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Strategic
Management of
Technological
Innovation
Seventh Edition

Melissa A. Schilling
New York University
 Final PDF to printer

STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT OF TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATION

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About the Author
Melissa A. Schilling, Ph.D.
Melissa Schilling is the John Herzog family professor of management and ­organizations
at New York University’s Stern School of Business. Professor Schilling teaches courses
in strategic management, corporate strategy and technology, and innovation man-
agement. Before joining NYU, she was an Assistant Professor at ­Boston ­University
(1997–2001), and has also served as a Visiting Professor at INSEAD and the Bren
School of Environmental Science & Management at the University of California at Santa
Barbara. She has also taught strategy and innovation courses at Siemens ­Corporation,
IBM, the Kauffman Foundation Entrepreneurship Fellows ­program, Sogang University
in Korea, and the Alta Scuola Polytecnica, a joint institution of Politecnico di Milano
and Politecnico di Torino.
Professor Schilling’s research focuses on technological innovation and knowledge
creation. She has studied how technology shocks influence collaboration activity and
innovation outcomes, how firms fight technology standards battles, manage platform
ecosystems, and utilize collaboration, protection, and timing of entry strategies. She
also studies how product designs and organizational structures migrate toward or
away from modularity. Her most recent work focuses on knowledge creation, includ-
ing how breadth of knowledge and search influences insight and learning, and how
the ­structure of knowledge networks influences their overall capacity for knowledge
creation. Her research in innovation and strategy has appeared in the leading ­academic
journals such as ­Academy of Management Journal, Academy of Management Review,
Management Science, Organization Science, Strategic Management Journal, and ­Journal
of ­Economics and Management Strategy and Research Policy. She also sits on the
­editorial review boards of Academy of Management Journal, Academy of Management
­Discoveries, ­Organization Science, Strategy Science, and Strategic Organization. She is the
author of Quirky: The Remarkable Story of the Traits, Foibles, and Genius of ­Breakthrough
Innovators Who Changed the World, and she is coauthor of ­Strategic ­Management:
An Integrated Approach. Professor Schilling won the Organization ­Science and Manage-
ment Science Best Paper prize in 2007, an NSF CAREER award in 2003, and Boston
­University’s Broderick Prize for research in 2000.

iii
Preface
Innovation is a beautiful thing. It is a force with both aesthetic and pragmatic appeal:
It unleashes our creative spirit, opening our minds to hitherto undreamed of possibili-
ties, while accelerating economic growth and providing advances in such crucial human
endeavors as medicine, agriculture, and education. For industrial organizations, the pri-
mary engines of innovation in the Western world, innovation provides both exceptional
opportunities and steep challenges. While innovation is a powerful means of competitive
differentiation, enabling firms to penetrate new markets and achieve higher margins, it is
also a competitive race that must be run with speed, skill, and precision. It is not enough
for a firm to be innovative—to be successful it must innovate better than its competitors.
As scholars and managers have raced to better understand innovation, a wide
range of work on the topic has emerged and flourished in disciplines such as strategic
management, organization theory, economics, marketing, engineering, and sociology.
This work has generated many insights about how innovation affects the competitive
dynamics of markets, how firms can strategically manage innovation, and how firms
can implement their innovation strategies to maximize their likelihood of success.
A great benefit of the dispersion of this literature across such diverse domains of study
is that many innovation topics have been examined from different angles. However,
this diversity also can pose integration challenges to both instructors and students.
This book seeks to integrate this wide body of work into a single coherent strategic
framework, attempting to provide coverage that is rigorous, inclusive, and accessible.
Organization of the Book
The subject of innovation management is approached here as a strategic process. The
outline of the book is designed to mirror the strategic management process used in
most strategy textbooks, progressing from assessing the competitive dynamics of the
situation, to strategy formulation, and then to strategy implementation. The first part
of the book covers the foundations and implications of the dynamics of innovation,
helping managers and future managers better interpret their technological environ-
ments and identify meaningful trends. The second part of the book begins the pro-
cess of crafting the firm’s strategic direction and formulating its innovation strategy,
including project selection, collaboration strategies, and strategies for protecting the
firm’s property rights. The third part of the book covers the process of implementing
innovation, including the implications of organization structure on innovation, the
management of new product development processes, the construction and manage-
ment of new product development teams, and crafting the firm’s deployment strategy.
While the book emphasizes practical applications and examples, it also provides sys-
tematic coverage of the existing research and footnotes to guide further reading.
Complete Coverage for Both Business
and Engineering Students
This book is designed to be a primary text for courses in the strategic management of
iv innovation and new product development. Such courses are frequently taught in both
 Preface v

business and engineering programs; thus, this book has been written with the needs of
business and engineering students in mind. For example, Chapter Six (Defining the
Organization’s Strategic Direction) provides basic strategic analysis tools with which
business students may already be familiar, but which may be unfamiliar to engineering
students. Similarly, some of the material in Chapter Eleven (Managing the New Prod-
uct Development Process) on computer-aided design or quality function deployment
may be review material for information system students or engineering students, while
being new to management students. Though the chapters are designed to have an intui-
tive order to them, they are also designed to be self-standing so instructors can pick and
choose from them “buffet style” if they prefer.

New for the Seventh Edition

This seventh edition of the text has been comprehensively revised to ensure that the
frameworks and tools are rigorous and comprehensive, the examples are fresh and
exciting, and the figures and cases represent the most current information available.
Some changes of particular note include:

Six New Short Cases

Netflix and the Battle of the Streaming Services. The new opening case for Chapter Four
is about a battle unfolding for dominance in movie and television streaming. Though
the case focuses on Netflix, it also details the moves made by competitors such as
Amazon Prime Video, Disney, Hulu, and HBO. The case reveals the very interesting
synergies Netflix has reaped in being both a content developer and a distributor, and
it highlights the tradeoffs content developers make in choosing to have their content
exclusive to a particular streaming service.
Failure to Launch at Uber Elevate. The opening case for Chapter Five in the sixth edi-
tion was about UberAIR, Uber’s plan for launching an air taxi service; the opening case
for Chapter Five for the seventh edition is about Uber’s withdrawal of plans to launch
its own air taxi service and the other companies that are still moving forward. This case
highlights the range of challenges in launching something as new as air taxi service.
While battery life and flight time are still considered areas that need improvement,
the primary challenges to this market are now regulatory and infrastructure oriented:
Where will the eVTOLs land? Who will regulate air traffic and how? Will the eVTOLs
be too noisy? Will the eVTOLs be manned by pilots or autonomous? It is pretty easy
to conclude from the case that Uber probably tried to enter this market too early, but
it remains unclear whether the remaining players (who are almost all manufacturing
startups dedicated wholly to producing eVTOLs) will fare better.
Zeta Energy and The “Holy Grail” of Batteries. Chapter Eight now opens with a case
about Zeta Energy, a young battery technology startup that is in the process of develop-
ing a lithium metal sulfur battery. The technology is impressive and the potential markets
are huge and diverse (e.g., electric vehicles, grid storage, consumer devices, and drones),
but Zeta faces a dilemma of how to reach the stage of commercialization. Battery devel-
opment is expensive and risky; Zeta has had problems raising enough funding to build
the kind of facility it needs to produce the batteries at scale. The case highlights the vari-
ous partnering strategies Zeta is considering, setting up a nice opportunity for students
to analyze the pros and cons of types of collaboration agreements and types of partners.
vi Preface

The Patent Battle Over CRISPR Cas-9 Gene Editing. The new opening case for
­ hapter Nine is on what has been described as one of the most important patent battles
C
in the last 50 years. CRISPR Cas-9 is a breakthrough technology that enables live ani-
mals (including humans) to be gene edited—potentially enabling us to eliminate and/
or treat a wide range of diseases. Even more exciting is the fact that the technology
itself is relatively inexpensive and simple, prompting a flood of students, researchers,
and manufacturers to enthusiastically begin using it. The ownership of the intellectual
­property rights, however, are contested between a group at Berkeley and a group at
MIT. The way each group’s patents were filed, concomitant with the change of pat-
ent law, collectively created one of the most interesting—and high-stakes—battles patent
lawyers have seen in decades.
How Apple Organizes for Innovation. Chapter Ten now opens with a case that describes
how Apple is organized. The case tells the story of when Steve Jobs returned to Apple
and dramatically reorganized the firm, yielding a big firm that has a structure that is
much more commonly seen in small firms. The case provides detail on why Jobs felt the
structure was appropriate, what its tradeoffs are, notably highlighting how much power
the structure gives to its top leader. While this was probably a very desirable feature for
Jobs, the case raises the question of whether or not the same structure makes sense for
Apple under Tim Cook and whether it would make sense for different kinds of firms.
Magna International’s Carbon Fiber “Lightweighting” Project. The opening case for
Chapter Twelve describes in detail how Magna International, a Tier 1 automotive
supplier, developed a scalable manufacturing method for carbon fiber auto parts in
response to BMW’s announcement of its intentions to build cars with the new material.
With details and quotes from Tom Pilette, the VP of Product and Process Development
of Magna who led the project, we learn about how the team was assembled and man-
aged, how the team culture evolved, how team members were compensated, and more.
BMW ends up deciding to make carbon fiber composites in house rather than buying
from a supplier, but Magna’s efforts transform it into an award-winning world leader in
carbon fiber composite manufacturing.

Cases, Data, and Examples from around the World

Careful attention has been paid to ensure that the text is global in its scope. The opening
cases and examples feature companies from China, India, Israel, Japan, The ­Netherlands,
Kenya, the United States, and more. Wherever possible, statistics used in the text are
based on worldwide data.

More Comprehensive Coverage and Focus on Current Innovation Trends

In response to reviewer suggestions, the new edition now provides an extensive dis-
cussion of the use of “Big Data” in guiding innovation, the strengths and weaknesses
of grand prizes (like the XPRIZE) in generating innovation, characteristics of break-
through innovators, the role of organization culture in innovation, a detailed example
of Failure Modes and Effects Analysis that helps students set up their own FMEA
spreadsheet, and more. The suggested readings for each chapter have also been updated
to identify some of the more recent publications that have gained widespread attention
in the topic area of each chapter. Despite these additions, great effort has also been put
into ensuring the book remains concise—a feature that has proven popular with both
instructors and students.
 Preface vii

Supplements
The teaching package for Strategic Management of Technological Innovation is available
online from Connect at connect.mheducation.com and includes:
• An instructor’s manual with suggested class outlines, responses to discussion ques-
tions, and more.
• Complete PowerPoint slides with lecture outlines and all major figures from the text.
The slides can also be modified by the instructor to customize them to the instruc-
tor’s needs.
• A testbank with true/false, multiple choice, and short answer/short essay questions.
• A suggested list of cases, videos, and readings to pair with chapters from the text.
viii Preface

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Acknowledgments
This book arose out of my research and teaching on technological innovation and new
product development over the last decade; however, it has been anything but a lone
endeavor. I owe much of the original inspiration of the book to Charles Hill, who helped
to ignite my initial interest in innovation, guided me in my research agenda, and ultimately
encouraged me to write this book. I am also very grateful to colleagues and friends such as
Rajshree Agarwal, Juan Alcacer, Rick Alden, William Baumol, Bruno Braga, Gino Cat-
tanni, Tom Davis, Sinziana Dorobantu, Gary Dushnitsky, Douglas Fulop, Raghu Garud,
Deepak Hegde, Hla Lifshitz, Tammy Madsen, Rodolfo ­Martinez, ­Goncalo Pacheco
D’Almeida, Joost Rietveld, Paul Shapiro, Jaspal Singh, Deepak Somaya, Bill Starbuck,
Christopher Tucci, and Andy Zynga for their suggestions, insights, and encouragement.
I am grateful to director Mike Ablassmeir and marketing manager ­Hannah Kusper. I am
also thankful to my editors, Laura Hurst Spell, Sarah Blasco, and Diana Murphy, who
have been so supportive and made this book possible, and to the many reviewers whose
suggestions have dramatically improved the book:

Joan Adams Deborah Dougherty

Baruch Business School Rutgers University
(City University of New York) Cathy A. Enz
Shahzad Ansari Cornell University
Erasmus University Robert Finklestein
Rajaram B. Baliga University of Maryland–University
Wake Forest University College
Sandy Becker Sandra Finklestein
Rutgers Business School Clarkson University School of Business
David Berkowitz Jeffrey L. Furman
University of Alabama in Huntsville Boston University
John Bers Cheryl Gaimon
Vanderbilt University Georgia Institute of Technology
Paul Bierly Elie Geisler
James Madison University Illinois Institute of Technology
Paul Cheney Sanjay Goel
University of Central Florida University of Minnesota in Duluth
Pete Dailey Martin Grossman
Marshall University Bridgewater State University
Robert DeFillippi Andrew Hargadon
Suffolk University University of California, Davis
x
 Acknowledgments xi

Steven Harper Steven C. Michael

James Madison University University of Illinois
Donald E. Hatfield Michael Mino
Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State Clemson University
University Robert Nash
Glenn Hoetker Vanderbilt University
University of Illinois Anthony Paoni
Sanjay Jain Northwestern University
University of Wisconsin–Madison Johannes M. Pennings
Theodore Khoury University of Pennsylvania
Oregon State University Raja Roy
Rajiv Kohli Tulane University
College of William and Mary Mukesh Srivastava
Judith Lee University of Mary Washington
Golden Gate University Linda F. Tegarden
Aija Leiponen Virginia Tech
Cornell University Oya Tukel
Vince Lutheran Cleveland State University
University of North Carolina— Anthony Warren
Wilmington The Pennsylvania State University
Steve Markham Yi Yang
North Carolina State University University of Massachusetts—Lowell

I am also very grateful to the many students of the Technological Innovation and
New Product Development courses I have taught at New York University, INSEAD,
Boston University, and University of California at Santa Barbara. Not only did these
students read, challenge, and help improve many earlier drafts of the work, but they
also contributed numerous examples that have made the text far richer than it would
have otherwise been. I thank them wholeheartedly for their patience and generosity.
Melissa A. Schilling
Briefs Contents
Preface iv
1 Introduction 1

PART ONE
Industry Dynamics of Technological Innovation 13
2 Sources of Innovation 15
3 Types and Patterns of Innovation 45
4 Standards Battles, Modularity, and Platform Competition 69
5 Timing of Entry 97

PART TWO
Formulating Technological Innovation Strategy 115
6 Defining the Organization’s Strategic Direction 117
7 Choosing Innovation Projects 147
8 Collaboration Strategies 173
9 Protecting Innovation 199

PART THREE
Implementing Technological Innovation Strategy 223
10 Organizing for Innovation 225
11 Managing the New Product Development Process 255
12 Managing New Product Development Teams 285
13 Crafting a Deployment Strategy 305

INDEX 335

xii
Contents

Chapter 1 Firm Linkages with Customers, Suppliers,

Introduction 1 Competitors, and Complementors 29
Universities and Government-Funded Research 30
The Importance of Technological Innovation 1 Private Nonprofit Organizations 32
The Impact of Technological Innovation  Innovation in Collaborative Networks 33
on Society 2 Technology Clusters 33
Innovation by Industry: The Importance of Research Brief: Do Grand Innovation
Strategy 4 Prizes Work? 37
The Innovation Funnel 4 Technological Spillovers 38
Research Brief: How Long Does New Product Summary of Chapter 38
Development Take? 5
Discussion Questions 39
The Strategic Management of Technological
Suggested Further Reading 39
Innovation 6
Endnotes 40
Summary of Chapter 9
Discussion Questions 10
Suggested Further Reading 10 Chapter 3
Endnotes 10 Types and Patterns of Innovation 45
Innovating in India: The chotuKool Project 45
PART ONE Overview 48
INDUSTRY DYNAMICS OF Types of Innovation 48
TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATION 13 Product Innovation versus Process Innovation 48
Radical Innovation versus Incremental
Chapter 2 Innovation 49
Sources of Innovation 15 Competence-Enhancing Innovation versus
Competence-Destroying Innovation 50
The Rise of Cultured Meata 15
Architectural Innovation versus Component
Overview 19
Innovation 51
Creativity 20
Using the Dimensions 52
Individual Creativity 20
Technology S-Curves 53
Organizational Creativity 23
Theory in Action: Inspiring Innovation at Google 24
S-Curves in Technological
Translating Creativity Into Innovation 24 Improvement 53
Theory in Action: What Breakthrough Innovators S-Curves in Technology Diffusion 56
Have in Common 25 S-Curves as a Prescriptive Tool 57
The Inventor 26 Limitations of S-Curve Model as a
Innovation by Users 27 Prescriptive Tool 58
Research and Development by Firms 28 Technology Cycles 58

xiii
xiv Contents
Research Brief: The Diffusion of Innovation and
Adopter Categories 59
Theory in Action: Segment Zero”—A Serious
Threat to Microsoft? 61
Summary of Chapter 64
Discussion Questions 65
Suggested Further Reading 66
Endnotes 66
Chapter 4
Standards Battles, Modularity,
and Platform Competition 69
Netflix and the Battle of the Streaming
Services 69
Overview 72
Why Dominant Designs Are Selected
Learning Effects 73
Network Externalities 75
Government Regulation 76
Theory in Action: The Rise of Microsoft
The Result: Winner-Take-All Markets
Multiple Dimensions of Value 79
A Technology’s Stand-Alone Value 79
Network Externality Value 81
Competing for Design Dominance in Markets
with Network Externalities 84
Theory in Action: Are Winner-Take-All Markets Good
for Consumers? 87
Modularity and Platform Competition
Modularity 88
Platform Ecosystems 90
Summary of Chapter 92
Discussion Questions 93
Suggested Further Reading 93
Endnotes 94
Chapter 5
Timing of Entry 97
Failure to Launch at Uber Elevate 97
Overview 100
First-Mover Advantages 101
Brand Loyalty and Technological
Leadership 101
Preemption of Scarce Assets 101
Exploiting Buyer Switching Costs 101
Reaping Increasing Returns Advantages 102
First-Mover Disadvantages 103
Research and Development Expenses 103
Undeveloped Supply and Distribution
Channels 104
Immature Enabling Technologies and
Complements 104
Uncertainty of Customer Requirements 104
Factors Influencing Optimal Timing 
of Entry 105
Research Brief: Whether and When
to Enter? 108
Strategies to Improve Timing Options 109
Summary of Chapter 110
Discussion Questions 111
Suggested Further Reading 111
73 Endnotes 112
77
PART TWO
78 FORMULATING TECHNOLOGICAL
INNOVATION STRATEGY 115
Chapter 6
Defining the Organization’s
Strategic Direction 117
Tesla in 2021 117
88 Overview 126
Assessing the Firm’s Current Position 127
External Analysis 127
Internal Analysis 131
Research Brief: Using Big Data to Guide
Innovation 134
Identifying Core Competencies and Dynamic
Capabilities 136
Core Competencies 136
The Risk of Core Rigidities 137
Dynamic Capabilities 138
Strategic Intent 138
Research Brief: Blue Ocean Strategy 139
Theory in Action: The Balanced Scorecard 141
Summary of Chapter 142
Discussion Questions 143
Suggested Further Reading 144
Endnotes 144
 Contents xv

Chapter 7 Outsourcing 184

Choosing Innovation Projects 147 Collective Research Organizations 185
Choosing a Mode of Collaboration 185
Where Should We Focus Our Innovation Efforts? Choosing and Monitoring Partners 188
An Exercise 147 Partner Selection 188
Overview 152 Research Brief: Strategic Positions in Collaborative
The Development Budget 152 Networks 190
Theory in Action: Financing New Technology Partner Monitoring and Governance 192
Ventures 154 Summary of Chapter 193
Quantitative Methods for Choosing Projects 155 Discussion Questions 194
Discounted Cash Flow Methods 155 Suggested Further Reading 194
Real Options 158 Endnotes 195
Disadvantages of Quantitative Methods 160
Qualitative Methods for Choosing Projects 160 Chapter 9
Screening Questions 160 Protecting Innovation 199
The R&D Portfolio 163
Q-Sort 165 The Patent Battle Over CRISPR-Cas9 Gene
Combining Quantitative and Qualitative Editing 199
Information 165 Overview 202
Conjoint Analysis 165 Appropriability 202
Theory in Action: Courtyard by Marriott 166 Patents, Trademarks, and Copyrights 203
Data Envelopment Analysis 167 Patents 203
Summary of Chapter 169 Trademarks and Service Marks 208
Discussion Questions 169 Copyright 209
Suggested Further Reading 170 Trade Secrets 210
Endnotes 170 The Effectiveness and Use of Protection
Mechanisms 211
Wholly Proprietary Systems versus Wholly
Chapter 8 Open Systems 212
Theory in Action: IBM and the Attack of the Clones 214
Collaboration Strategies 173
Advantages of Protection 214
Zeta Energy and “The Holy Grail” of Batteries 173 Advantages of Diffusion 215
Overview 176 Summary of Chapter 218
Reasons for Going Solo 176 Discussion Questions 219
1. Availability of Capabilities 177 Suggested Further Reading 220
2. Protecting Proprietary Technologies 177 Endnotes 220
3. Controlling Technology Development and Use 177
4. Building and Renewing Capabilities 178 PART THREE
Advantages of Collaborating 178
IMPLEMENTING TECHNOLOGICAL
1.  cquiring Capabilities and Resources Quickly 178
A
2. Increasing Flexibility 177
INNOVATION STRATEGY 223
3. Learning from Partners 177 Chapter 10
4. Resource and Risk Pooling 179
5. Building a Coalition around a Shared Standard 179
Organizing for Innovation 225
Types of Collaborative Arrangements 179 How Apple Organizes for Innovation 225
Strategic Alliances 180 Overview 228
Joint Ventures 182 Size and Structural Dimensions of the Firm 229
Licensing 183 Size: Is Bigger Better? 229
xvi Contents

Structural Dimensions of the Firm 231 Tools for Improving the New Product
Centralization 231 Development Process 268
Formalization and Standardization 232 Stage-Gate Processes 268
Mechanistic versus Organic Structures 233 Quality Function Deployment (QFD)—
Theory in Action: Shifting Structures at 3M 234 The House of Quality 271
Size versus Structure 235 Design for Manufacturing 273
The Ambidextrous Organization: The Best Failure Modes and Effects Analysis 273
of Both Worlds? 235 Computer-Aided Design/Computer-Aided
Modularity and “Loosely Coupled” Engineering/Computer-Aided Manufacturing 276
Organizations 237 Theory in Action: Computer-Aided Design of an
Modular Products 237 America’s Cup Yacht 277
Loosely Coupled Organizational Structures 238 Theory in Action: Postmortems at
Theory in Action: The Loosely Coupled Production of Microsoft 278
Boeing’s 787 Dreamliner 240 Tools for Measuring New Product Development
Using Culture and Norms to Foster Innovation 241 Performance 278
Managing Innovation Across Borders 244 New Product Development Process Metrics 279
Summary of Chapter 247 Overall Innovation Performance 279
Discussion Questions 248 Summary of Chapter 279
Suggested Further Reading 248 Discussion Questions 280
Endnotes 249 Suggested Further Reading 281
Endnotes 281
Chapter 11
Managing the New Product Development
Chapter 12
Process 255
Managing New Product Development
Scrums, Sprints, and Burnouts: Agile Development Teams 285
at Cisco Systems 255
Overview 258 Magna International’s Carbon Fiber
Objectives of the New Product Development “Lightweighting” Project 285
Process 258 Overview 289
Maximizing Fit with Customer Requirements 258 Constructing New Product Development
Minimizing Development Cycle Time 259 Teams 289
Controlling Development Costs 260 Team Size 289
Sequential Versus Partly Parallel Development Team Composition 289
Processes 260 Research Brief: Why Brainstorming Teams Kill
Theory in Action: The Development of Zantac 262 Breakthrough Ideas 290
Project Champions 263 The Structure of New Product Development
Risks of Championing 263 Teams 293
Research Brief: Five Myths about Product Functional Teams 293
Champions 264 Lightweight Teams 293
Involving Customers and Suppliers in the Heavyweight Teams 295
Development Process 265 Autonomous Teams 295
Involving Customers 265 The Management of New Product 
Theory in Action: The Lead User Method of Product Development Teams 296
Concept Development 266 Team Leadership 296
Involving Suppliers 266 Team Administration 297
Crowdsourcing 266 Managing Virtual Teams 298
 Contents xvii

Research Brief: Virtual International Distribution 321

R&D Teams 299 Selling Direct versus Using Intermediaries 321
Summary of Chapter 300 Strategies for Accelerating Distribution 323
Discussion Questions 301 Marketing 325
Suggested Further Reading 301 Major Marketing Methods 325
Endnotes 302 Tailoring the Marketing Plan to Intended Adopters 327
Theory in Action: Generating Awareness for
Chapter 13 Domosedan 328
Crafting a Deployment Strategy 305 Using Marketing to Shape Perceptions
Deployment Tactics in the Global Video Game and Expectations 329
Industry 305 Research Brief: Creating an Information Epidemic 331
Overview 315 Summary of Chapter 332
Launch Timing 315 Discussion Questions 333
Strategic Launch Timing 315 Suggested Further Reading 333
Optimizing Cash Flow Versus Embracing Endnotes 334
Cannibalization 316
Licensing and Compatibility 317
Pricing 319 Index 335
Chapter One

Introduction
THE IMPORTANCE OF TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATION
technological In many industries, technological innovation is now the most important driver of
innovation competitive success. Firms in a wide range of industries rely on products developed
The act of within the past five years for almost one-third (or more) of their sales and profits. For
­introducing
a new device,
example, at Johnson & Johnson, products developed within the last five years account
method, or for over 30 percent of sales, and sales from products developed within the past five years
material for at 3M have hit as high as 45 percent in recent years.
application to The increasing importance of innovation is due in part to the globalization of mar-
commercial kets. Foreign competition has put pressure on firms to continuously innovate in order
or practical
objectives.
to produce differentiated products and services. Introducing new products helps firms
protect their margins, while investing in process innovation helps firms lower their
costs. Advances in information technology also have played a role in speeding the
pace of innovation. Computer-aided design and computer-aided manufacturing have
made it easier and faster for firms to design and produce new products, while flex-
ible manufacturing technologies have made shorter production runs economical and
have reduced the importance of production economies of scale.1 These technologies
help firms develop and produce more product variants that closely meet the needs
of narrowly defined customer groups, thus achieving differentiation from competi-
tors. For example, in 2021, Toyota offered dozens of different passenger vehicle lines
under the Toyota brand (e.g., Camry, Prius, Highlander, Yaris, Land Cruiser, and
Tundra). Within each of the vehicle lines, Toyota also offered several different models
(e.g., Camry L, Camry LE, Camry SE, and Camry Hybrid SE) with different features
and at different price points. In total, Toyota offered over 200 car models ranging
in price from $16,605 (for the Yaris sedan) to $85,665 (for the Land Cruiser), and
seating anywhere from three passengers (e.g., Tacoma Regular Cab truck) to eight
passengers (Sienna Minivan). On top of this, Toyota also produced a range of lux-
ury vehicles under its Lexus brand. Similarly, in 2021, Samsung produced more than
43 unique smartphones, from the Galaxy A01 priced at roughly $100 to the Galaxy
Fold priced at roughly $2000. Companies can use broad portfolios of product mod-
els to help ensure they can penetrate almost every conceivable market niche. While
producing multiple product variations used to be expensive and time-consuming,

1
2 Chapter 1 Introduction

flexible manufacturing technologies now enable firms to seamlessly transition from

producing one product model to the next, adjusting production schedules with real-
time information on demand. Firms further reduce production costs by using com-
mon components in many of the models.
As firms such as Toyota, Samsung, and others adopt these new technologies
and increase their pace of innovation, they raise the bar for competitors, triggering
an industry-wide shift to shortened development cycles and more rapid new prod-
uct introductions. The net results are greater market segmentation and rapid product
obsolescence.2 Product life cycles (the time between a product’s introduction and
its withdrawal from the market or replacement by a next-generation product) have
become as short as 4 to 12 months for software, 12 to 24 months for computer hard-
ware and consumer electronics, and 18 to 36 months for large home appliances.3
This spurs firms to focus increasingly on innovation as a strategic imperative—a firm
that does not innovate quickly finds its margins diminishing as its products become
obsolete.

THE IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATION ON SOCIETY

If the push for innovation has raised the competitive bar for industries, arguably mak-
ing success just that much more complicated for organizations, its net effect on society
is more clearly positive. Innovation enables a wider range of goods and services to be
delivered to people worldwide. It has made the production of food and other necessities
more efficient, yielded medical treatments that improve health conditions, and enabled
people to travel to and communicate with almost every part of the world. To get a real
sense of the magnitude of the effect of technological innovation on society, look at
Figure 1.1, which shows a timeline of some of the most important technological inno-
vations developed over the last 200 years. Imagine how different life would be without
these innovations!
The aggregate impact of technological innovation can be observed by looking at
gross gross domestic product (GDP). The gross domestic product of an economy is its
­domestic total annual output, measured by final purchase price. Figure 1.2 shows the average
product (GDP) GDP per capita (i.e., GDP divided by the population) for the world from 1980 to
The total annual 2019. The figures have been converted into U.S. dollars and adjusted for inflation. As
output of an
economy as shown in the figure, the average world GDP per capita has risen pretty steadily since
measured by its 1980. In a series of studies of economic growth conducted at the National Bureau of
final purchase Economic Research, economists showed that the historic rate of economic growth
price. in GDP could not be accounted for entirely by growth in labor and capital inputs.
Economist Robert Merton Solow argued that this unaccounted-for residual growth
represented technological change: Technological innovation increased the amount
of output achievable from a given quantity of labor and capital. This explanation was
not immediately accepted; many researchers attempted to explain the residual away
in terms of measurement error, inaccurate price deflation, or labor improvement.
 Chapter 1 Introduction 3

FIGURE 1.1 But in each case the additional

Timeline of 1800 - 1800—Electric battery variables were unable to eliminate
- 1804—Steam locomotive
Some of the this residual growth component.
- 1807—Internal combustion engine
Most Important - 1809—Telegraph A ­consensus gradually emerged
Technological - 1817—Bicycle that the residual did in fact cap-
Innovations 1820 - 1821—Dynamo ture technological change. Solow
in the Last - 1824—Braille writing system
200 Years - 1828—Hot blast furnace
received a Nobel Prize for his work
- 1831—Electric generator in 1981, and the residual became
- 1836—Five-shot revolver known as the Solow Residual.4
1840 - 1841—Bunsen battery (voltaic cell) While GDP has its shortcomings
- 1842—Sulfuric ether-based anesthesia
- 1846—Hydraulic crane
as a measure of standard of living,
- 1850—Petroleum refining it does relate very directly to the
- 1856—Aniline dyes amount of goods consumers can
1860 - 1862—Gatling gun purchase. Thus, to the extent that
- 1867—Typewriter goods improve quality of life, we
- 1876—Telephone
- 1877—Phonograph can ascribe some beneficial impact
- 1878—Incandescent lightbulb of technological innovation.
1880 - 1885—Light steel skyscrapers Sometimes technological innova-
externalities - 1886—Internal combustion automobile tion results in negative ­externalities. 
Costs (or bene- - 1887—Pneumatic tire
- 1892—Electric stove Production technologies may ­create
fits) that are pollution that is harmful to the sur-
- 1895—X-ray machine
borne (or reaped)
by individuals 1900 - 1902—Air conditioner (electric) rounding communities; agricultural
- 1903—Wright biplane and fishing technologies can result
other than those
- 1906—Electric vacuum cleaner
responsible for - 1910—Electric washing machine
in erosion, elimination of natural
creating them. - 1914—Rocket habitats, and depletion of ocean
Thus, if a stocks; medical technologies can
1920 - 1921—Insulin (extracted)
business emits
- 1927—Television result in unanticipated consequences
pollutants in a - 1928—Penicillin
community, it - 1936—First programmable computer
such as antibiotic-resistant strains of
imposes a nega- - 1939—Atom fission bacteria or moral ­dilemmas regard-
tive externality 1940 - 1942—Aqua lung ing the use of genetic modification.
on the commun- - 1943—Nuclear reactor However, technology is, in its purest
ity members; - 1947—Transistor
if a business essence,­ knowledge—­knowledge to
- 1957—Satellite
builds a park in - 1958—Integrated circuit solve our problems and pursue our
a community, it 1960 - 1967—Portable handheld calculator goals.5 Technological innovation
creates a posi- - 1969—ARPANET (precursor to Internet) is thus the creation of new know-
tive externality - 1971—Microprocessor ledge that is applied to practical
for community - 1973—Mobile (portable cellular) phone
members. - 1976—Supercomputer problems. Sometimes this know-
1980 - 1981—Space shuttle (reusable) ledge is applied to problems hast-
- 1987—Disposable contact lenses ily, without full consideration of
- 1989—High-definition television the consequences and alternatives,
- 1990—World Wide Web protocol
- 1996—Wireless Internet
but overall it will probably serve
2000 - 2002—CRISPR Cas9 gene editing us better to have more knowledge
- 2003—Map of human genome than less.
- 2008—Blockchain
- 2010—Synthetic life form
- 2017—SpaceX reusable rocket
4 Chapter 1 Introduction

FIGURE 1.2
World Gross 14,000
Domestic
­Product 12,000
per ­Capita,
1980–2019
10,000
(in real 2019
U.S. dollars)
8,000
Source: “World GDP 
Per Capita 1960–2021,”
Macrotrends, https:// 6,000
www.macrotrends.net/
countries/WLD/world/
gdp-per-capita.
4,000

2,000

0
1980
1982
1984
1986
1988
1990
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
2002
2004
2006
2008
2010
2012
2014
2016
2018
INNOVATION BY INDUSTRY: THE IMPORTANCE OF STRATEGY
As will be shown in Chapter Two, the majority of effort and money invested in techno-
logical innovation comes from industrial firms. However, in the frenetic race to
innovate, many firms charge headlong into new product development without clear
strategies or ­well-developed processes for choosing and managing projects. Such firms
often initiate more projects than they can effectively support, choose projects that are
a poor fit with the firm’s resources and objectives, and suffer long development cycles
and high project failure rates as a consequence (see the accompanying Research Brief
for a recent study of the length of new product development cycles). While innovation
is popularly depicted as a freewheeling process that is unconstrained by rules and plans,
study after study has revealed that successful innovators have clearly defined innovation
strategies and management processes.6

The Innovation Funnel

Most innovative ideas do not become successful new products. Many studies suggest
that only one out of several thousand ideas results in a successful new product: Many
projects do not result in technically feasible products and, of those that do, many fail to
earn a commercial return. According to a 2012 study by the Product Development and
Management Association, only about one in nine projects that are initiated is success-
ful, and of those that make it to the point of being launched to the market, only about
half earn a profit.7 Furthermore, many ideas are sifted through and abandoned before
a ­project is even formally initiated. According to one study that combined data from
 Chapter 1 Introduction 5

Research Brief How Long Does New Product

Development Take?a

In a large-scale survey administered by the Product
Development and Management Association (PDMA),
in 2012, researchers examined the length of time it
took firms to develop a new product from initial con-
cept to market introduction. The study divided new
product development projects into categories repre-
senting their degree of innovativeness: “radical” pro-
jects, “more innovative” projects, and “incremental”
projects. On average, incremental projects took only
33 weeks from concept to market introduction. More
innovative projects took significantly longer, clocking
in at 57 weeks. The development of radical products
or technologies took the longest, averaging 82 weeks.
The study also found that on average, for more innov-
ative and radical projects, firms reported significantly
shorter cycle times than those reported in the previ-
ous PDMA surveys conducted in 1995 and 2004.
a
 dapted from Stephen K. Markham and Hyunjung Lee,
A
“Product Development and Management Association’s
2012 Comparative Performance Assessment Study,”
Journal of Product ­Innovation Management 30, no. 3
(2013): 408–29.

prior studies of innovation success rates with data on patents, venture capital funding,
and surveys, it takes about 3000 raw ideas to produce one significantly new and suc-
cessful commercial product.8 The pharmaceutical industry demonstrates this well—only
one out of every 5000 ­compounds makes it to the pharmacist’s shelf, and only one-third
of those will be successful enough to recoup their R&D costs.9 Furthermore, most stud-
ies indicate that it costs at least ­$1.4 billion and a decade of research to bring a new
Food and Drug Administration ­(FDA)–approved pharmaceutical product to market!10
The innovation process is thus often conceived of as a funnel, with many potential new
product ideas going in the wide end, but very few making it through the development
process (see Figure 1.3).

FIGURE 1.3
The New
Product Develop-
ment Funnel in
Pharmaceuticals

5000 125
2–3 drugs tested 1 drug
Compounds Leads Rx

Discovery & Preclinical Clinical Trials Approval

3–6 years 6–7 years ½–2 years
6 Chapter 1 Introduction

The Strategic Management of Technological Innovation

Improving a firm’s innovation success rate requires a well-crafted strategy. A firm’s
innovation projects should align with its resources and objectives, leveraging its core
competencies and helping it achieve its strategic intent. A firm’s organizational struc-
ture and control systems should encourage the generation of innovative ideas while
also ensuring efficient implementation. A firm’s new product development process
should maximize the likelihood of projects being both technically and commercially
successful. To achieve these things, a firm needs (a) an in-depth understanding of the
dynamics of innovation, (b) a well-crafted innovation strategy, and (c) well-designed
processes for implementing the innovation strategy. We will cover each of these in turn
(see Figure 1.4).
In Part One, we will cover the foundations of technological innovation, gaining an
in-depth understanding of how and why innovation occurs in an industry, and why
some innovations rise to dominate others. First, we will look at the sources of innov-
ation in Chapter Two. We will address questions such as: Where do great ideas come
from? How can firms harness the power of individual creativity? What role do cus-
tomers, government organizations, universities, and alliance networks play in creating
innovation? In this chapter, we will first explore the role of creativity in the generation
of novel and useful ideas. We then look at various sources of innovation, including
the role of individual inventors, firms, publicly sponsored research, and collaborative
networks.
In Chapter Three, we will review models of types of innovation (such as ­radical
­versus incremental and architectural versus modular) and patterns of innovation
(including s-curves of technology performance and diffusion, and technology cycles).
We will address questions such as: Why are some innovations much harder to create
and implement than others? Why do innovations often diffuse slowly even when they
appear to offer a great advantage? What factors influence the rate at which a technol-
ogy tends to improve over time? Familiarity with these types and patterns of innovation
will help us distinguish how one project is different from another and the underlying
factors that shape the project’s likelihood of technical or commercial success.
In Chapter Four, we will turn to the particularly interesting dynamics that emerge
in industries characterized by network externalities and other sources of increasing
returns that can lead to standards battles and winner-take-all markets. We will address
questions such as: Why do some industries choose a single dominant standard rather
than enabling multiple standards to coexist? What makes one technological innova-
tion rise to dominate all others, even when other seemingly superior technologies are
offered? How can a firm avoid being locked out? Is there anything a firm can do to
influence the likelihood of its technology becoming the dominant design? When are
platform ecosystems likely to displace other forms of competition in an industry?
In Chapter Five, we will discuss the impact of entry timing, including first-mover
advantages, first-mover disadvantages, and the factors that will determine the firm’s
optimal entry strategy. This chapter will address such questions as: What are the advan-
tages and disadvantages of being first to market, early but not first, and late? What
determines the optimal timing of entry for a new innovation? This chapter reveals a
number of consistent patterns in how timing of entry impacts innovation success, and it
 Chapter 1 Introduction 7

FIGURE 1.4
The Strategic Management of Technological Innovation

Part 1: Industry Dynamics of

Technological Innovation

Chapter 2 Chapter 3 Chapter 4 Chapter 5

Sources of Types and Patterns Standards Battles, Timing of Entry
Innovation of Innovation Modularity, and
Platform Competition

Part 2: Formulating Technological

Innovation Strategy

Chapter 6
Defining the Organization’s
Strategic Direction

Chapter 7 Chapter 8 Chapter 9

Choosing Innovation Collaboration Protecting Innovation
Projects Strategies

Part 3: Implementing Technological

Innovation Strategy

Chapter 10 Chapter 11 Chapter 12 Chapter 13

Organizing for Managing the New Managing New Crafting a
Innovation Product Development Product Deployment
Process Development Teams Strategy

Feedback
8 Chapter 1 Introduction

outlines what factors will influence a firm’s optimal timing of entry, thus beginning the
transition from understanding the dynamics of technological innovation to formulating
technology strategy.
In Part Two, we will turn to formulating technological innovation strategy.
­Chapter Six reviews the basic strategic analysis tools managers can use to assess the
firm’s current position and define its strategic direction for the future. This chapter
will address such questions as: What are the firm’s sources of sustainable competitive
advantage? Where in the firm’s value chain do its strengths and weaknesses lie? What
are the firm’s core competencies, and how should it leverage and build upon them?
What is the firm’s strategic intent—that is, where does the firm want to be 10 years from
now? Only after the firm has thoroughly appraised where it is currently can it formulate
a coherent technological innovation strategy for the future.
In Chapter Seven, we will examine a variety of methods of choosing innovation pro-
jects. These include quantitative methods such as discounted cash flow and options
valuation techniques, qualitative methods such as screening questions and balancing
the research and development portfolio, as well as methods that combine qualitative
and quantitative approaches such as conjoint analysis and data envelopment analysis.
Each of these methods has its advantages and disadvantages, leading many firms to use
a multiple-method approach to choosing innovation projects. This chapter also includes
some of the sources of funding an innovative startup might use to finance their projects.
In Chapter Eight, we will examine collaboration strategies for innovation. This chap-
ter addresses questions such as: Should the firm partner on a particular project or go
solo? How does the firm decide which activities to do in-house and which to access
through collaborative arrangements? If the firm chooses to work with a partner, how
should the partnership be structured? How does the firm choose and monitor part-
ners? We will begin by looking at the reasons a firm might choose to go solo versus
­working with a partner. We then will look at the pros and cons of various partnering
­methods, including joint ventures, alliances, licensing, outsourcing, and participating in
­collaborative research organizations. The chapter also reviews the factors that should
influence partner selection and monitoring.
In Chapter Nine, we will address the options the firm has for appropriating the
returns to its innovation efforts. We will look at the mechanics of patents, copyright,
trademarks, and trade secrets. We will also address such questions as: Are there ever
times when it would benefit the firm to not protect its technological innovation so
vigorously? How does a firm decide between a wholly proprietary, wholly open, or par-
tially open strategy for protecting its innovation? When will open strategies have advan-
tages over wholly proprietary strategies? This chapter examines the range of protection
options available to the firm, and the complex series of trade-offs a firm must consider
in its protection strategy.
In Part Three, we will turn to implementing the technological innovation strategy.
This begins in Chapter Ten with an examination of how the organization’s size and
structure influence its overall rate of innovativeness. The chapter addresses such ques-
tions as: Do bigger firms outperform smaller firms at innovation? How do formaliza-
tion, standardization, and centralization impact the likelihood of generating innovative
ideas and the organization’s ability to implement those ideas quickly and efficiently?
Is it possible to achieve creativity and flexibility at the same time as efficiency and
 Chapter 1 Introduction 9

reliability? How does the firm’s culture influence its innovation? How do multinational
firms decide where to perform their development activities? How do multinational
firms coordinate their development activities toward a common goal when the activities
occur in multiple countries? This chapter examines how organizations can balance the
benefits and trade-offs of flexibility, economies of scale, standardization, centralization,
and tapping local market knowledge.
In Chapter Eleven, we will review a series of “best practices” that have been identi-
fied in managing the new product development process. This includes such questions
as: Should new product development processes be performed sequentially or in paral-
lel? What are the advantages and disadvantages of using project champions? What are
the benefits and risks of involving customers and/or suppliers in the development pro-
cess? What tools can the firm use to improve the effectiveness and efficiency of its new
product development processes? How does the firm assess whether its new product
development process is successful? This chapter provides an extensive review of meth-
ods that have been developed to improve the management of new product development
projects and to measure their performance.
Chapter Twelve builds on the previous chapter by illuminating how team compos-
ition and structure will influence project outcomes. This chapter addresses questions
such as: How big should teams be? What are the advantages and disadvantages of choos-
ing highly diverse team members? Do teams need to be colocated? When should teams
be full time and/or permanent? What type of team leader and management practices
should be used for the team? This chapter provides detailed guidelines for constructing
new product development teams that are matched to the type of new product develop-
ment project under way.
Finally, in Chapter Thirteen, we will look at innovation deployment strategies.
This chapter will address such questions as: How do we accelerate the adoption of
the technological innovation? How do we decide whether to use licensing or OEM
agreements? Does it make more sense to use penetration pricing or a market-skimming
price? When should we sell direct versus using intermediaries? What strategies can the
firm use to encourage distributors and complementary goods providers to support the
innovation? What are the advantages and disadvantages of major marketing methods?
This chapter complements traditional marketing, distribution, and pricing courses by
looking at how a deployment strategy can be crafted that especially targets the needs of
a new technological innovation.

Summary 1. Technological innovation is now often the single most important competitive driver
in many industries. Many firms receive more than one-third of their sales and prof-
of its from products developed within the past five years.
Chapter 2. The increasing importance of innovation has been driven largely by the globaliz-
ation of markets and the advent of advanced technologies that enable more rapid
product design and allow shorter production runs to be economically feasible.
3. Technological innovation has a number of important effects on society, includ-
ing fostering increased GDP, enabling greater communication and mobility, and
improving medical treatments.
10 Chapter 1 Introduction

4. Technological innovation may also pose some negative externalities, including pol-
lution, resource depletion, and other unintended consequences of technological
change.
5. While government plays a significant role in innovation, industry provides the
majority of R&D funds that are ultimately applied to technological innovation.
6. Successful innovation requires an in-depth understanding of the dynamics of innov-
ation, a well-crafted innovation strategy, and well-developed processes for imple-
menting the innovation strategy.

Discussion 1. Why is innovation so important for firms to compete in many industries?

Questions 2. What are some advantages and disadvantages of technological innovation?
3. Why do you think so many innovation projects fail to generate an economic return?

Suggested Classics
Further Edwin Mansfield, “Contributions of R and D to Economic Growth in the United
Reading States,” Science CLXXV (1972): 477–86.
Joseph Schumpeter, The Theory of Economic Development (1911; English translation,
Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1936).
Kenneth J. Arrow, “Economic welfare and the allocation of resources for inventions,”
in The Rate and Direction of Inventive Activity: Economic and Social Factors, ed. R. ­Nelson
(Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1962), 609–25.
William J. Baumol, The Free Market Innovation Machine: Analyzing the Growth Miracle
of Capitalism (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2002).

Recent Work
David Ahlstrom, “Innovation and Growth: How Business Contributes to Society,”
­Academy of Management Perspectives (August 2010): 10–23.
Frank R. Lichtenberg, “Pharmaceutical Innovation and Longevity Growth in
30 Developing and High-Income Countries, 2000–2009,” Health Policy and
­Technology 3 (2014): 36–58.
Melissa A. Schilling, “Towards Dynamic Efficiency: Innovation and Its Implications for
Antitrust,” Antitrust Bulletin 60, no. 3 (2015): 191–207.
“The 25 Best Inventions of 2017,” Time (December 1, 2017).

Endnotes 1. James P. Womack, Daniel T. Jones, and Daniel Roos, The Machine That Changed the World
(New York: Rawson Associates, 1990).
2. William Qualls, Richard W. Olshavsky, and Ronald E. Michaels, “Shortening of the PLC—An
Empirical Test,” Journal of Marketing 45 (1981): 76–80.
3. Melissa A. Schilling and Cassandra E. Vasco, “Product and Process Technological Change and
the Adoption of Modular Organizational Forms,” in Winning Strategies in a Deconstructing World,
eds. R. Bresser, M. Hitt, R. Nixon, and D. Heuskel (Sussex, England: John Wiley & Sons, 2000),
25–50.
Another random document with
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here, to plant my foot on this hill, and look down upon yonder
farmsteads, and over all these plains and hills and dales, with smoke
rising here and there, and say to myself ‘There is not so much as
one pauper within a hundred miles.’”
When, after a few days, the black baby had, by Jerry’s means,
been restored to his tribe, when the country was known to be clear of
such unwelcome intruders, and Harry and Ellen were therefore at
liberty to settle down at length in their own house, the bride was
quite of her brother’s opinion respecting the goodliness of the
exchange from pauperism in Kent to plenty in Van Diemen’s Land.
 Chapter VIII.

THE MORE THE BETTER CHEER.

Frank kept his promise of writing to his friend Mr. Jackson, from time
to time, as he had opportunity. One of his letters, written four years
after his arrival in the Dairy Plains, contained the most important
news he had yet had occasion to send of the state of himself and his
family.
 “Respected Sir,
“I have often thought and called myself bold in what I have said to
you in my letters, but you have always taken it kindly. This kindness
makes me more bold than ever, especially as to two things that I am
going to write about, when I have a little explained our present
condition.
“My employer and I are about to part; which you will be surprised
to hear, as there is a full year remaining of the time I bound myself to
serve. It is through no quarrel, however; Mr. Stapleton having been a
good master to me, unless for wanting more work out of me than
mortal arm could do; for which, however, he was always willing to
pay me well. The fact is, sir, he is a daring and a bustling man, such
as they say are always to be found in new countries, wanting, as
soon as they have got all pretty comfortable about them, to go
further into the wilds and begin again. I see the good of there being
such men, but do not wish to be one; so, when Stapleton offered me
any wages I liked to go with him, I said ‘No,’ having only engaged to
serve him on this spot; and thus I find myself at liberty a year sooner
than I expected. He offered me an introduction that would get me
good terms from the gentleman that has taken his pretty place; but
not knowing yet what sort of person he is, and there being, thank
God! far more work in my way to be done at any price than I can get
through, I wish to keep myself free. To finish about myself first,—I am
building a sort of double house, in the middle of a very pretty piece of
land. One end of the house is for myself, and the other for my father,
against his time is up. It would do your heart good, sir, to see how he
has everything comfortable about him, though he goes on
complaining, to be sure, that this is not the old country. My step-
mother too has succeeded finely with her fruit this year, and there is
as good cider of hers in every cottage as any in Worcestershire, and
such flowers as she grows make the place look like a paradise.
“Allow me now, sir, to go on as if we were talking as we have often
done over the churchyard gate, or by your door; and not as if this
letter had to travel over the wide sea before it reaches you. I should
like to know whether it has ever happened to you to fancy gentlemen
like yourself coming over to this place? I am sure, if such would think
of it, it would be the best thing for the society here, and might prove
so to themselves, in cases where they are not very well off, and have
little to leave that they care for. You make no secret, sir, of its being
difficult for your family to live on such a curacy as yours, and you
have even talked of settling your sons abroad as they grow up. If you
would send them,—or (what is better) bring them here,—they shall
be made welcome, and watched over and taken care of as they
ought to be by those who owe so much to their father. Indeed, sir,
this might prove a pleasant settlement in a very few years to you and
yours. There are now eleven farms and other dwellings within three
miles, and more building every year; and Launceston is within reach.
The people about us are mostly very intelligent, and it is a good sign
that they are crying out continually for a settled clergyman and a
school; and, if we cannot get so much, for a library. You would find a
good house, with a stable, and a horse in it; a garden, and two or
three fields; a school-room with five-and-twenty scholars, whose
parents would pay you well both for your teaching and your Sunday
services. We should ask you too, to choose a little library at our
expense, and should add to it, under your direction, every year; so
that your children as well as those of the settlers should have every
advantage. You will find further particulars of what we can offer you
in the public letter which accompanies this.
“My fear is, that the consideration of the young ladies will deter
you, should you otherwise be disposed to listen to our plan; and,
indeed, England seems at first sight the best place for daughters that
have lost their mother. But I have great hopes that these plains may
be like an English county before your young ladies have grown up.
When once gentlemen, especially clergymen, begin to come, more
follow; and this is all we want to make the Dairy Plains like parts of
Sussex or Dorsetshire. We have specimens of each class, up to the
thriving farmer and wool-grower. There is also a surveyor, and a
surgeon is coming, they say; though he is the last person wanted,
except for an accident now and then, for we really have no sickness.
If, in addition to these, we could have over a tanner or two, a coal-
master, a vine-grower, a store-keeper, and so on, each with his
proper labourers, ours would be as flourishing a settlement as any in
the world. There is coal in plenty, and a fine market in every
direction, if we had but people to work it; and the same may be said
of slate, and bark, and hides. Some Portuguese vine-dressers are
making a fine thing of a vineyard in the south of the island; and why
not here, instead of our having to import spirits in such quantities as
make drunkards of too many of our labourers? The commoner sorts
of wine we might make would soon drive out spirits, to our great
benefit in every way. As for clothing, utensils, and other things that
are brought to great perfection and cheapness in England, we had
better go on buying there; and I have no doubt they will be as glad of
our productions as we of their manufactures. You will be pleased to
hear that there are already twenty-six vessels belonging to the
island, and that upwards of thirty traded with us from Great Britain
last year; and that 1,000,000 lbs. of wool were sent there within the
twelve months. All these things I mention to show what a rising
country this is, and how well worth the while of many a man above
the rank of labourers and artizans to come to. If you should think of
doing so, sir, it would be the best piece of news that could reach the
Dairy Plains from any part of the world. You should have the
heartiest welcome from some whom you are pleased to call old
friends.
“Perhaps, sir, you may remember saying something to me about
the difficulty of getting a wife here. I have never tried, because there
was one in England, as you know, that I always hoped might keep
herself single till we should agree that she should follow me out.
Through all these long four years we have had this in view, and now
I shall have a house ready for her by the time she can come; and
this is the other liberty I told you I was about to take. If you should
really come, perhaps, knowing her steadiness so well, you would let
her cross with you, waiting on the young ladies during the voyage,
for the expense of which I will be answerable. Whether you join us or
not, I have little doubt you will kindly put her in the way of coming
with the least possible delay; and you may depend on my meeting
her before she lands.
“I have said nothing of Ellen, because you will see her letter to
grandfather. I have left it to her to send money this time, as I have
other use, you see, for my own.
 “It is a load off my mind, sir, to have written what has been deep
down in it for so long. It is a great while to wait for an answer; and if
there should be disappointment both ways, I hardly know how I shall
bear it. But I am pretty sure of what is to me the chief thing; and if
you come too, I wonder what we can manage to find to wish for next.
It pleased God to give Ellen and me our hardships early, and to take
us out of them before our hearts and tempers were hurt; like so
many at home, better perhaps than ourselves. If He should try us
any more, we have good reason now to be patient; and in the
meanwhile, we desire to save others from what we had to go through
for a short time, and therefore write as we do about coming over.
”Frank Castle.
“P.S. There are fine downs here for the young gentlemen to fly
their kites, just behind the house you would have. Ellen will take care
that Miss Maria shall have a pretty poultry-yard; and Susan is taming
an opossum mouse for the other little lady.”

The many months which necessarily elapsed before an answer to

the above could be received did indeed seem long; almost as much
so to Frank’s family as to himself. Ellen had made a request scarcely
less important than Frank’s to the happiness of her parents, if not to
her own. She had always been convinced that the child which had
been sent to the workhouse by the parish surgeon of A—— was her
stepmother’s; and it had ever been her resolution to yield a sister’s
protection to it. Harry Moore was as willing as herself to have the
child over; and as the boy was now only five years old, there was
hope that he might prove an exception to the general rule of the
corruption of parish-bred children. Frank’s betrothed was requested
to bring him out with her; and if Mrs. Castle was still disinclined to
own him, he was to take his place as the eldest of Harry Moore’s
children. There was not a man, woman, or child in the
neighbourhood that did not see the importance of having a
clergyman’s family come among them; and by all, therefore, Mr.
Jackson’s reply was looked for as the oracle which was to decide
whether their settlement might immediately rise to that degree of
prosperity which is caused by the union of high civilization with
universal plenty, or whether it must remain for some time longer in
the rude state which is ever the consequence of a scarcity of
knowledge and of leisure. The parents began already to teach their
children the alphabet and the multiplication table, during the
evenings of the week, and as many hymns as they could recollect on
Sundays. The little ones already began to play keeping school; and
the travelling chaplain was told, week by week, how much pleasanter
he would find his occasional visits when there should be a resident
pastor on the spot, more worthy to converse with him than any of his
flock. A part of the Sunday leisure was spent by many in repairing to
the field where Mr. Jackson’s house was to be; and then what
planning there was about the garden, and the stand of bee-hives,
and the paddock, and every other appendage to the parsonage!
Some of the lads were training a pony for the young Jacksons, and
the rarest and finest plants were destined for their flower-beds.
The answer was expected to arrive in May, and every one hoped it
would be before the anniversary;—that celebration of the arrival of
the emigrants in a land of plenty which has already been spoken of
as the best of their festivals. It happened to arrive on that very day.
 Chapter IX.

TRUE CITIZENSHIP.

Bright and busy were the mornings of these anniversaries;—each

busier and brighter than the last, as the families of the settlers grew
in numbers and prosperity. The labourers and mechanics who had
arrived in the same waggon with the Castles had found wives or had
them over, and now came thronging with their infants, bringing also
the new comers of their craft, or in their employ; so that it was found
necessary to spread a greater length of table every year under the
shade where they dined, and to provide a larger treat of game.
There was more bustle than usual this time, from Stapleton having
chosen this very morning for his departure to the new territory where
he meant to establish a lodge in the wilderness. As it was a holiday,
several neighbours followed in his train for a few miles; and when
obliged to turn back, gave three cheers to their departing neighbour,
and three to him who was to be his successor in the abode which
had grown up flourishing before their eyes, and was the chief
ornament of their settlement. Frank joined in these cheers, and then
told his companions that he would follow them home in an hour, as
Mr. Stapleton had still some more directions to give, and wished for
his company a little farther.—When Frank reappeared at noon, he
looked so grave and had suddenly become so silent that everybody
was struck, and his sister alarmed. He hastily reminded her that it
was post-day; and said he was going himself to meet the postman,
and would be back before dinner was on table. Three or four holiday-
folks went with him; and none wondered that he looked grave on
hearing the sentence “No letters for the Dairy Plains.” Before they
were half-way back, some of the acuter ears among the party caught
the welcome and very rare sound of waggon wheels in their rear. In
course of time, the vehicle appeared briskly approaching on the
Launceston road, and Frank sprang eagerly forward to gaze in the
faces of the passengers. All were strange; and these repeated
disappointments left him no heart to hail the travellers. His
companions did so, however; and the reply was that these were
labourers from England, some bound to Stapleton’s successor, and
others on their way to a settlement further on.
“What part of England were they from?” “Kent and Surrey.” “Did
they bring letters for the Dairy Plains?” “Plenty; and something
besides letters.” So saying, they exhibited a little boy, the very image
of Jerry at five years old. Frank silently caught him up in his arms,
and carried him on without asking another question; the dreary
conviction having struck him that as this child was sent alone, none
of the others he wished for were coming.
Little passed between himself and Ellen, who was on the watch.
“Here is the child, Ellen. May he be a blessing to you!”
“Is he alone? No letters? No message? Or worse than none?”
“There are letters, but I have not got them from these people yet.
They cannot be good, you know, or why——”
He could not go on. Ellen ran to beg the particular favour of the
travellers to get out the letters immediately. This was easily done, the
packages of the labourers being small; and before Frank was called
upon to carve for a few dozen hungry people, he had satisfied
himself that it was very childish and ungrateful to have been so soon
cast down; and his gravity was seen by those who watched him to
be of a very different character from that which had seized him three
hours before.
It was not Ellen’s wish that the little workhouse child should meet
his parents for the first time in the presence of strangers. Knowing
that Castle and his wife were gathering fruit in their garden, she took
the boy there, (after having brushed the dust from his clothes, and
set him off to the best advantage,) and put him in at the gate, bidding
him not to be frightened if he was spoken to, but say where he came
from. The little fellow made no advances. He stood in the middle of
the walk, with a finger of each hand in his mouth, and his chin upon
his breast. He had not yet learned work-house impudence.
Castle was the first to see him, after stooping so long over his
peaches that Ellen began to fear the blindness was wilful. “Wife!
Wife!” she at length heard him call. “He is come! The boy is come!”
Ellen just staid to hear the words “my boy” from both, and stole
away. The next time she saw him was as he came between his
parents to the dinner table, chattering in his Kentish dialect, and
asking to sit on his father’s knee, and be treated with fruit by his
mother.
“You must be satisfied with being his brother, Harry,” said Ellen to
her husband. “He does not need to go begging for a father.”
Among the toasts which were given after dinner, some one
proposed Mr. Stapleton’s successor, whose name it was strange
enough that nobody had been able to learn till this day; and perhaps
it was not less remarkable that the name was the same with that of
some respected persons now present. They would all fill their cans
to the health of Mr. Robert Castle, about to become their neighbour.
It did not seem to occur to anybody who this Robert Castle was, till
the gloom was seen to have settled over Frank’s countenance as
black as ever. Then the rest of the family looked at one another in
wonder and dismay. Frank’s companions on either hand asked him if
he was asleep, or what had come over him that he did not fill his
can. He immediately addressed the party, relating that he had been
requested by Mr. Stapleton to inform the present company that the
proprietor who was coming among them did not approve of such
festivals as they were now holding; that he had purposely kept away
till the present one was over, and hoped to hear of no more
anniversaries.—This announcement occasioned a great uproar,
which Frank quieted by observing that so absurd an interference as
this need not be regarded otherwise than with silent contempt; that,
whatever reasons the person in question might have for disliking
such a celebration as theirs, he had nothing to do with the way in
which they chose to remember the country of their birth, and to be
thankful for the blessings of that in which they now lived. He
therefore proposed, sure of being cheerfully pledged by every one
around him, “Many happy returns to all present of this remarkable
festival.”
No wonder Frank had looked grave after bidding farewell to
Stapleton, when the last news he heard from him was, that his
successor was no other than Bob the convict, whose ambition was
so far gratified that he was able to take on lease the little estate on
which his virtuous elder brother had till now worked for hire. So
much, as he observed, for his having been favoured with a free
passage! His family were obliged to reconcile themselves to seeing
him climb over their heads in this way. They reminded one another
that they had made up their minds to the presence of convicts, as
the one great evil attending emigration to Van Diemen’s Land, and
that they must not now begin to complain because one of these
convicts was a son and brother. What their intercourse with him was
to be, or whether there was to be any, they left to be decided by
circumstances when he should appear.
A hearty welcome being offered to the Kentish and Surrey folks
just arrived, they gave some account of themselves. They had all
suffered from want of demand for their labour; an evil which had
gone on to increase in the face of the promises that had been made
to them about providing for all who were out of work on farms
prepared for their advantage alone. A young labourer from the parish
of A—— stated that his father and mother and their seven children
had been located on such a farm by Mr. Fellowes, with sixty other
families; that it was difficult to provide for all the young people as
they grew up, and would become more so still when they came to
have families of their own, unless indeed they spent their whole lives
in getting food and food only. Mr. Fellowes was now anxious to take
in more paupers upon his farm, and was unwilling, in order to make
room for them, to turn out labourers upon the parish where there
were already too many; and he had therefore advised the sons and
daughters of his home-settlers to lose no opportunity of getting well
placed either in Canada or Australia. “So,” concluded the speaker, “I
moved off to make room for two elderly folks, seeing, as Mr.
Fellowes himself said, that I can raise a better living with less toil
here than there, and be much sooner free; and so, here I am. But Mr.
Jackson will tell you all about it, when he comes, better than I can.”
It was now Frank’s turn to explain that the clergyman and his
family were really coming, and to read that part of his long letter
which concerned the present company.—He had often thought of
coming, the gentleman wrote, and had nearly made up his mind to it
before the invitation arrived from some of his former flock; and the
inducements held out by them had quite decided him.—And now
what cheering, what long and loud congratulation followed!
 “What are you shaking your head for, Castle?” inquired one who
sat opposite to him. “You cannot altogether help smiling; so why
spoil sport with shaking your head? What are you sorry for?”
“I am not sorry. I am very glad. I am only afraid of Mr. Jackson’s
growing sorry, and that in a very little while. After all, you see, this is
not the old country.”
“No more is the coat on your back an old coat; and how is it the
worse for that?”
“Tush! Stuff! One’s coat has nothing to do with one’s happiness,
as one’s country has. England is one’s home after all.”
“Not mine, I am sure. It was a dreary place enough to me,—
nothing like a home. I and mine were neglected or oppressed at
every turn; not because anybody meant us harm; but like starving
people who happen to be just so many more than are needed. Here I
have all I want without begging or returning thanks; and this is my
home. Wherever I have a dwelling and food, wherever I have
comfort and safety within doors, and can step abroad among friends,
there is my home. Put me under a parish roof in the very spot I was
born in, and I should feel like a banished man. Set me down
independent, with my family about me, in any part of the world,—in
the middle of a forest or on the wildest sea-shore, and, be it north,
south, east, or west, that place is a home to me.”
Castle still shook his head, saying that there was no place like
England to an Englishman.
“Aye; if you could be as well off in England as you are here, I grant
you. But just answer me this,—if you and your family could be set
down this very day before the workhouse at A—, in the condition in
which you drove away from it, would you go?”
Castle stole a glance at his children and hesitated to reply.—To
spare his father, Frank observed that Mr. Jackson had a good deal to
say on this subject, and proceeded to finish the letter, the auditory
showing by their silence during its progress and their enthusiasm at
its conclusion, that they were partly sensible of the greatness of the
occasion, as well as prepared to enter into his opinions and feelings.
Several of them, besides Frank and others who personally knew Mr.
Jackson, felt that a new era in the prosperity of the settlement at
Dairy Plains was likely to begin from this day;—for their
correspondent might be said to be already among them.
After discussing the details of his removal, his letter proceeded
thus:—
“My first consideration was, as you suppose, for my children; and
long and anxiously did I consider, as it will be a comfort to as many
of you as have families to know. The only way to settle such a
question is, to ascertain what are the objects of human life. This
done, it is easy to settle where those objects may be best attained.
What I desire for my sons and daughters is that life should train them
to the greatest degree of benevolence and integrity, out of which is
sure to spring the highest kind of piety; and these things, with
outward plenty, make happiness. Now, it seems to me that that
benevolence is of the most kindly and abundant sort which subsists
among happy people; and that integrity is most secure where the
interests of all are the same, instead of being opposed. I think that
not all the advantages of society and what is commonly called
education, which my children could have in England, will set against
the freedom from temptation and from the corrupting sights of human
misery which must there come in their way; poor as they must be
here, and condemned to jostle their way in the world, and probably
to lose a step or two of the rank which their father’s profession leads
them to consider as their own. Education is made up of many things
besides books, and even cultivated society; and I am much mistaken
if, with such a field of exertion before them, and such motives to it,
with abundance of God’s blessings and beauties poured out around
them, in the midst of an affectionate and thriving people, and with
their father at hand to teach much which they could not otherwise
learn, the intellects of my sons and daughters may not become of a
much higher order than they could amidst the struggle for
subsistence which they must sustain at home. I judge for none but
those who are circumstanced like myself; but I certainly feel that
those who have several children for whom they can provide nothing
more than that sort of education which will not be of use to them in a
competition for bread, are the right persons to go abroad and make
their home where, at the sacrifice of some of the privileges of high
civilization, none of the troubles and moral evils of poverty can enter.
 “You will have heard that Mr. Fellowes finds his well-meant plans
somewhat difficult to manage, from the vast increase of claimants. I
believe he still thinks that if there were People’s Farms enough, the
relief might be made effectual, though he cannot explain what is to
be done with so many delvers a hundred years hence, and will not
say whether we are all to become delvers and spinners rather than a
few of us cross the world to a more fruitful land. Your grandparents
seem to like their settlement on his farm, and their employment of
looking after some of the orphan children, and teaching them to dig
and spin. Your presents and Ellen’s give them great pleasure, and
add to their stock of little comforts. They sigh for you sometimes; and
no wonder: but they console themselves with saying that your father
will end his days among a thriving set of grandchildren who need
never fear want. Mr. Fellowes is glad, I am pleased to see, to have
some of his farm labourers go abroad as opportunity offers; and
some of these will convey this letter to you.—So many inquiries have
already been addressed to me since my determination was known,
that I have strong hopes that persons of various classes will soon be
on their way to the Dairy Plains.—Wherever colonization has
succeeded best, the emigrating party has been composed of
specimens of every rank and class; so that no one felt stripped of the
blessings of the mother-country, but rather that he moved away in
the midst of an entire though small society. If gentlemen go to one
place, and labourers to another, the settlement is sure to pine, like
that at the Swan River, and like too many more of the same kind.
Whatever expense and trouble may be incurred in locating such
imperfect materials of society must be well nigh lost. The true
economy, the true benevolence, the true wisdom, of emigration is to
send out a company as a swarm of bees goes forth,—under proper
leaders, and in a state of organization. This is the doctrine I declare
as often as I am questioned; and I am trying to convince such
capitalists as talk of emigrating that, if done in such a mode as this,
their removal becomes most like a removal from one county to
another;—as if they went from Norfolk into Cumberland, or from
Lancashire into the new scenery of Devonshire. Let us hope that
some of them will make the trial.
 “The greatest surprise to me is that some still go on talking of its
being unpatriotic to leave one’s country. Surely it is patriotic to do
whatever most benefits one’s country; and it is pretty clear that it is a
benefit to rid ours of thousands of her burdensome children, to the
great advantage, instead of injury, of her colonies. After all, a state is
made up of individual members; and, therefore, whatever most
benefits those individuals must benefit the state. Our duty to the
state and our duty to ourselves are not opposing duties; if they were,
there would either be no patriots, or no one would thrive. On the
contrary, a man’s chief duty to his country is to provide honestly and
abundantly, if he can, for himself and his family; and when this
cannot be done at home, it is a breach of duty to stay and eat up
other men’s substance there, if a living can be had elsewhere. But I
need not argue this matter with you, who have seen and adopted the
true patriotism. I and mine will come and try what we can do to make
the name of our native land honoured in distant regions as it is in our
own hearts: and when the reckoning comes to be made of what, as a
community, we of the Dairy Plains have done for the state of which
we are members, let it be clear that we have loved and served her all
the better for being removed from the gates of her workhouses into
one of the palaces which God himself has built for her.”
 Summary of Principles illustrated in this Volume.

Two kinds of colonization have been adopted by the British

Empire;—Colonization for the reduction of our home-population,—or
Voluntary Emigration;—and Penal Colonization.
The term Colonization is by some applied to a third process, which
they wish to see introduced into this country; viz.—Home
Colonization.
The objects of Voluntary Emigration, directed by the state, are
threefold.
1st. To improve the condition of those who emigrate, by placing
them where they may obtain subsistence at less cost than at home.
2d. To improve the condition of those who remain, by increasing
the ratio of capital to population.
3d. To improve the condition of the colonized region.
To fulfil the 1st of these objects, the colony must be so located as
to insure health and abundance to its members; and it must be so
organized as to secure the due co-operation of labour and capital.
To fulfil the 2d object, the removal of each individual must be less
costly than his maintenance at home would be; and the selection
must be made with a view to lessening the amount of human
productiveness at home.
To fulfil the 3d object, the colonists must be selected with a view to
their productiveness, both as regards capital and population; which
includes a moral fitness to compose an orderly society.
It follows from all these considerations that a new settlement
should be composed of young, healthy, and moral persons; that all
should not be labourers, nor all capitalists; and that there should be
a sufficient concentration of their numbers on the new lands to insure
a facility of exchanges.

Home colonies may afford a temporary relief to a redundant

population, and also increase the productiveness of the lands which
they appropriate; but this is done by alienating capital from its natural
channels; and with the certainty of ultimately injuring society by
increasing the redundancy of population over capital.
 Home colonization then, though less injurious than the
unproductive distribution of the Charity-fund, is inferior to foreign
colonization, inasmuch as the one yields temporary benefit to a few
at the expense of ultimate injury to many; and the other produces
permanent benefit to all.

The objects of Penal Colonization are,

1st. The security of society by the removal of the offender.
2d. The security of society by the effect of his example.
3d. The reformation of the offender.
There has hitherto been an entire failure of all these objects. And
no wonder; since,
1st. The offender is only transferred from one portion of society to
another: and besides, frequently returns to his old haunts.
2d. His punishment, as far as it is punishment, takes place at too
great a distance to be conspicuous as a warning; and in as far as his
lot does not involve punishment, the effect of his example is
precisely the reverse of what is desired.
3d. Our convict arrangements tend to the further corruption of the
offender, by letting him experience a great improvement in his
condition as a direct consequence of his crimes.
The junction of penal with voluntary emigration tends equally to
disappoint the purposes of the one, and to extinguish the benefits of
the other; since convict labourers find themselves in a state of
privilege, in a region where their labour procures them large rewards;
and new settlers find their community deeply injured by the vice and
disease consequent on the introduction of a convict population.
 FOR EACH
AND
FOR ALL.

A Tale.

BY

HARRIET MARTINEAU.

LONDON:
CHARLES FOX, 67, PATERNOSTER-ROW.

1832.
 CONTENTS.

1. Novelty 1
2. Pastime 18
3. Discussion 29
4. More Novelty 45
5. Observing at hand 62
6. Observing afar 70
7. One for Himself 87
8. Consequences 108
9. Each for All 118
 FOR EACH AND FOR ALL.

Chapter I.

NOVELTY.

The season was more than half over, and was about to be
pronounced remarkably dull, when a promise of novelty was given
out in the shape of a rumour that lord F—— and his lady, who had
been travelling abroad from the day of their marriage, had arrived in
town, and that the bride’s first appearance would take place at the
Duke of A——’s ball on the 20th. This information was circulated in
various forms of words, all bearing a relation to what lady F—— had
been before she was lady F——. At the clubs, in the shops, in
drawing-rooms and boudoirs, it was related that lady F——’s debut
would take place on the 20th. Her first appearance on a new stage,
—her return from a tour in the provinces,—her first night in a new
character, all were referred to the 20th, in a manner which should
prevent any one forgetting that lady F—— had quitted a profession
on her marriage. The curiosity was not confined to mothers and
daughters, to whose observation an extraordinary marriage is the
most exciting circumstance that life affords: in this case, the interest
was shared by their husbands and fathers. Some wondered how the
proud old earl would stand the introduction of his daughter-in-law
into his own society; and others, who had told lord F—— that he was
a lucky fellow to have won such a glorious creature, speculated,
notwithstanding, on the awkwardnesses and difficulties which must
hourly arise from the choice of one so far below him in rank. He was
an odd personage, however,—lord F——; and there was no telling
how he would think and feel on occasions when everybody else felt