.5 1176.5 0.24

96 339.9 313.7 0.08 294.1 294.1 0.06

192 490.2 392.2 0.12 313.7 313.7 0.08
N3 519.6 0.08 326.8 326.8 0.10
287 586.6
383 1098.0 1(/19.6 ~. 0.18 451.0 451.0 0.14

96 274.3 183.0 0.24 225.5 411.8 0.17

192 392.2 227.4 0.20 666.6 666.6 0.09
N5 235.3 0.32 910.9 901.9 0.12
287 183.0
383 529.4 568.6 0.20 1176.5 1176.5 0.20

96 313.7 274.5 0.32 104.6 130.7 0.30

192 450.9 490.2 0.32 156.9 183.0 0.48
N7 941.2 0.40 575.2 575.2 0.33
287 666.6
383 1058.8 941.2 0.34 784.3 784.3 0.54
96 379.1 392.2 0.10 235.3 235.3 0.10
N9 192 490.2. 588.2 0.10 274.5 274.5 0.09
287 627.4 784.3 0.10 627.4 627.4 0.12

"Fable 9 continued

First Time Sheai-ing Resheared ;tress for Shear Stress for

First Time Shearing Resheared
Peak Residual Peak Residual
Peak Residual Peak Residual
Sample c ~ c 0 c kPa kPa kPa kPa
kPa deg. kPa deg. kPa deg.
56.6 11.8 40 8.3 25.6 7.4 25.5 7.0 54.72 39.74 38.59
65.66 47.81 45.50
1.09.-14 82.92 59.90 59.90
141.12 95.04 77.18 68.54
N3 37.3 17.5 30 [2.0 33.3 13.5 3(/.0 10.0 66.82 48.96 57.60 48.96
96.19 75.46 76.61 71.42
L32.48 94.47 103.10 76.03
_ _ ~ _ 109.44 124.42 95.62
N5 48.8 13.2 32 7.8 32.8 7.7 32.0 7.0 L 46.08 43.78 35.71
89.28 56.45 61.63 53.57
111.74 60.48 70.85 68.54
142.27 89.29 83.52 81.22
N7 93.7 11.0 80 7.0 62.7 5.7 60.0 5.3 i
9 97.84 73.15 69.12
138.82 108.29 80.64 74.88
149.18 118./18 91.58 89.86
j 164.74 134.21 101.38 92.17
N9 48.0 14.5 44 11.0 39. l 8.2 = 35.0 7.0 ~ - 71.42
I0(1.22
63.94
89.28
j 120.96 I
92.17

b e r g l i m i t v a l u e s . In g e n e r a l , t h e s a m p l e s w i t h t h e h i g h e s t
c l a y m i n e r a l s c o n t e n t h a v e the h i g h e s t A t t e r b e r g l i m i t
values.
Swell and Consolidation
Table 8 shows that the samples with higher liquid limit
( L . L . ) a n d p l a s t i c i t y i n d e x (P.I.) v a l u e s (i.e. s a m p l e s J7, J9,
N 2 , N 5 a n d N 7 ) t e n d to h a v e t h e h i g h e s t v a l u e s o f s w e l l
p e r c e n t a g e s . D e s p i t e o f its h i g h L . L . a n d P.I. v a l u e s , s a m p l e
J6 h a s a r e l a t i v e l y l o w s w e l l p e r c e n t a g e a n d t h i s i m p l i e s
o t h e r f a c t o r s , s u c h as t h e l o w p e r m e a b i l i t y . I n f a c t this
s a m p l e w a s a l l o w e d to s w e l l f o r a b o u t t h r e e d a y s .
T h i s o b s e r v a t i o n w a s a t s o m a d e by G i l l o t t ( 1 9 8 6 ) a n d
T a y l o r et al. (19861. T h e y s t a t e d that the m a g n i t u d e o f t h e
v o l u m e c h a n g e is a f u n c t i o n o f the m i n e r a l o g y , m o i s t u r e
 28

Table 10 : Direct Shear Test Result for trbid-Jerash-Amman Highway Samples.

First Time Shearing R.esheared

Sample Applied Secant Initial Horizontal Secant Initial Horizontal
Vertical ] Modulus Modulus Displacement Modulus Modulus Displacement
Stress E~r E~, at Failure E~c. gin at Failure
kPa kPa kPa (cm) kPa kPa (cm)
Jl 96 48.40 46.10 0.24 705.9 705.9 0.08
192 60.50 56.40 0.36 326.8 431.4 0. t6
287 80.60 73.70 0.25 245.1 431.4 0. I4
J4 96 53.00 51.30 0.16 183.0 I86.3 0.28
192 64.50 63.40 0.12 145.1 315.1 0.20
287 83.50 82.90 0.16 246.7 264.7 0.20
383 96.80 95.00 0.26 294.1 392.2 0.16
J6 96 37.40 37.40 0.13 i80.4 203.9
I 0.12
192 47.20 45.50 0.18 126.4 130.7 0.10
287 65.10 65.10 0.20 490.2 588.2 0.08
383 74.90 68.50 0.20 186.3 219.6 0.12
I
J7 96 I 53.00 47.20 I 0.27 431.4 588.2 0.09
192 i 65.70 63.40 ' 0.35 784.3 705.9 0.04
287 I 86,40 8t.80 i 0.36 1176.5 9t0.9 0.07
387 I 99.1 97.40 I 0.40 1960.8 1137.2 0.18
J8 96 0 53,00 50.t0 r 0.12 196.1 186.3 0.16
192 62.20 62.20 0.17 280.1 264.7 0.13
287 83.50 78.30 0.18 439.2 379.1 0.13
387 100.00 100.20 0.20 633.6 522.9 0.14
J9 96 43.80 40.30 0.34 392.2 294.1 0.12
192 58.20 49.50 0.20 451.0 411.8 0.20
287 63.40 55.30 0.27 509.8 411.8 0.32
387 72.00 60.50 0.28 735.3 490.2 0.20
J10 96 68.00 57.00 0.12 219,6 227.4 0.16
t92 81.20 74.90 0.12 313.7 294.1 0.12
287 89.90 82.90 0.16 245.1 352.9 0.12
387 105.40 103.70 0.20 745. l 490.2 0.12
Jll 96 44.90 36.80 0.12 294. l iI 300.6 0.24
192 63.40 55.90 0.24 901.9 ~ 568.6 0.10
287 77.80 63.40 , 0.16 1176.5 :r 705.9 Ir 0.12

c o n t e n t , c o m p o s i t i o n a n d c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f the p o r e f l u i d ,
f a b r i c a n d m t e r p a r t i c l e s c e m e n t a t i o n . T h e y a d d e d that the
rate o f the v o l u m e c h a n ~ e d e p e n d s on the p e r m e a b i l i t y
w h i c h is a f u n c t i o n o f the s i z e o f t h e p a r t i c l e s .

/ F i g u r e s 15 a n d 16 s h o w the p r o j e c t i o n o f t h e r e s u l t s o f

y
* / s t u d i e d s a m p l e s on the e x p a n s i v e n e s s c h a r t for Irbid-
J e r a s h - A m m a n a n d A m m a n - N a " u r - D e a d S e a h i g h w a y s , re-
spectively.

30' [L *N 5 It is n o t i c e a b l e f r o m r e s u l t s in T a b l e 8 that as c l a y c o n t e n t
-g= S7 a n d P.I. v a l u e s i n c r e a s e , t h e s w e l l p o t e n t i a l i n c r e a s e .

b19 It c a n b e o b s e r v e d f r o m t h e d a t a in T a b l e s 6 a n d 8 t h a t t h e
--z 20- HH
m i x e d - l a y e r (I/S) c o n t e n t i n f l u e n c e s t h e s w e l l m o r e t h a n
t h e K a o l i n i t e c o n t e n t b e c a u s e in t h e c a s e o f t h e m i x e d - l a y e r
(I/S) t h e a p p l i a n c e o f t h e d o u b l e l a y e r t h e o r y is f u n c t i o n a l ,
10- w h e r e a s in the K a o l i n i t e c a s e , s w e l l is p u r e l y m e c h a n i c a l
[L-ML d e p e n d i n g o n t h e r e l e a s e d s t r e s s ( D r i s c o l l , 1984).

O' The SEM results indicate that most of the studied samples
10 20 30 ~.0 50 60 70 80 90 100 are o r i e n t e d as s h o w n in F i g u r e 10. T h e w e l l o r i e n t e d
Liquid Limit (h.',.', {.'I) s a m p l e s t e n d to h a v e h i g h e r C o m p r e s s i o n I n d e x ( C c ) ' v a l u e s
w h e r e a s the l e s s o r i e n t e d s a m p l e s t e n d to h a v e l o w e r v a l u e s
Fig. 14 : Classification of the Amman-Na'ur-Dead Sea Highway Sam- o f Cc. T h e v a l u e s o f t h e C o m p r e s s i o n I n d e x are s h o w n in
ples (Legend as in Figure 13). T a b l e 8.
 29

Table 10 continued

First Time Shearing Resheared Shear Stress for First Shear Stress for
Time Shearing Resheared
Peak I Residual Residual
Peak Residual Peak Residual
Sample
kPa kPa kPa kPa

80.5 16,0 58 12.0 9.4 25.0 109.40 77.80 862.7 588.2

123.50 88,10 666.7 588.2
164.20 128.40 980.4 705.8
,14 99:5 13.8 68 13.0 9.O 37.0 120.40 77180 339.7 326.8
149.80 110.60 392.6 451.0
163.00 141.10 431,4 568.6
149.10 167.00 431.4 568.6
21.8 7.8 115.20 74.90 339.9 284.3
132.50 92.20 431.4 392.2
160.70 102.00 431.4 392.2
181.40 146.90 470.6 392.2
14.5 i 72.5 9.4 35.0 122.10 77.80 235.3 156.9
153.80 110.60 254.9 196.1
170.50 142.30 294.1 196. t
198,10 176.60 313;7 196.1
J8 122.10 77.80 333.3 261.4
154.40 112.30 333.3 274.5
169.90 143.40 457.5 343.1
203,90 178.00 509.8 392,1
J9 68.1 10.4 60 38.8 [ 5.1 35.0 85.30 71.40 163.4 235.3
106.60 87.60 392.2 392.2
115.20 100.80 1176.5 1176.5
140.00 104.20 1176.5 1176.5
J10 81.7 . _. 9 56.7 7.1 100.80 82.40 215.7 235.3
126.70 98.50 392.2 392.2

~-J11 30.1 16;I

1
I 22 14 29.1 9.8 28.0
146.90
165,30
57,60
86,40
118.10
146.90
43.20
72.00
549.0
784.3
666.7
509.8
549.0
784.3
313.7
313;7
k
112.90 91.00 390.0 313.7

70 F 1 i ~+/ /
It can be o b s e r v e d from the data in T a b l e s 6 and 8 that the I ~,/ cer~[ high ! I ~"
m i x e d - l a y e r (I/S) affect the c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y index for the
tested samples more than Kaolinite. This could be attrib- 6ok -b .,~-.' I i ,,f
uted to the high void ratio in the m i x e d - l a y e r (I/S) rich
samples where the d o u b l e layer theory and the high flexi- ] ,I ~L I J%~;W" t
bility of S m e c t i t e films d o m i n a t e , whereas in the case of
Kaolinite the plates are more stiff and elastic. I Ii , , / ! r /"
=-I
ao~
I
i "-
J-)1~
j -
I/ :
<,'f
e, / . . ~
,~
/-

S h e a r Strength
I li , ! ..".';'! S~C.-'5 ~3J
[n this study, the m a x i m u m internal friction angle (r was 3o~- . , ~ ; . ~' .... : ,J~-' )r ~ ~,2>f
I / !n~n,u~~ ~."2- ~
17.5 ~ and the m i n i m u m value was [0.4 ~ for samples N3 and
J9, respectively for the peak at the first time shearing
(Table 9).
~o ,;<p,~',.,,n~s~ .--'ti,. i.... --T -
/ 'Hf .,,~7~ ! I i
The quantitative m i n e r a l o g i c a l calculations (Table 6) yield
that the non-clay m i n e r a l s c o n t e n t of sample N3 is 88 % / /:A~,~] I I I !
(calcite, d o l o m i t e and quartz), and the clay c o n t e n t is very,
m i n o r (< 5 %). W h e r e a s the n o n - c l a y content for sample J9
is a b o u t 42 %, and the clay c o n t e n t is a b o u t 58 %. T a b l e 4
%' ,; ~; ~o :o so ~0 5
Clay Content (~1
indicates that 80 % of the m i x e d - l a y e r (I/S) of s a m p l e J9 is
Smectite, w h e r e a s only 10 % of the m i x e d - l a y e r of s a m p l e Fig. 15 : Expansiveness Chart Showing Projection of Results of lrbid-
N3 is Smectite. T h e r e f o r e , the low angle o f internal friction 3erash-Amman Highway Samples.

70
ii ~''
J , !~/'
, ! ~.
: -~
' +,'1
r </
/'
: ~
/'
i
i
{ ~ I N2
- : - ,.@
' 1"
i ./i! i ,////}
F. ~o ..,.' ~ !t h-l o n ,~;
ex~anstve
,-a " . '.
i,,'~'~ ~d ium 7- ] /"
ZO
i'; lexP a,~~'Ivenes-~,,.~
[~
/ ! . ?"
iO
/ j/ L/ . expansi
10 .?0 30
ClayContent{Z)
Fig. 16 : Expansiveness Chart Showing Projection of Results of Amman-
Na'ur-Dead Sea Highway Samples.
is attributed to the mineralogical composition (type and
content) as far as the clay size content in the studied
samples, i.e. the higher the mixed-layer (I/S) content the
lower the internal friction angle because of the double layer
effect. Samples N7 and J7 have also a relatively low angles
of friction and high Smectite content.
The data in Tables 8, 9 and 10 indicate a negative relation-
ship between clay size content and the internal friction
angle. Olson (1974) stated that the equidimensional soil
particles with wide distribution of particle sizes yield the
highest internal friction angle (0) because of the maximum
amount of particle interaction during shearing. This can be
observed in results given in Table 8.
Moreover, test results shows that as the plasticity index
(P.I.) increase the angle of friction (both residual and peak
for first time shearing and resheared) decrease for the
reasons discussed previously.
The random clay fabric has resulted in high shear strength,
so the shear resistance is a function of clay fabric and
surface friction (Mitchell, 1976). Therefore, the platy ap-
pearance of the mixed-layer (Figure 10) is responsible for
the lower values of ((p) (Mesri, Rokhsar and Bohor, 1975)
because the plates make the sliding so easy with the pres-
ence of water.
It can also be observed from the results in Tables 6, 9 and
10 that as the mixed-layer (I/S) content increase the peak
and residual internal friction angles for the first time shear-
ing and resheared samples decrease. The mixed-layer (I/S)
reduce the angle of friction because of the platy appearance
of the mixedqayer (I/S) (Figure 10) which makes the dou-
ble-layer theory functional.
The reshearing of the specimen has resulted in the reorien-
tation of the particles which became parallel to subparallel
30
to the force of shearing making the sliding process easier
i i ] in the reshearing than that for the first time shearing. This
vep~' h,Gn ] " [
eX pQ]PISI v r ~ s 5 ~; can be noticed in the failure envelopes. The results of angle
i i \ .4 of friction and cohesion are smaller for resheared samples
L ! , + .... ]
than for first time shearing (Tables 8, 9 and 10). Lowering
/ of the cohesion (e) as well as the angle of internal friction
I d/
! /1
i
-%'
'. q'~ /~
(~) took place during the reshearing of the samples.
i " i "~ .....
.... ~ :~4 /" Conclusions
I ~'./~,'/
.... .. Based on the results of this study the following conclusions
n~ss ~ ] ~,\~ "j' are emphasized :
I / c~ v 1 "
[ 1. The extremely jointed rocks allowed the water during
v n the rainy winter to penetrate through the joints and to be
trapped by the clayey beds, water has led to the reduction
e ess
of the shear strength parameters and has caused the failures.
2. Quartz, calcite and dolomite are the non-clay minerals
and mixed-layer (I/S) and kaolinite are the clay minerals
z.O 50 60 70 identified in the studied samples.
3. Samples with highest (I/S) % tend to have the highest
Atterberg limits, and the samples with the highest calcite,
quartz, and dolomite content tend to have the lowest Atter-
berg limit values.
4. The high ability of the mixed-layer (I/S) clays to expand
with the presence of water (the double layer-effect) has
resulted in the reduction of the shear strength parameters
which activated the sliding process.
5. Mixed layer (I/S) content influence the swell and com-
pressibility more than kaolinite content.
6. The double-layer effect is noticed in samples with
higher (I/S) content which gave the highest swell percent-
ages. liquid limit, and plastic limit, and the lowest internal
friction angle (0).
7. The SEM results indicated that most of the studied
samples are oriented resulting in higher compression index.
8. The reshearing direct shear test results compared to first
time shear ascertain that the reduction of the shear strength
took place along the pre-existing shear or sliding surfaces.
The highways within two areas (Jerash and Na'ur) have
previously suffered from landslides, the pre-existing shear
or sliding surfaces are to be considered during the geotech-
nical analysis and design (e.g. slope stability analysis) for
the purpose of construction of the two highways.
9. To avoid water percolation at the locations of the ex-
posed clayey beds, construction of the surface water drain-
age system is necessary.
10. Results of this study can be used to identify potentially
unstable slope in the study area vicinity prior to their
failure.
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