Informatics for Digital Education:

Proceedings of the 3rd American

University in the Emirates International
Research Conference Asma Salman
Visit to download the full and correct content document:
https://ebookmass.com/product/informatics-for-digital-education-proceedings-of-the-3
rd-american-university-in-the-emirates-international-research-conference-asma-salma
n/
More products digital (pdf, epub, mobi) instant
download maybe you interests ...

ICT for Engineering & Critical Infrastructures:

Proceedings of the 3rd American University in the
Emirates International Research Conference,
AUEIRC’20—Dubai, UAE 2020 Asma Salman
https://ebookmass.com/product/ict-for-engineering-critical-
infrastructures-proceedings-of-the-3rd-american-university-in-
the-emirates-international-research-conference-aueirc20-dubai-
uae-2020-asma-salman/

Beyond Camps and Forced Labour : Proceedings of the

Sixth International Conference 1st Edition Suzanne
Bardgett

https://ebookmass.com/product/beyond-camps-and-forced-labour-
proceedings-of-the-sixth-international-conference-1st-edition-
suzanne-bardgett/

Next Generation Arithmetic: 4th International

Conference, CoNGA 2023, Singapore, March 1-2, 2023,
Proceedings John Gustafson

https://ebookmass.com/product/next-generation-arithmetic-4th-
international-conference-conga-2023-singapore-
march-1-2-2023-proceedings-john-gustafson/

Proceedings of the Third Annual National Multi-

Disciplinary Conference, V-CMT 2016 Dr. Rohini Kelkar

https://ebookmass.com/product/proceedings-of-the-third-annual-
national-multi-disciplinary-conference-v-cmt-2016-dr-rohini-
kelkar/
Social Robotics: 14th International Conference, ICSR
2022, Florence, Italy, December 13–16, 2022,
Proceedings, Part I Filippo Cavallo

https://ebookmass.com/product/social-robotics-14th-international-
conference-icsr-2022-florence-italy-
december-13-16-2022-proceedings-part-i-filippo-cavallo/

The Geography of Gandh■ran Art: Proceedings of the

Second International Workshop of the Gandh■ra
Connections Project, University of Oxford, 22nd-23rd
March, 2018 1st Edition Wannaporn Rienjang (Editor)
https://ebookmass.com/product/the-geography-of-gandharan-art-
proceedings-of-the-second-international-workshop-of-the-gandhara-
connections-project-university-of-oxford-22nd-23rd-
march-2018-1st-edition-wannaporn-rienjang-editor/

Research Methods for the Digital Humanities Lewis

Levenberg

https://ebookmass.com/product/research-methods-for-the-digital-
humanities-lewis-levenberg/

Digital Holocaust Memory, Education and Research

Victoria Grace Walden

https://ebookmass.com/product/digital-holocaust-memory-education-
and-research-victoria-grace-walden/

A History of American Higher Education 3rd Edition,

(Ebook PDF)

https://ebookmass.com/product/a-history-of-american-higher-
education-3rd-edition-ebook-pdf/
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation
IEREK Interdisciplinary Series for Sustainable Development

Asma Salman · Assem Tharwat Editors

Informatics for
Digital Education
Proceedings of the 3rd American University
in the Emirates International Research Conference,
AUEIRC’20—Dubai, UAE 2020
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation
IEREK Interdisciplinary Series for Sustainable
Development

Editorial Board
Anna Laura Pisello, Department of Engineering, University of Perugia, Italy
Dean Hawkes, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
Hocine Bougdah, University for the Creative Arts, Farnham, UK
Federica Rosso, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy
Hassan Abdalla, University of East London, London, UK
Sofia-Natalia Boemi, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece
Nabil Mohareb, Faculty of Architecture—Design and Built Environment,
Beirut Arab University, Beirut, Lebanon
Saleh Mesbah Elkaffas, Arab Academy for Science, Technology and Maritime Transport,
Cairo, Egypt
Emmanuel Bozonnet, University of La Rochelle, La Rochelle, France
Gloria Pignatta, University of Perugia, Italy
Yasser Mahgoub, Qatar University, Qatar
Luciano De Bonis, University of Molise, Italy
Stella Kostopoulou, Regional and Tourism Development, University of Thessaloniki,
Thessaloniki, Greece
Biswajeet Pradhan, Faculty of Engineering and IT, University of Technology Sydney,
Sydney, Australia
Md. Abdul Mannan, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak, Malaysia
Chaham Alalouch, Sultan Qaboos University, Muscat, Oman
Iman O. Gawad, Helwan University, Helwan, Egypt
Anand Nayyar , Graduate School, Duy Tan University, Da Nang, Vietnam

Series Editor
Mourad Amer, International Experts for Research Enrichment and Knowledge Exchange
(IEREK), Cairo, Egypt
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation (ASTI) is a series of peer-reviewed books
based on important emerging research that redefines the current disciplinary boundaries in
science, technology and innovation (STI) in order to develop integrated concepts for
sustainable development. It not only discusses the progress made towards securing more
resources, allocating smarter solutions, and rebalancing the relationship between nature and
people, but also provides in-depth insights from comprehensive research that addresses the
17 sustainable development goals (SDGs) as set out by the UN for 2030.
The series draws on the best research papers from various IEREK and other international
conferences to promote the creation and development of viable solutions for a sustainable
future and a positive societal transformation with the help of integrated and innovative
science-based approaches. Including interdisciplinary contributions, it presents innovative
approaches and highlights how they can best support both economic and sustainable
development, through better use of data, more effective institutions, and global, local and
individual action, for the welfare of all societies.
The series particularly features conceptual and empirical contributions from various
interrelated fields of science, technology and innovation, with an emphasis on digital
transformation, that focus on providing practical solutions to ensure food, water and energy
security to achieve the SDGs. It also presents new case studies offering concrete examples of
how to resolve sustainable urbanization and environmental issues in different regions of the
world.
The series is intended for professionals in research and teaching, consultancies and industry,
and government and international organizations. Published in collaboration with IEREK, the
Springer ASTI series will acquaint readers with essential new studies in STI for sustainable
development.
ASTI series has now been accepted for Scopus (September 2020). All content published
in this series will start appearing on the Scopus site in early 2021.
Asma Salman · Assem Tharwat
Editors

Informatics for Digital

Education
Proceedings of the 3rd American University
in the Emirates International Research
Conference, AUEIRC’20—Dubai, UAE 2020
Editors
Asma Salman Assem Tharwat
College of Business Administration American University in the Emirates (AUE)
American University in the Emirates (AUE) Dubai, United Arab Emirates
Dubai, United Arab Emirates

ISSN 2522-8714 ISSN 2522-8722 (electronic)

Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation
IEREK Interdisciplinary Series for Sustainable Development
ISBN 978-3-031-49395-9 ISBN 978-3-031-49393-5 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-49393-5

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature
Switzerland AG 2024

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole
or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation,
broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and
retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter
developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not
imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and
regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed
to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty,
expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have
been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional
affiliations.

This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland

Paper in this product is recyclable.

Preface

The 3rd American University in the Emirates International Research Conference

(AUEIRC’20) under the theme “Transition to Knowledge Economy: Challenges, Smart
Opportunities and Innovation” brought together academics, researchers, and practi-
tioners under one platform with the aim of sharing ideas and expertise in the most press-
ing challenges that the world has witnessed. Under the Patronage of H.H. Sheikh Hamdan
Bin Rashid Al Maktoum, Deputy Ruler of Dubai and Minister of Finance, United Arab
Emirates (UAE), the 3rd AUEIRC 2020 was held between August 8 and 11, 2020. The pro-
ceedings will be published in the Transition to Knowledge Economy: Challenges, Smart
Opportunities, and Innovation book series of Springer.
As the first research conference to be conducted virtually in the Middle East, covering
vital sectors of the economy and the impact of COVID-19, this conference was a testimony
that digital transformation indeed leads to the continuity of exchange of knowledge. It war-
ranted a vision, where the academics, practitioners, and policymakers from the region and
across the globe engaged in a dialogue to discuss some of the most pressing issues in knowl-
edge economy and the pandemic that has gripped the world, while focusing on the applica-
tion side of the research rather than just the theoretical ones.
The scope of the conference included eight main themes, namely; COVID-19 Challenges,
Entrepreneurship, Computer and Advanced Technology, Education Industry, Security and
Global Studies, Law, Integrated Media, and Design Industry. The 3rd AUEIRC 2020 wit-
nessed research paper presentations from 101 presenters in 18 different sessions under these
eight tracks. The conference boasted of imminent speakers from the industry and academia
covering pertinent issues and offering plausible solutions. It had 7 keynote sessions, 6 inter-
active workshops, talks from 20 experts from the industry, and participation from over 25
Countries during the 4-day conference. Each speaker brought with them a wealth of knowl-
edge and concluded with a range of questions and discussions from the audience and the pan-
els. Worthy speakers included; H.E. Mr. Mirza Al Sayegh, Director, Office of H.H. Sheikh
Hamden Bin Rashid Al Maktoum (United Arab Emirates), Major Gen. Dr. Ahmed Nasser Al
Raisi, General Inspector of the Ministry of Interior (United Arab Emirates), Prof. Suzanne
Trager Ortega, President of the Council of Graduate Schools (United States of America), H.E.
Dr. Dena Assaf, United Nations Resident Coordinator for UAE, and H.E. Jamal Al Jarwan,
Secretary General—UAE International Investors Council (United Arab Emirates).
The International Scientific Committee comprised of over 40 international experts in vari-
ous fields as per the themes of the conference. The panels were divided based on tracks and
all papers were presented in 18 thematic sessions. In an aim to bridge the gap between theory
and practice, each session was organized to have an academic and an industry representative
as a chair and/or co-chair. This enhanced the feedback and reflected discussions from a well-
rounded perspective. Sessions were designed to start with the paper presentations and then
the floor was opened for a healthy exchange of feedback. A double-blind peer review process
enabled 50 full papers to be accepted for publication (in five edited volumes) by Springer.
This volume supplies innovative, novel, and applied informatics in unique Higher
Education cases; presents evidence-driven digital solutions for innovative pedagogies;
and discusses the ways in which ICT addresses wider sociological challenges in Higher
Education.

v
vi Preface

On behalf of the AUEIRC’20 Steering Committee, we would like to thank all the ref-
erees, track chairs, and paper authors. Special thanks to Prof. Muthanna G. Abdul Razzaq,
President, and CEO American University in the Emirates (AUE) and AUEIRC’20 General
Chair who contributed all resources at his disposal to ensure the conference meets the stand-
ard of excellence. We would also like to thank Major Gen. Dr. Ahmed Nasser Al Raisi,
General Inspector of the Ministry of Interior—United Arab Emirates and Chairman Board
of Trustees (AUE) for his valuable support. Special gratitude to members of the conference
steering committee for their hard work, dedication, and continuous support throughout the
preparation and implementation of this virtual conference. Moreover, we are grateful to the
event management, information technology department, auxiliary services, media, protocol
teams as well as faculty and staff members from different committees for their support in
organizing the conference and ensuring its success.

Dubai, United Arab Emirates Prof. Asma Salman

asma.salman@aue.ae
Prof. Assem Tharwat
assem.tharwat@aue.ae
About This Book

With an ever-increasing evolution in the usage of digital systems and devices altering the
way we live, it is apparent that our world is no longer limited to physical substances, but
rather, various digital systems driven by scientific laws known as Informatics. Informatics
is a rigorous and scholarly discipline, now a need for every industry sector that has brought
about transformational change specifically across Health Care, Business, Sports, Education,
Transport, and more. Considered as a major contributor to economic development and all
professions and disciplines, the field of Informatics has become widely recognized, leading
to novel research. This development of the digital world and increasing demand across all
industries for skilled personnel have naturally made it essential that its concepts, theories,
principles, methods as well as digital literacy are introduced in educational systems.
In this volume, current challenges and efforts in Informatics for a Digital Education
are deliberated and addressed. Emphasizing on Informatics in Higher Education, the
book starts by not only dissecting current teaching practices, introducing inclusive learn-
ing approaches directed at higher education learners with disabilities (such as dyslexia,
dysgraphia, and dyscalculia), providing an overview of social-emotional learning in higher
education as well as distance and online learning, but it also highlights advances in tech-
nologies, such as Big Data Analytics (BDA), Artificial Intelligence (AI), and the Internet
of Things (IoTs), in an exploration of their unfolding role in Education. Then it focuses on
Digitalization for Innovation Pedagogy by looking at teaching and learning techniques,
including tools for delivering context-based learning, assessing the shift to online educa-
tion in light of the COVID-19 pandemic, and finally, introducing innovative pedagogies
in entrepreneurship business education in a knowledge-driven economy. Finally it com-
plements the above by shedding light on IT-Driven Changes in Educational Settings.
Consequently, the introduction of technology in earlier stages of education is investigated,
and its integration into Sports and Health, Mathematics Learning, English Education, and
Language Learning is deliberated.
The book presents selected papers submitted to the 3rd American University in the
Emirates International Research Conference (AUEIRC’20), which brought together aca-
demics, researchers, and practitioners under one platform with the aim of sharing ideas and
expertise in the most pressing challenges that the world has witnessed. Under the Patronage
of H.H Sheikh Hamdan Bin Rashid Al Maktoum, Deputy Ruler of Dubai and Minister of
Finance, United Arab Emirates (UAE), the 3rd AUEIRC 2020 was held between August 8
and 11, 2020.
As one of the earliest adopters of virtual research conferencing in the Arab world, cover-
ing vital sectors of the economy and the impact of COVID-19, this conference was a testi-
mony that digital transformation indeed leads to the continuity of exchange of knowledge.
It warranted a vision, where academics, practitioners, and policymakers from the region
and across the globe engaged in a dialogue to discuss some of the most pressing issues in
Informatics Education, both in light of and in spite of the pandemic that has gripped the
world, while focusing on the application side of the research rather than just the theoretical
ones.

vii
Contents

Needs Assessment Study for Social-Emotional Learning in Higher Education . . . . . 1

Sawsan Dagher, Ali Hilal-Alnaqbi and Boshra Akozaheya
Differentiated Curriculum and Teaching Practices for Students with
Determination in Higher Education, Reforms for Learners with Dyslexia,
Dysgraphia, and Dyscalculia in Higher Education System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Hala Abdullah Al-Bukhari
Distance Learning and Online Learning: A Preferred Approach to Higher
Education. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Hesham Magd and Benson Ruzive
Big Data Exploration Towards Analysing and Predicting Student’s Academic
Progress in Higher Education: A Review. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Ibtisam Yakub Mogul and Satya Shah
Innovative Pedagogy: A Case Study of Incidental and Context-Based Learning. . . . 29
Maisa El Gamal and Vasila Alkhaldi
Assessment of Student Readiness, Willingness and Acceptance for Effective
Transitioning Toward Online Instruction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Nessrin Shaya
Smart Food and Sports Policies in the Digital Age: Re-defining Nutrition
Economic, Education Designs, and Governance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Sima Hamadeh
Perception of Violence at Schools Among Children and Teenagers in Dubai. . . . . . . 63
Jihene Mrabet, Nahla Moussa, Esther Ebbi Chacko and Aya Issa

ix
 Needs Assessment Study
for Social-Emotional Learning
in Higher Education
Sawsan Dagher, Ali Hilal-Alnaqbi and Boshra Akozaheya
Abstract
It is recognized that negative emotions such as anxiety,
stress, and pressure have a negative impact on cogni-
tive performance, the working memory capacity of the
brain, and consequently on the academic attainment.
Thus incorporating social-emotional learning (SEL) pro-
grams in the higher education is essential. The first step
to implement these programs is to understand students’
social-emotional skills and evaluate the strengths to be
endorsed and directed positively and the weaknesses and
limitations to be improved and enhanced. To obtain this
type of knowledge, Panorama’s SEL surveys are used
to measure students’ social-emotional competencies for
higher education students in UAE from both genders. The
measured skills are social awareness, self-efficacy skills,
growth mindset, grit, and self-management. The stu-
dents’ self-assessments indicated that implementing SEL
competencies within the higher education programs is a
necessity in order to lead higher academic performance,
long-life learning, and fruitful work accomplishments.
S. Dagher (*)
Department of Electromechanical Engineering, Abu Dhabi
Polytechnic, Abu Dhabi, UAE
e-mail: sawsan.dagher@adpoly.ac.ae
S. Dagher
Mechanical Engineering Program, Abu Dhabi Polytechnic,
Abu Dhabi, UAE
A. Hilal-Alnaqbi
College of Marine Sciences and Biology,
University of Khorfakkan, Sharjah, UAE
e-mail: ali.hilal@ukf.ac.ae
B. Akozaheya
Department of Architectural, Texas A & M University, TX, USA
e-mail: boshra@tamu.edu
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024
A. Salman and A. Tharwat (eds.), Informatics for Digital Education,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-49393-5_1
Keywords
Social-emotional learning · Higher education · Academic
achievement
1 Introduction
Researches have proved that the subject and text taught in
schools and universities aren’t essentially sufficient and
indicative of an effective educational process, but is also
highly dependent on the social and emotional environ-
ments under which students are learning. Providing social
and emotional supportive settings brings about enhanced
academic attainment and overall mental well-being. Under
several experiments, it was noted that students adapted to
an appropriate atmosphere, showed academic achievement,
amended health and well-being, improved communication
and teamwork skills, and more positive attitudes (Durlak
et al., 2011; Zins & Elias, 2006). The negative effects of
stress, anxiety, and negativity have been studied widely by
researchers in the past few decades. The undesirable impact
of negative emotions resides in the reduction of task/aca-
demic performance and psychological well-being (Seipp,
1991). The main reason why higher rates of stress and anxi-
ety and possibly other negative emotions are connected with
the decrease of cognitive performance is due to either direct
or indirect decrease in working memory capacity (Gable
& Harmon-Jones, 2010; Moran, 2016). Working memory
capacity is the skill to grasp raw information in instant
responsiveness so that it can be manipulated and changed
into a more useful form. Working memory permits us to
retain appropriate verbal content, visual-spatial content,
or executive functioning (decision-making, goal setting, or
assessment of progress) information. Drops in our work-
ing memory capacity lead to a loss of focus on tasks, more
distractions, inability to recall essential information, or ina-
bility to resolve basic arithmetic successfully (Engle et al.,
1999). Additionally, a student’s anxiety (either situational
1
2 Needs Assessment Study for Social-Emotional Learning …
or dispositional) has the potential to diminish their work-
ing memory capacity, weakening their ability to complete
complex cognitive tasks including attention, comprehension,
learning, and reasoning, all compulsory for a fruitful educa-
tional experience. Consequently, the need to realize effective
negative emotions’ measures and interferences to enhance
the instructive atmosphere for students is prioritized by sev-
eral researchers including (Martin & Marsh, 2009).
Throughout the past two decades, scholars and experts
in social-emotional learning (SEL) have put forward the
goal to find the top practices accessible for intrapersonal
and interpersonal skills improvement, problem inhibi-
tion, health advancement, and constructive development
by Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional
Learning (CASEL) (2012; Elias et al., 1997). SEL is not
fundamentally tied to any specific educational setting or
developmental period. Nevertheless, until now, the theo-
retical and experiential literature on SEL has been fixated
largely on preschool through secondary school students,
with guidelines and practices for SEL applied only on
undergraduate pupils (Collaborative for Academic, Social,
and Emotional Learning (CASEL), 2003; Greenberg et al.,
2003; Zins et al., 2004). In the contrary, the SEL ground-
work structure has not yet been correlated with higher edu-
cation populations and backgrounds. Definitely, children
can be given the primacy when it comes to SEL education,
as it can trigger a positive progressive trajectory during an
early, developmental stage of life. Although the focus is on
school children, the need for SEL extends to higher educa-
tion students. The case can simply be motivated by the fact
that the task of higher education institutes, parallel to those
of primary and secondary schools, “is to educate students
to be knowledgeable, responsible, socially skilled, healthy,
caring, and contributing citizens” (Greenberg et al., 2003).
Similarly, to the case of the benefits of SEL on the younger
populations (Zins et al., 2004), research in higher educa-
tion populations validates that social and emotional modi-
fication accompanies positive academic outcomes (Gloria
& Ho, 2003). Moreover, social and emotional intelligence
is connected with benefits spreading outside academic
contexts, such as vast advances in work, confident interac-
tive relationships, and restored mental strength and over-
all well-being (Bar-On et al., 2006; Jordan & Ashkanasy,
2006; Lopes et al., 2005; Mayer et al., 2004). Consequently,
SEL plays a critical role in higher education institutions
(Darling-Hammond, 2019; Murphy, 2019).
The world is becoming increasingly demanding, and
children and adults should be mentally and emotionally
equipped to cope with new and widespread emotional reali-
ties. Research specifies that when instructors put an effort
to communicate how to lessen and manage stress, students
develop the ability to acquire knowledge deeply, avoid neg-
ative behaviors, and achieve fruitful outcomes with lasting
effects (Forber-Pratt et al., 2022; Soto et al., 2024; Levin
et al., 2023). SEL practices are the emphasis of abundant
research studies, and this comes to show the importance of
adopting SEL methodologies to be inclusive of higher edu-
cation populations. So just what is social-emotional learn-
ing? And more importantly, why do we need it? How to
assess the needs for SEL programs?
2 Methodology
Social-emotional learning (SEL) is the process in which
information and mindsets can be developed, as well indi-
viduals can establish skills that allow them to recognize and
manage their emotions, improve their awareness and com-
passion for others, and create and work to achieve their per-
sonal goals. In this study, we used a modified Panorama’s
SEL paper surveys as it is generalized to work effectively
with higher education, while it is consistent and in line with
the framework established by the CASEL (Collaborative
for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning (CASEL),
2003, 2012). University students in United Arab Emirates in
the age group of 18–22, males and females, filled the survey
by answering questions related to their think and feel.
The Panorama surveys offered questions to measure the
five key components of SEL, adapted from the CASEL
model as shown in Fig. 1. The SEL components are (i) Self-
Awareness: the skill to correctly diagnose one’s personal
feelings, thoughts, values, and strengths and weaknesses,
substantiated with a sense of self-assurance, optimism,
and a growth mindset. (ii) Self-Management: the skill to
effectually control individual’s emotions, judgments, and
Self Management Relationship Skills
Social
Emotional
Social Learning
Self Awareness
Awareness
Responsible
Decision Making
Fig. 1  Components of social-emotional learning based on CASEL
model
S. Dagher et al.
actions in different circumstances, which enhances one’s
ability of setting and working toward personal goals. Self-
management can be attained through efficiently handling
tension, governing desires, and reassuring oneself. (iii)
Responsible Decision-Making: the skill to make construc-
tive choices about one’s behaviors and social connections
grounded on morals and values, safety concerns, and com-
munal customs. Responsible decision-making involves a
truthful assessment of consequences of various actions,
and a deliberation of the comfort of oneself and others.
(iv) Social Awareness: the skill to understand the perspec-
tive of and sympathize with others, even those from diverse
backgrounds and beliefs. Social awareness encompasses
the ability to comprehend societal and ethical standards
for conduct and to distinguish domestic, school, and civic
resources and supports. (v) Relationship Skills: the skill to
establish and preserve strong and fulfilling relationships
with various entities and groups. Relationship skills allow
the individual to communicate seemingly and positively,
listen consciously, collaborate with others, fight improper
social burden wisely, negotiate complications construc-
tively, and seek and offer assistance when required.
The self-reported data by students are collected and ana-
lyzed to come up with recommendations to implement SEL
within higher education programs by focusing on students’
strengths and assets to indorse constructive personal and
academic growth and avoid complications from developing.
3 Results and Discussions
Table 1 shows the student self-perception about their rec-
ognition of SEL skills; these data were collected as a
pre-implementation step for SEL programs, in which the
students answered several questions related to each skill
(i.e., each question has a numerical value out of five); then
the average of their answers is taken. The highest values are
shown for grit (i.e., the students ability to persist through
obstructions to accomplish significant long-term goals) and
Table 1  Panorama for social-
emotional learning report
3
self-management (i.e., how well students manage their emo-
tions, thoughts, and behaviors in different situations) skills,
while the lowest values were obtained for the social aware-
ness (i.e., the students ability to understand the perspective of
and sympathize with others) and self-efficacy (i.e., how much
students believe they can succeed in achieving academic out-
comes) skills. Whereas the average value for growth mind-
set is 3.5 out of 5 which shows the student’s perceptions
of whether they are likely to change those aspects that are
fundamental to their performance in study, such as; being
talented, like the subjects he is studying, his level of intelli-
gence, put forth a lot of effort and how easily he give up.
SEL is different from other approaches used in the men-
tal health field, in the principle of dealing with the stu-
dents’ problems. Mental health approach is a diagnostic
methodology, in which it screens for shortages in behav-
ior or emotional problems. Whereas SEL is focusing on
strength-points and working on promoting them positively
and prevent the negative points from emerging, that leads
to develop knowledge, skills, and attitudes of all students,
a strength-based method adopts proficiencies which train
scholars to attain confident relationships and effective cop-
ing mechanisms that assure strong growth and achieve-
ment. Moreover, SEL approaches protect against difficulties
evolving from pressure and anxiety and can assist students
thriving for their future pursuits. Therefore, consultants
looking to detect students requiring further support built on
emotional or behavioral problems are highly recommended
to use tools established explicitly for this purpose.
Figure 2 shows the percentage of each competency
based on the students’ self-evaluation, each student shows
different levels of ability in each of these components, and
moreover, the assessment shows little discrepancy in the
results based on gender. The females show excel in social
awareness and self-efficacy skills. And insignificant varia-
tion between the two genders in growth mindset, grit, and
self-management is shown. This was also needed to evi-
dence the fact that different students would be at different
stages of skill in SEL dimensions.
4 Needs Assessment Study for Social-Emotional Learning …
Fig. 2  Measure of social-
emotional learning competencies
percent using Panorama surveys
based on students self-perception
Such findings have prompted the development and
implementation of SEL programs, which are a type of edu-
cation-based preventive intervention explicitly designed to
foster student’s academic skills by supporting their social-
emotional and behavioral development, provide educators
with actionable strategies to build students’ SEL skills. In
order to construct an inclusive approach which ensures an
increase in skills and knowledge, a familiarity in advance
with the strengths and weaknesses of each student is
required and helps in building a program that more analyti-
cally approaches a specific aptitude or two.
Furthermore, the observed gender-based variations in
social awareness and self-efficacy skills prompt a deeper
exploration into the factors influencing these differences.
Understanding the roots of such disparities can inform
educators and policymakers in designing more targeted
interventions to bridge any existing gaps. Additionally, the
insignificance in variations related to growth mindset, grit,
and self-management raises questions about the universal-
ity of these aspects and warrants a closer examination of
the specific contexts in which these competencies mani-
fest. This nuanced analysis can guide educators in refining
SEL programs to better align with the diverse needs and
realities of students, ultimately contributing to more effec-
tive and equitable educational outcomes. The correlation
between self-perception and self-evaluation data highlights
the importance of aligning SEL initiatives with students’
perceived strengths and weaknesses. This dual perspective
allows for a more targeted and effective implementation
of interventions that can further enhance the diverse skills
and competencies showcased by students. As educators and
policymakers continue to refine SEL programs, a holistic
understanding of individual and gender-specific variations
in SEL dimensions will undoubtedly contribute to the suc-
cess of these educational initiatives, fostering an inclusive
and supportive learning environment for all.
4 Conclusions
SEL competencies are measured using a modified
Panorama international surveys for higher education stu-
dents of both genders, the students’ self-assessments indi-
cated that implementing SEL skills within the college and
education programs is a necessity, in order to lead higher
academic performance, long-life learning, and enhanced
work achievements. The field of SEL competency assess-
ment is an emerging area and is growing rapidly, which
advocated for a lot of promising researches and develop-
ments. However, there is less consistency across frame-
works and less clarity about terminology and developing
progresses than in more established disciplines. Thus, more
researches are recommended to produce more effective and
accurate needs-assessment for SEL programs for higher
education students. Correct understanding of the weak-
nesses and strengths of the students’ SEL competencies will
help in coming up with more beneficial and resilient SEL
educational programs, which further enhance and develop
these skills in the academic field.
References
Bar-On, R., Handley, R., & Fund, S. (2006). The impact of emotional
intelligence on performance. In V. U. Druskat, F. Sala, & G. Mount
(Eds.), Linking emotional intelligence and performance at work
(pp. 3–19).
S. Dagher et al.
Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning
(CASEL). (2003). Safe and sound: An educational leader’s guide
to evidence-based social and emotional learning (SEL) programs.
Author.
Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning
(CASEL). (2012). Effective social and emotional learning pro-
grams—Preschool and elementary school edition. Author.
Darling-Hammond, L. (2019). What makes social-emotional learning
so important? The Education Digest, 84, 4.
Durlak, J. A., Schellinger, K. B., Weissberg, R. P., Dymnicki, A. B.,
& Taylor, R. D. (2011). The impact of enhancing students’ social
and emotional learning: A meta-analysis of school-based universal
interventions. Child Development, 82, 405–432.
Elias, M. J., Zins, J. E., Weissberg, R. P., Frey, K. S., Greenberg,
M. T., Haynes, N. M., O’Neil, J., Houtz, J., Jones, J. A. I., &
Peck, K. (Eds.). (1997). Promoting social and emotional learn-
ing: Guidelines for educators. Association for Supervision and
Curriculum Development.
Engle, R. W., Tuholski, S. W., Laughlin, J. E., & Conway, A. R.
(1999). Working memory, short-term memory, and general fluid
intelligence: A latent-variable approach. Journal of Experimental
Psychology: General, 128, 309–331.
Forber-Pratt, A., Hanebutt, R., Minotti, B., Cobb, N., & Peagram, K.
(2022). Social-emotional learning and motivational interviews
with middle school youth with disabilities or at-risk for dis-
ability identification, education and urban society. 56, https://doi.
org/10.1177/00131245221110557.
Gable, P. A., & Harmon-Jones, E. (2010). The blues broaden, but the
nasty narrows: Attentional consequences of negative affects low and
high in motivational intensity. Psychological Science, 21, 211–215.
Gloria, A., & Ho, T. (2003). Environmental, social, and psychological
experiences of Asian American undergraduates: Examining issues
of academic persistence. Journal of Counseling and Development,
81, 93–105.
Greenberg, M. T., Weissberg, R. P., O’Brien, M. U., Zins, J. E.,
Fredericks, L., & Resnik, H. (2003). Enhancing school-based pre-
vention and youth development through coordinated social, emo-
tional, and academic learning. American Psychologist, 58, 466–474.
5
Jordan, P. J., & Ashkanasy, N. M. (2006). Emotional intelligence,
emotional self-awareness, and team effectiveness. In V. U. Druskat,
F. Sala, & G. Mount (Eds.), Linking emotional intelligence and
performance at work (pp. 145–163).
Levin, O., & Segev, Y. (2023). The missing piece in the CASEL
model: The impact of social–emotional learning on online lit-
erature teaching and learning. Education Sciences, 13(11), 1123.
https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci13111123
Lopes, P. N., Salovey, P., Cote, S., & Beers, M. (2005). Emotion reg-
ulation abilities and the quality of social interaction. Emotion, 5,
113–118.
Martin, A. J., & Marsh, H. W. (2009). Academic resilience and aca-
demic buoyancy: Multidimensional and hierarchical conceptual
framing of causes, correlates, and cognate constructs. Oxford
Review of Education, 35, 353–370.
Mayer, J. D., Salovey, P., & Caruso, D. R. (2004). Emotional intelli-
gence: Theory, findings, and implications. Psychological Inquiry,
15, 197–215.
Moran, T. P. (2016). Anxiety and working memory capacity: A meta-
analysis and narrative review. Psychological Bulletin, 142, 1–34.
Murphy, E. (2019). Tisch College’s SEL-CE program fosters social-
emotional learning environment—The Tufts Daily. University Wire.
Seipp, B. (1991). Anxiety and academic performance: A meta-analysis
of findings. Anxiety Research, 4, 27–41.
Soto, C. J., Napolitano, C. M., Sewell, M. N., Yoon, H. J., &
Roberts, B. W., (2024). Going beyond traits: Social, emotional,
and behavioral skills matter for adolescents’ success. Social
Psychological and Personality Science, 15(1), 33–45. https://doi.
org/10.1177/19485506221127483
Zins, J. E., & Elias, M. J. (2006). Social and emotional learning. In
G. G. Bear, K. M. Minke, & National Association of School
Psychologists (Eds.), Children’s needs III: Development, preven-
tion, and intervention (pp. 1–14). National Association of School
Psychologists.
Zins, J. E., Weissberg, R. P., Wang, M. C., & Walberg, H. J. (2004).
Building academic success on social and emotional learning:
What does the research say? Teachers College Press.
 Differentiated Curriculum
and Teaching Practices
for Students with Determination
in Higher Education, Reforms
for Learners with Dyslexia,
Dysgraphia, and Dyscalculia
in Higher Education System
Hala Abdullah Al-Bukhari
Abstract
The current paper explores and investigates the best pos-
sible practices that can ensure and effective, comprehen-
sive and successful inclusive learning and educational
experience for students of determination within the
higher education in the United Arab Emirates, focused
in the Emirate of Dubai thru one university representing
the higher education system. The inclusion of students of
determination with specific learning disabilities chiefly
with Dyslexia, Dysgraphia, and Dyscalculia in higher
education stage is the focus of this study. A qualitative
expressive case study method was adopted to represent
the experience of students of determination, consequently
the perspectives of Faculty Members, Deans, leaders in
addition to, administrators of higher education institutes
and parent is also investigated in alignment with the pur-
pose of the study. This paper is a proposed insight of an
array of possible assistive accommodations primarily
consisting of differentiated curriculum implementation,
its possibility, challenges, solutions, and perception by
all key individuals represented in the participants’ sam-
ples of the study, to provide students of determination
with Dyslexia, Dysgraphia, and Dyscalculia with the best
learning and educational experience on academic, social,
and personal directions.
Keywords
Inclusion · Inclusive education · People of
determination · DI · Differentiated curriculum ·
United Arab Emirates · Dubai · Higher education ·
Learning disabilities · Dyslexia
H. A. Al-Bukhari (*)
College of Education, American University in the Emirates,
Dubai, UAE
e-mail: hala.albukhari@aue.ae
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024
A. Salman and A. Tharwat (eds.), Informatics for Digital Education,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-49393-5_2
1 Introduction
The inclusion of students of determination in higher educa-
tion institutes and especially in the United Arab Emirates is
a notably new perception; therefore, this study examines the
situation in which the inclusion of student of determination
in higher education stands. The insights of instructors, fac-
ulty members, leaders of higher education institutes in addi-
tion to both students with typical development and student
of determination and their parents are highly needed. This
paper proposes the necessity and implementation possibil-
ity of differentiated curriculum and differentiated practices
to assure an effective learning experience to all students in
higher education classrooms.
The vision of the leaders of the United Arab Emirates
has led to a vigorous journey within inclusive educa-
tion, inclusion policies and practices. It has been show-
cased within the rapid progress illustrated since the early
1980s; inclusive learning and inclusion in main stream
schools have thrived great development to promise high
advocacy for all categories of learners with learning dif-
ferences. However, the main focus habituated and still
target SEN learners in early education stages, elementary
and high school, in which creates a critical need to force
investigative in addition to, action-oriented efforts toward
higher education stages in cohesion with the government’s
vision of creating equal social and educational opportuni-
ties to all types of learners ensuring full prospects given
to students of determination. The previous in the direction
of socially, academically, and culturally build a genera-
tion of multi-capable leading persons in the community of
the UAE. In context of the gradual progress of inclusion
from institutions, special classrooms to full inclusion have
nursed a large scope of research but not within higher
education and transitional stage that prepares learners for
the real world, rather, just in early childhood and school
settings.
7
8 H. A. Al-Bukhari
As I believe, curriculum is the foundation of the educa-
tional experience in both contexts of teaching and learning,
curriculum and learning are highly intersected in means of
contextualizing goals, instructions, and assessment as they
build on their interactive framework. Therefore, it is vital
for the curriculum to differentiate in order to efficiently
state and exhibit the validity, practicality, and inclusiveness
of the design, framework, content, and process of the edu-
cational experience. Relating to the previously expressed
aspect, differentiated curriculum is the examined and sug-
gested improvement to the inclusive educational experience
in higher education.
The perspective and reediness of instructors, leaders, and
students in higher education institutes are a highly impor-
tant point to study the prospect of introducing and imple-
menting differentiated curriculum to include students of
determination, especially students challenged by Dyslexia,
Dysgraphia, and Dyscalculia into an effective and proficient
experience that enables full inclusion of those students.
In connection to being a faculty member, special edu-
cation specialist, and an anthropologist, this study serves
a prodigious target on a humanistic, academic, and social
level; to add on the experience and to utilize previous pro-
fessional and academic experiences, in addition to, personal
high interest in the ever continuous development and pro-
gress within inclusion and inclusive education.
1.1 The Objectives and Main Research
Questions of This Study
The core purpose of the presented study is to explore the
best practices that embrace effective and inclusive learn-
ing system and experiences for students of determination
diagnosed with Dyslexia, Dysgraphia, and/or Dyscalculia
in higher education institutes, pertaining university students
and differentiated curriculum.
The above-stated objective can be expressed through
the attempt to investigate within the following research
questions:
1. What are the perceptions of instructors and students of
differentiated curriculum?
2. What are the accommodations needed to ensure effec-
tiveness of inclusive education in higher education?
3. Why is the implementation of differentiated curriculum
and instructions needed within higher education for stu-
dents of determination?
4. What are the possibilities of implementing differentiated
curriculum within the higher education context?
5. What are the challenges that can be encountered within
the process of both planning and implementation of dif-
ferentiated curriculum?
6. Finally, what are the students, instructors, and lead-
ers’ view on overcoming the challenges of planning and
implementing differentiated curriculum within higher
education context?
1.2 The Rationale and Justification of This
Study
Several factors have had the leading trigger to conduct this
study, first of all, the personal background of the researcher
on all professional, academic, and personal interests levels,
as a special education specialist, with an academic back-
ground of learning disabilities and childhood and youth
development within special educational needs, in addition
to having the passion to heighten the quality of learning
and living for the youth of determination this study incor-
porate a great intensity of interest. Secondly exploring the
literature examining inclusive education in the United Arab
Emirates, it shows a huge gap and scarce within the area
of students inclusion in the higher education system in the
UAE and following the lack of literature in differentiated
curriculum and practices for inclusive education in higher
education in the UAE; this in particular is a momentum
that the vision of the AUE leaders is targeting within the
next years. The local efforts to develop the educational and
learning experience of people of determination are strik-
ing a momentum that should be considered and utilized, in
a vision to graduate elites and leaders in the community of
the United Arab Emirates with no one left behind nature.
2 Literature Review
2.1 The Conceptual Analysis
Special Education in the UAE and Inclusion in Higher
Education in the UAE
As mentioned earlier the United Arab Emirates has dis-
played a clearly rapid development within inclusive educa-
tion in relation to its newly established educational system,
especially in a regional outlook. Going over the collected
works of inclusion in the UAE reveals that inclusive edu-
cation has started with segregated special education class-
rooms setting in governmental school originating in 1980
where they were separated from general classrooms in the
Differentiated Curriculum and Teaching Practices for Students …
same school in context of all curricular and non-curricular
activities and led by special teachers. Students of deter-
mination, termed as students with disabilities through
the 1990s experience an initiated policy of less restrictive
learning environment as a following progress, this policy
provided resource rooms that students had their supporting
class pulled in and out from original classroom of schools
with interaction and inclusion within non-curricular activi-
ties and partial inclusion in academic activities (subject
classes) based on the nature of the student’s need and abili-
ties in addition to the school’s accommodations.
In response to the country’s progress, the UAE has for-
tified all the possible privileges presented to SEN students
by means of authorizing and commending the Federal Law
No. (29) 2006, “the law, protects the rights of people with
special needs and guarantees them the right to live with dig-
nity.” Law No. (2) of 2014 “to protect the rights of persons
with disabilities in the emirate of Dubai” was issued by HH
Sheikh Mohammed Bin Rashid Al Maktoum, Vice-President
and Prime Minister of the UAE. In March 2014, the men-
tioned issued law assures and reinforces the Federal Law
No. (29) for 2006 in relation to the constitutional rights of
persons with disabilities, and strengthens the responsiveness
set by the emirate of Dubai to persons with special educa-
tional needs and disabilities emphasizing their fundamen-
tal function as a part of the society to develop and build the
future of the country. In alignment of this paper’s purpose in
is important to mention the Law No. (2) of 2014 that targets
to deliver high-quality social services, boost public aware-
ness, and contribute to integrating persons with disabilities
into society and reaffirm their participation in social devel-
opment. In aiming to secure the goals of aforementioned
federal laws and the vision of Dubai 2020 to become an
accessible and disabled-friendly city, the accessibility to
higher education institutes (universities, colleges, and acade-
mies) should be studied, planned, and facilitated as I believe.
Differentiated Curriculum and Students with Determi­nation
Differentiated curriculum in inclusion is a relatively
newly adopted trend that calls for a flexible construction
of a curriculum. Stated by Koh et al. (2014) research-
ers have stressed the pivotal role of school leaders and
teachers that allow for experimentation in curriculum and
teaching. Therefore, this paper examines the foresight of
faculty members (teachers) and leaders of a higher edu-
cation institute. Differentiated curriculum can be pointed
out as an innovation as pointed out that curriculum inno-
vation has also been viewed as process-based interven-
tion (Mourshed et al., 2010) scaffolding the notion of that
differentiated curriculum is an intervention process to up
level the learning and teaching experience of students of
determination. Simpkins et al. (2009) stated that, tutoring
9
with materials differing in level of difficulty resulted in
higher production, Mittler (2000) highlighted the need for
a further broad examination of inclusion as he called for
a reform in curriculum and organization, rather than just
providing accessibility for students with special educa-
tional needs.
The identification of differentiated curriculum in
reviewed literature showcased that it is primarily and sig-
nificantly steered toward gifted students (Kaplan & Cornell,
2005). Differentiated curriculum is defined as modifications
to the core curriculum in content, process, and products that
are designed to meet the defined goals of gifted learners.
However, this study investigates the possibility of imple-
menting the concepts of differentiated curriculum within
inclusive settings for students of determination with spe-
cific learning disabilities. It is clear that adopting flexible
and interactive content followed by flexible and differenti-
ated instructions is highly beneficial for the achievement
and learning effectiveness of students with determination,
highlighted by Steinmeyer (2011). Using differentiated
instruction, these students are taught at their ability level.
Rather than having to participate in a general classroom that
may continue to teach with the one size fits all. Carrying
on Steinmeyer (2011) expressed that differentiated cur-
riculum and practice in general classrooms may enhance
the educational, academic, and socio-cultural experiences
and performance of students with SEN in addition to, typi-
cally developed students and would allow elevated nature of
awareness and acceptance. Ramos and Fletcher (1999) have
clearly highlighted the notion that “meeting the challenge
of the educational integration of students with disabilities
begins with the development of a broad-based and flexible
curriculum that is sensitive to the special educational needs
of all students” which I highly agree with as it is the core
concept of differentiated curriculum.
Specific Learning Disabilities (LD)
Ahearn (2009) has stated “Reauthorization of the
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) in
2004 and the IDEA regulations issued in 2006 revised the
requirements for identifying students under the category
of specific learning disabilities (SLD).” As identified and
listed by IDEA, there are 13 types of learning disabilities
eligible for intervention and inclusive education by state
regulations adopted by the IDEA regulations that are stated
and revisited on regular basis by IDEA, those types include
Dyslexia, Dysgraphia, and Dyscalculia that this paper is
going to shed light on for this study research purpose as
learning disabilities.
Adlof and Hogan (2018) stated the common perspec-
tive of Dyslexia as commonly defined by “difficulties with
word reading, decoding, and spelling as evidenced by low
10
accuracy and/or fluency on standardized assessments”; they
also marked that, “Children with dyslexia often have lan-
guage deficits outside the phonological domain.” The main
problem with students with dyslexia is not comprehension,
it is a decoding problem (Shaywitz, 1998). Learners with
Dyslexia are experience difficulties in reading and decod-
ing words, organizing words and also linking meaning and
interpreting meaningful contexts of written texts; “dyslexia
is defined as a difficulty with word level reading and spell-
ing skills, which are in turn caused by phonological defi-
cits. However, being a good reader involves more than only
reading the words on a page” (Adlof & Hogan, 2018), as
I believe therefore, instructors (FM) need to accommodate
students with Dyslexia with strategic in addition to logistic
support, including some but not fully listing, such as, pro-
viding students with extra time, giving visually aided texts
containing mind maps, pictures and different font size and
properties used.
Chung and Patel (2015) have defined Dysgraphia as “a
learning disorder in which the individual’s writing skills are
below the level expected for his or her age and cognitive
level” writing is another skill needed for students for their
academic achievement and the efficiency of their learning
process, however, students with learning disabilities marked
by Dysgraphia lack the required ability of writing skills
showcased in their abilities to organize thoughts, writing
texts and making of meaningful full sentences and textual
production. Therefore, further accommodations using dif-
ferentiated curriculum, differentiated instructions, and the
utilization of assistive technology by instructors (FM) are
also required to meet the needs of students of determina-
tion with this type of LD. Wojcik et al. (2004) have stated
that “technology development and related societal changes,
the standard-based reform movement, and legal mandates
are propelling changes in the way we view the knowledge
and practices teachers must have about technology on exist-
ing higher education.” Utilizing technology lies within the
use of different receptive channels, as stated by Azimi and
Mousavipour (2014), “rationale of the effectiveness of mul-
timedia software lies in the fact that utmost use of infor-
mation can be made when it enters the memory through
auditory or visual channels.”
Consequently, in overviewing a concentration of specific
learning disabilities for the purpose of this paper, accord-
ing to DSM-V (2013 cited in Trott, 2014), Dyscalculia is
defined as a display of difficulties experienced by students
in means of geometric and number-related information pro-
cessing difficulties, understanding measures and amounts,
arithmetical codes, and/or simple mathematical maneuvers
in which they are not connected to students cognitive abil-
ities, social, cultural status, and age. In order to help stu-
dents of determination with Dyscalculia, Trott (2018) has
stated that “Good quality one-on-one support should place
H. A. Al-Bukhari
the student at the heart of the process and adopt a system-
atic approach. The focus should be on the mathematical or
statistical elements needed for the chosen course of study
and the sessions should look to increase confidence and
reduce mathematics anxiety.”
2.2 The Theoretical Framework
The Constructivist Theory—Constructivism
“College classrooms teaching practices grounded in the
constructivist educational theory and border pedagogy
may not only meet the challenges presented by diversity
in the classroom, but may actually contribute to diversity
as a resource for learning in college classrooms” (Fiume,
2005). Understanding inclusion, we ascertain a humanistic
aspect that allow everyone including students of determina-
tion to have access to, not just equal academic and educa-
tional opportunities, but also, social, cultural, and personal
privileges; it supports students of determination to reach
the height of self-worthiness in addition to, making the col-
legiate environment a more comprehensive and interactive
setting with exalted level of awareness, collaboration and
social in addition to educational experiences. “It allows not
to have them and us but we become all us” as elaborated by
the Dean of College of Education in a Dubai university.
Vygotsky (1978), the forefather of the contemporary
educational constructivist theory, relies on that students
construct better learning and acquaintance by interacting
with their social and cultural environments including all
collaborating individuals in their academic, and cultural
society; this highly associates with students of determina-
tion as per the researcher’s professional and academic expe-
rience in addition to reviewed past studies.
Relating to learners of determination with specific
learning disabilities, such as Dyslexia, Dysgraphia, and
Dyscalculia in constructivism and socially functioned learn-
ing practices stated by Fiume (2005) “constructivist educa-
tional theory posits the ability to know and learn as inherent
human qualities” adding to that, he highlights that it is a
progressive development of knowledge formatting, crea-
tion and recreation of the student’s educational practice and
understanding (Fiume, 2005).
Differentiated Curriculum
As mentioned earlier, differentiated curriculum is a method
of creating a suite all educational experience, that consist of
the design of a flexible curricular content, instructions tools
of delivery, practices and assessment. As a subdivision of
an experimental research conducted, Marshak and Lesley
University (1994) clearly stated as a part of the results of
Differentiated Curriculum and Teaching Practices for Students …
their study, that students with specific learning disabilities
experiencing learning through differentiated curriculum
methods and instructions outstood the performance of the
group of students with specific learning disabilities that did
not experience instructions through differentiated curricu-
lum rather, in a customary method.
As per Tomlinson (2010 cited in Thornton, 2012) “the
teacher modifies the content as a response to address the
student individual learning styles and creates a classroom
where everyone can be successful despite a variance in
reading levels.”
Equally, the constructivism and differentiated curricu-
lum ideologies and concepts should be put into practice
to assure inclusive educational experience for students of
determination in higher education institutes; therefore, the
development of this paper selected them as the cornerstones
for its investigating course and theoretical understanding.
2.3 Review of Related Literature to This Study
In the direction of the inclusion of students of determina-
tion in higher education institutes, looking at students with
specific learning disabilities, various studies examining
the potentials, needs to be met, and methods were steered
across the preceding decade internationally. Rai and Tiwari
(2017) have highlighted the need of examining inclusion
in higher education systems stating that “After provision of
secondary level education the next step would be to ensure
inclusive education at higher level in which university has
an important role to play. But no significant initiatives have
been taken to include student with special needs at univer-
sity level.” Moreover, it has been indicated within different
reviews that the amount of learners of determination enroll-
ing in higher education institutes is growing (Kendall, 2016).
It is visible that, there is still a visible gap of researches
and investigations in regard to the inclusion of students of
determination especially those with specific learning dis-
abilities in higher education institutes, in addition to dif-
ferentiated curriculum and instructions provided to ensure
effective and successful inclusive higher education learning
experiences and practices in the United Arab Emirates and
the Region of the GCC in general.
3 The Methodology of This Study
The paper of this study followed the method of qualitative
study, in addition to the take on of the constructivist model
to accumulate, evaluate, and analyze data. The choice of
qualitative research method was targeted due to that it is the
most popular and most efficient method within the field of
educational research, in which it ethnologically examines
11
the actuality of the situation and profoundly interprets and
compares findings. Adding to that, thru the understanding
of the nature of inclusion and special educational needs, it
is visible that it is a highly humanistic, social, and cultural
aspect that takes account of all key angles and individuals
involved, as well as, highly interacting with the regulations
and practices of SEN in a society. The previous notion lays
the importance of adopting the constructivist model aimed
at a socio-cultural individual and realistic view to the theo-
retical setting and approach to this paper of study.
3.1 The Research Approach to the Study
To investigate in the best provided practices for students
of determination in higher education institutes in the
United Arab Emirates especially those practices provided
to students with Dyslexia, Dysgraphia, and Dyscalculia, a
qualitative case study method was carried on to in-depth
scrutinize the experience, needs and opportunities given to
students of determination in a higher education institutes.
Yazan (2015) has described the methodology of case study
as the foremost utilized scheme in education field qualita-
tive studies. Moreover, Yazan (2015) attempts to define the
case study methodology stating that it is “case study is an
empirical inquiry that investigates the case or cases con-
forming to the abovementioned definition by addressing
the ‘how’ or ‘why’ questions concerning the phenomenon
of interest. He finds it particularly instrumental for program
evaluation.”
An approach of focused one-to-one interviews was
adopted and carried on to fully perceive, the perspectives,
experiences, notions, and requirements of all involved indi-
viduals arrayed by students of SEN, typically developed
students, parents, faculty members, admins, and leaders.
The researcher conducted the study in her workplace,
where the researcher work as a faculty member in the col-
lege of education and an academic administrator, to best
evaluate in depth and in connection to personal experience
with the case, the participants, and the environment in addi-
tion to, the practicality of the access process and time con-
sumption required. A consent for the case class observation
was not needed as it was carried on within the classes of
the researcher as the faculty member teaching; however,
a verbal consent was provided by the administration rep-
resentative for the validity of the research. Additionally,
informed written consents were collected by the researcher
for the observation and data gathering of the case in study
for research purposes from the student participating and
her mother. As for the focused one-to-one interviews, fur-
ther informed written consents were collected from all par-
ticipating interviewed members in the focused one-to-one
interviews conducted in purpose of the study including 18
12
participants consisting of faculty members directly involved
in classrooms having students of determination especially
students with Dyslexia, Dysgraphia, and Dyscalculia; stu-
dents, the mother of the student involved in the case study,
parents of students, admins, a registrar, the University’s
Director of Counseling and Disability Department, and one
of the leaders of the institute.
Considering the sensitive nature and time frame of
the study, and the examiner’s attempt to eliminate bias as
much as possible for the validity of the study, an empiri-
cal research was applied rather than a participatory action
research. It is believed by the researcher that this approach
was best to grasp a practical, informative no action required
study to investigate the proposed issue of differentiated cur-
riculum and practices, to in-depth inspect the individuals’
perceptions and possibility of implementation.
3.2 Data Collection
In view of the inclusion of students of determination with
specific learning disabilities in higher education, as a com-
paratively raw area of study in the UAE with a vision of
empowerment however, no formal regulations and practices
are yet to take place; the researcher is collecting data utiliz-
ing the methodology of a single case study of a student of
determination in a regular university classroom of general
education course. In addition to exploring the perceptions
and readiness of key individuals in the involved institute
(University) of the best practices to develop the experi-
ence and outcomes of the inclusion of students with specific
learning disabilities in universities classrooms.
The site is a learning class for university students within
a general education course including a female students
enrolled in the bachelor program of Arts in Media and Mass
Communication—Integrated Marketing Communication
with Dyslexia, Dysgraphia, and Dyscalculia in her first year
of higher education. The study participants and samples are
firstly, the student with learning disabilities, in addition to
key individuals consisting of: the mother of the student of
determination participating in the case study, instructors
(FM), college deans (college of education and college of
media mass communication), registrars, one member of the
team of student affairs, and the Director of Counseling and
Disability in the university.
Following a methodical, and a unified procedures, the
researcher assured the enclosure of the participants through
written informed consents, reinforcing a comprehensive
description of the study objectives, details, intents and
instruments, and verbal consents from the administration of
the university.
Accordingly, the study conducted semi-structured inter-
views with the study participants, permitting the effortless
H. A. Al-Bukhari
and genuine communication of concepts and viewpoints,
doubts, desires, and personal experiences that are both
ongoing and past ones, in addition to in class three weeks
observations of class activities, interactions, presentations,
command of delivered information, in addition to, assess-
ment in regards to the case study; the above-illustrated
notions served as comprehensive tools of interpreting and
analyzing explanations and responses by participants.
Sample of case study: a female of 20 years old attended
an international inclusive high school adopting a regular
percentage system in the UAE. After being diagnosed by
a specialist in a medical center in the UAE with Dyslexia,
Dysgraphia, and Dyscalculia, she had joined the SEND
Department in the same school. She is very determined,
enjoying high self-esteem, and aware of her challenges, she
does have challenges in relation to some social and cultural
difficulties. The student is attending her first year in higher
education institute (university) enrolled in college of Media
and Mass Communication with a CGPA of 2.57 and a GPA
of 3.17.
3.3 Data Analysis and Breakdown
The collected data by in-classroom and outside classroom
observation utilizing a continuous notes based checklist,
focused on discerning class activities, and social interac-
tions. By means of constructivism and differentiated cur-
riculum concepts, connecting to the student involved in
the case study; the data gathered via the student’s observa-
tion, commentaries revision of both her medical report and
a given assessment, as well as interviews with the student,
her mother, one classmate and instructor’s (FM) along-
side to administrative individuals showcased the following
themes: (A) the crucial requirement of implementing assis-
tive curricular and social changes; (B) student’s challenges
that have to be met in classroom appearing in perceiving
and reproducing received information and knowledge; (C)
social and cultural encounters of the student with both her
instructors, that was expressed by both the instructors and
the students herself, relating to the level of awareness of
interaction, communication, and accommodation, however,
not relating to welcoming the student; (D) flouts related to
obligatory classwork and assessments; (E) the delivery of
the content of courses and its quantity in addition to the
lack of properly administrated assessment procedures; (F)
administrative disregards that are linked to the acknowledg-
ment of the student’s case and lack of proper communica-
tion with key individuals expressing the students’ different
abilities and needs; (G) the student’s willingness to both
achieve in all higher education rudiments and awareness of
her capabilities and shortfalls; and (H) finally, the student’s
Differentiated Curriculum and Teaching Practices for Students …
enthusiasm to support and to create better learning experi-
ence to students of determination in the university, which
showcased elevated self-esteem and trust in her abilities.
4 Discussion of Gathered and Analyzed
Data, Responding to Research
Questions
As a leading point the perception of higher education inclu-
sion was discussed with key individuals, showing that it is
the natural right and pathway for all students whether of
determination or not.
The participating student expressed no scarce of wel-
coming by instructors but a lack of understanding, com-
munication, and proper interaction was expressed in some
situations.
Quoting one of the leaders of the institute he stated:
“inclusion can generally build a benefit for the student by
not separating student and by keeping students together in
level of emotional, educational and social skills ability to
process whatever that the disabilities are, because at the
end that so in life to make the people united in different
concepts finding a way to including people to social life, it’s
so important I think the idea is totally valuable it’s worth
research.”
Following that, the perspectives of students, instructors
(FM), and leaders were examined in relation to question-
ing the need of and the possibilities to implementing differ-
entiated curriculum and instructions in a higher education
classroom, which in turn pointed their enthusiasm and
agreement with the aspect and its wholesome beneficiary if
all needs and challenges were to be met.
Instructor’s response 1: “Differentiated curriculum can
and should be practiced, but we have to be fully informed
and trained about the organization and application
methods.”
Instructor’s response 2: “I would say, give them extra
support by changing the method of normal way to teach
with extra attention by being flexible but not easy in the
content of curriculum and instructions and by making a
group work to make them more confident together.”
Therefore, all challenges linked to the aspect of appli-
cable planning and implementation of differentiated cur-
riculum and instructions were laid and conversed with key
individuals to highlight them and suggest ways to over-
come and secure the procedure, in most responses of par-
ticipants, key challenges revolved around training and
preparation of instructors to deal with students of determi-
nation, understand their abilities and to be trained to be able
to identify them and their abilities especially with the lack
13
of information received from administration. Additionally,
administrative and communication-based weaknesses were
pin-pointed and discussed, the need of unified automated
communication method of informing instructors of students
of determination, and their abilities was expressed by the
parent interviewed, while the challenge of the lack of com-
munication was expressed by instructors.
Through the observation of the student, she showcased
better performance when class activities were varied and
utilized more visual aid. The students performed according
to her abilities within written assessments and showed good
expression of information when it was delivered in flexible
amounts and methods.
5 Limitation to the Study
This study was not free of limitations; the limitations affect-
ing the procedure and outcomes of this study are laid within
the examination of a limited sample of one case, studied in
details in which it represents a much larger scheme of pop-
ulation, which may be not entirely efficient for generaliza-
tion and broad analysis and conclusions. Additionally, the
time frame of conducting this study was situated within the
period of final three weeks and final exams of the academic
year which created a challenge to the researcher in com-
prehensively conducting observations on a full academic
semester fashion and highly affected the ease of gaining
access to different institutes in which resulted in conduct-
ing the study in one higher education institute (university) in
the Emirate of Dubai to represent nearly eighty-one higher
education institutes in the Emirate of Dubai in the higher
education system of the UAE. The conduct of the study in
the researcher’s workplace and classroom can be not an
ideal situation, but given the previous circumstances it was
the best option available for the study to carry on with great
efforts of eliminating bias and providing validation prac-
ticed. Finally, the time limitation of the led research has
controlled the ability of piloting the study and examinations.
6 Conclusion and Recommendations
This presented paper is a case study-based research involv-
ing a student with Dyslexia, Dysgraphia, and Dyscalculia
in a higher education institute. In which thru the case study
and conducted semi-structured interview with all key indi-
viduals it investigated the perspectives, challenges, and
desires of all involved participants including the student to
assure a further effective, comprehensive, and successful
learning and educational experience within higher educa-
tion stage, for students of determination in a fully inclusive
setting.
14
Following the earlier assertion, investigating within the
notion of inclusion of students of determination with spe-
cific learning disabilities it is evident that this aspect is
highly sensitive and in need of further discussion, present-
ing and ensuring higher awareness in addition to the need of
applicable planning of more efficient practices.
As the study proposes the adaptation and employment
of differentiated curriculum and instructions to secure bet-
ter inclusion, practice, and performance for students of
determination in higher education institutes. I believe it is
of great value to study and practically examine the possi-
bilities of implementation to further develop and heighten
the higher educational system in the UAE in relation to the
local, and governmental vision of full inclusion education-
ally, and socially and utilization of capabilities, competen-
cies, and added value of all students in the Emirati society.
This is as I see beneficial and productive on various eco-
nomic, social, cultural, and academic junctures.
Furthermore, this study serves as a trigger to conduct
needed research and studies within the inclusion of people
of determination in higher stages that follow elementary
school, childhood, and docents stages to further shed the
light on the youth of the country and emphasize on their
productive added value and their daily living experiences in
higher education stages, which will aid in closing the high-
lighted literature and study gap; this is also, vital for sealing
the earlier presented scarcity of studies in the country and
the region.
As both as anthropologist and an educator, this qualita-
tive study provided in-depth analysis and an eye-opener
discussion; however, further qualitative and quantitative
studies can highly be recommended for further investigation
H. A. Al-Bukhari
on the advantages the differentiated curriculum can bestow
on inclusive higher education system and especially the
development of best practices for students of determination
in higher education academic and social achievements, in
which it promotes the human, educational, societal, and cul-
tural aspects of the society.
 he Terminologies and Acronyms of the
T
Research
UAE United Arab Emirates
FM Faculty Members—in universities
LD Learning Disabilities
Dyslexia a learning disorder that includes exertion in
reading, recognizing dialog sounds and the
awareness their relation to letters and words,
in addition to making meaningful interpreta-
tion of written texts
Dysgraphia a learning disorder that affects handwriting,
script writing, and fine motor skills, it effects
word spelling, dictation, word arrangement,
and overall ability to put thoughts on a written
text/paper
ADHD Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
Inclusion a model in which students of determination
employ their time utmost or entirely in gen-
eral education settings
SEN Special Educational Needs
SEND Special Educational Needs and Disabilities
IDEA Individuals with Disabilities Education Act
Differentiated Curriculum and Teaching Practices for Students …
Appendix 1: Open-Continuous Observation Checklist
Observed interaction
(in classroom)
Comprehensively receiving oral
information
Comprehensively receiving written
information
Expressing information in writing
Participation in reading report
activities
Participation in class discussion
Participation in class game based
activities
Participation in class general
informative activities
Participation and performance in
final project writing
Participation and performance in
final project presentation
Student total progress and gaining
of learning outcomes
Final exam performance
Student interaction in group work
Student interaction with classmates
Student interaction with instructor
15
Week 1 April 28th Week 2 May 5th Week of final exams May Notes and comments
and April 30th and May 7th 2019 18th 2019
2019
Observed Observed Observed Student positively administered comprehension of orally
given information and, was able to discuss, participate in
class discussions and give concrete examples
Observed Observed Observed Student did not show positive administer comprehension
of written information and, was partially or not able to
discuss, participate in class discussions and tasks without
oral explanation
Observed Observed Observed Student showed weakness in organizing thoughts on
paper, expressing ideas was weaker in writing than oral
expression, and used her own technique in writing mul-
tiple colored pens, very large text size, spacing and word
organization was very frail
Observed Observed N/A Student had great difficulty in solely reading texts and
reticles. Needed assistance and or reading was adminis-
trated with a classmate to discuss rather than fully read
as her classmate read the text she would interpret it and
discuss
Observed Observed N/A Students was successful in class discussion participation
and had good oral communication of thoughts and ideas
Observed Observed N/A Students was successful in class game based differenti-
ated instructions activities participated actively and had
good oral communication of thoughts and ideas
Observed Observed N/A Participation elevated if activities was supported by
further oral explanation by the instructor or classmates
and showed less participation in reading and writing
based activities
N/A Observed N/A Student relied on classmates of her final project group in
writing the project however she was responsible of mak-
ing their mind map and brain storm discussion
N/A Observed N/A Student communicated and presented her part in the final
project in a successful oral fashion
Observed Observed Observed Students progressed in a satisfactory scale with given
delivery, content practice and instructions accommoda-
tion in that particular course
N/A N/A Observed Student needed the instructor to be with her for one hour
out of the three hours given in the final exam to orally
explain al written instructions and questions, she had
difficulty in reading the article provided so the instructor
read the article for her then she had good understand-
ing and response to it. The student did not like and did
not agree with segregating her from the general exam
hall to a special accommodation hall were all students
of determination had their exams, saying that she could
have taken the exam with her friends but with more time
and having the instructor available in the hall
Observed Observed N/A Student showed active participation especially in group
discussion, and oral presentation
Observed Observed Observed Student had close and affective social interaction with
classmates and received a lot of support by some of her
classmates
Observed Observed Observed Student had good social, and academic interaction with
the instructor, always asked for assistance and checked
for level of performance and progress. She also asked the
instructor several times of how she could perform and
progress better
16
Appendix 2: Semi Structured Interviews
Participant Questions
Instructors (FM), 8 participants • What do you think of inclusion
Leaders and admins, 4 participants in the university system?
• Is inclusion in the university
Students, 2 participants properly managed and planned?
Parents, 1 participant • W
 hat are the challenges faced
by the inclusion of students of
determination?
• What are the benefits of
the inclusion of students of
determination?
• What do you think of the con-
cept of differentiated curricu-
lum? Do you think it is needed
and applicable?
• Do you think that the applica-
tion of differentiated curricu-
lum and instructions beneficial
for students of determination?
• Would you be able to/wanting
to implement differentiated
curriculum and instructions in
classrooms?
• How can you make the learn-
ing experience of students of
determination better and more
affective?
• What could be the challenges
of the instructors, students and
administrators in the process
of planning implementing dif-
ferentiated curriculum?
• What are the possible mecha-
nisms and solutions to over-
come and meet those challenges
and needs?
References
Adlof, S. M., & Hogan, T. P. (2018). Understanding dyslexia in the
context of developmental language disorders. Language, Speech &
Hearing Services in Schools (Online), 49(4), 762–773.
Ahearn, E. M. (2009). State eligibility requirements for specific
learning disabilities. Communication Disorders Quarterly, 30(2),
120–128.
Azimi, E., & Mousavipour, S. (2014). The effects of educational
multimedia in dictation and its role in improving dysgraphia in
students with dictation difficulty. Contemporary Educational
Technology, 5(4), 331–340.
H. A. Al-Bukhari
Chung, P., & Patel, D. R. (2015). Dysgraphia. International Journal of
Child and Adolescent Health, 8(1), 27–36.
Fiume, P. (2005). Constructivist theory and border pedagogy fos-
ter diversity as a resource for learning. The Community College
Enterprise, 11(2), 51–64.
Kaplan, S. G., & Cornell, D. G. (2005). Threats of violence by stu-
dents in special education. Behavioral Disorders, 31(1), 107–119.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/23890404
Kendall, L., & Tarman, B (Reviewing Editor). (2016). Higher edu-
cation and disability: Exploring student experiences. Cogent
Education, 3(1). https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186X.2016.1256142
Koh, H. C., Lim, S. H., Chan, G. J., Lin, M. B., Lim, H. H., Choo, S.
H. T., Magiati, I. (2014). The clinical utility of the modified check-
list for autism in toddlers with high risk 18–48 month old children
in Singapore. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders,
44(2), 405–416.
Mittler, P. (2000). Working towards inclusive education: Social
contexts (1st ed.). David Fulton Publishers. https://doi.
org/10.4324/9780203386149
Mourshed, M., Chijioke, C., & Barber, M. (2010). How the world’s
most improved school systems keep getting better. Retrieved from
McKinsey & Company: http://www.mckinsey.com/client_service/
social_sector/latest_thinking/worlds_most_improved_schools
Rai, A. S., & Tiwari, P. K. (2017). Perspectives of university teach-
ers’ regarding inclusion of students with special needs at university
level. Educational Quest, 8, 233–237.
Ramos, E. G., & Fletcher, T. V. (1999). Special education and educa-
tion reform in Mexico. The Bilingual Review, 24(1), 121–134.
Shaywitz, S. E. (1998). Current concepts: Dyslexia. The New England
Journal of Medicine, 338(5), 307–312. https://doi.org/10.1056/
NEJM199801293380507
Simpkins, P. M., Mastropieri, M. A., & Scruggs, T. E. (2009).
Differentiated curriculum enhancements in inclusive fifth-grade
science classes: RASE RASE TL & LD. Remedial and Special
Education, 30(5), 300–308.
Steinmeyer, J. (2011). Implementation of differentiated instruction in
inclusion classroom effectiveness. Walden University.
Thornton, N. C. (2012). The impact of differentiated instructional
strategies with struggling adolescent readers. Walden University.
Trott, C. (2014). Dyscalculia in higher education: Systems, support
and student strategies. In The routledge international handbook of
dyscalculia and mathematical learning difficulties (pp. 406–419).
Routledge.
Trott, C. (2018). Dyscalculia and transitions into higher education
and the workplace. Perspectives on Language and Literacy, 44(1),
21–25.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher
psychological processes. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University
Press.
Wojcik, B. W., Peterson-Karlan, G., Watts, E. H., & Parette, P. (2004).
Assistive technology outcomes in a teacher education curriculum.
Assistive Technology Outcomes & Benefits, 1(1), 21–32.
Yazan, B. (2015). Three approaches to case study methods in educa-
tion: Yin, Merriam, and Stake. The Qualitative Report, 20(2),
134–152.
 Distance Learning and Online
Learning: A Preferred Approach
to Higher Education
Hesham Magd and Benson Ruzive
Abstract
Higher education is pivotal not only for economic pro-
gress and prosperity, but also for individual propensity
to self-actualization. The normal route used in education
is face-to-face learning, but some circumstances may
force people to adapt to distance learning to achieve their
goals. This study has sought to distinguish distance edu-
cation from formal education, identify models applicable
to distance education, ascertain the benefits of distance
education, and identify suitable technology for distance
education. A cross-sectional literature review was car-
ried out using search engines such as Masader, Google
Scholar, and ResearchGate. The literature revealed that
distance education has been practiced for several dec-
ades and recent developments such as stiff competition,
globalization, technology, and natural disasters have left
institutions with no choice but to adopt distance education
as part of its curriculum. Some of the models identified
were individual correspondence, group correspondence,
and parallel learning. The authors recommend that insti-
tutions embark on a needs-based assessment, to establish
target markets and identify appropriate technologies suit-
able for their chosen distance education models.
Keywords
Distance education · Education models · Technologies
for distance education
H. Magd (*)
Associate Dean for Quality Assurance and Accreditation,
and Faculty of Business and Economics Head, Modern College
of Business and Science (MCBS), Muscat, Oman
e-mail: Hesham.Magd@mcbs.edu.om
B. Ruzive
School of Management, IT and Governance,
University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, South Africa
e-mail: Benson.Ruzive@mcbs.edu.om
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024
A. Salman and A. Tharwat (eds.), Informatics for Digital Education,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-49393-5_3
1 Introduction
Higher education refers to a set-up where learners enroll at
any university, college, or a training institution in a coun-
try, offering the highest level of professional course train-
ing and development. These institutions can either be state
owned or privately owned, with the main objective being
to fill a gap in certain identified skills, previously identified
through formal funded or non-funded research. A formal
board is appointed usually by the head of state or through
a formalized commission, regulates the functions of these
institutions to ensure that there is equity between privately
owned and state-owned institutions, as well as implement-
ing quality control. The main objective of these institutions
should be offering life skills to learners and not merely
qualifications and profit. It must be understood that the rea-
son why most people have a desire to pursue higher educa-
tion is because they value education as a major component
of their life survival skills, and not because they have the
inner drive to enjoy learning—except for a few (Murphy &
Zhiri, 1992).
Distance education has been defined as an educational
approach where an absent physical being is given a time
and place through which they may gain access to teach-
ing materials in varying degrees—of face-to-face learning,
media access as well as print and broadcasting (Perraton,
1982). This definition reveals that distance education has
always been available, and the channels of access have
evolved over time—with signs of technology being in exist-
ence as far back as four decades ago, when it was referred
to as broadcast. This was an approach in which a national
broadcasting service would provide slots for radio lessons
on specific days and times of the week for different levels
in education. The major drawback of this approach was that
the presenter would be somewhere in the broadcasting stu-
dio on a sponsored time slot, there was no opportunity for
questions to come from the learners. It was a one-way flow
and the teacher would assume that all learners would have
17
18
completed tasks assigned during that lesson, with the most
ineffectual part of the broadcast model being the lack of fol-
low up to ensure that necessary tasks were completed.
Another distance learning approach would include a
situation where learners had to pick printed learning mate-
rials from recognized accredited distance learning institu-
tions and complete assignments, which must be submitted
by specific dates. As early as the 1960s, governments of
countries such as Botswana, Kenya, Malawi, and Zambia
decided to use distance education for teacher training pro-
grams as well as secondary education. Murphy and Zhiri
(1992) affirms this development by reiterating that dis-
tance education programs have always been used espe-
cially in many developing countries where, as a result of
limited resources, such as manpower and infrastructure, the
approach was the most viable option around the 1990s.
In Africa, salvation of the continent’s illiteracy rate
came in the form of distance education—as it would com-
bine radio and correspondence techniques (Perraton, 1982).
However, the greatest challenge facing the continent then
was how to design a system or learning model that both
meets the individual country’s priorities while also maxi-
mizing learning in a cost-effective manner, using available
resources (World Bank, 1988). The reality in many coun-
tries was that the perception given to those who under-
took this less formal avenue to education was that it was
regarded as a second-rate education, even though it pro-
vided a second chance—mostly to dropouts and those who
were pushed out of mainstream learning in some cases. Yet,
distance education can and should be used as a more effi-
cient and cost-effective method of education.
2 Literature Review
The biggest challenge that distance education has ever
faced is gaining parity of esteem with the formal education
system, in both the eyes of technocrats and the public at
large (Murphy & Zhiri, 1992). Compounded to that, effec-
tive strategies must be designed and properly implemented
in order to improve the quality of distance teaching, bearing
in mind that the learner will be accessing the learning mate-
rial in their own time with no-one to ask for clarification.
Even if there is a clear approach to seeking clarification, the
challenge remains that no immediate feedback is offered to
the learner.
2.1 Models of Learning
Three basic models of learning have been suggested
(Hunover Research, 2011; Leontyeva, 2018) and they are
shown in Fig. 1.
H. Magd and B. Ruzive
2.2 Distance Education Models
It is important to first identify the models which have been
used in distance education and ascertain whether there has
been any transition over the last few decades. Distance edu-
cation should strive to address the problems of quantity
(that is, how many learners are to be enrolled in a certain
program per a given period) and quality (that is, how much
to teach or the content) of each subject. Failure to address
these pertinent issues will compromise the goals of distance
education provisions. Three models have been suggested
(Gunawardena & McIsaac, 2004; Murphy & Zhiri, 1992;
Skylar, 2005) namely individual correspondence, group
correspondence, and parallel learning offered alongside the
conventional approaches.
2.2.1 Individual Correspondence
Learners who are prepared to be educated from home may
use this approach and the decision can be reached on an
individual basis, with feedback from the tutor directed at
that individual alone. This approach has had a long his-
tory and is considered inglorious because failures and suc-
cesses are mourned as well as celebrated individually. In
Africa, this approach was mainly used by the British and
South African Correspondence colleges in most of the colo-
nial countries occupied by Britain. That was a noble way of
making education reach the furthest parts of the world at a
faster rate before the new governments, through ministries
of education, moved in through universities (Murphy &
Zhiri, 1992). What makes this approach inglorious is that
learners get less or no attention at all from service provid-
ers as they will be learning purely from home. In Africa, it
was discovered that < 5% of those who initially enrolled sat
for the final examinations, after 5 years of studying, three
quarters of the initial enrollment figures had completely
withdrawn from studying (Curran & Murphy, 1989; Hilpe
& Flemming, 2002). This model demands self-directed
learning, individual motivation, access to library resources,
experimental learning, and support from family members as
well as friends in a similar learning environment for it to
succeed.
2.2.2 Group Correspondence
The challenges of the first model gave rise to the second
approach, with the difference being that the number of par-
ticipants (learners) had grown. Therefore, it became ideal
to set up group correspondence study centers. Group cor-
respondence is an approach which has been used to offer
education to mature learners, usually at masters and doctor-
ate levels because those students have something already
motivating them, such as a job promotion or attainment of
specific qualification (self-actualization). In Malawi and
Zambia, these study centers were developed with much
Distance Learning and Online Learning: A Preferred Approach to Higher Education 19

Model 1 Model 2 Model 3

• The allocaon of distance learning in separately
funconing department or center where it is
possible to include all types of acvies:
administraon, IT support, development and
producon of educaonal materials. this
system can cooperate with exisng systems or
be integrated only with registraon and
enrollment informaon. The modal is used in
more rare cases, as the mixed types of learning
are used for students in the universies which
reduce the gap between distance and full-me
educaon
• Alternavely, the university may prefer
distance learning to the full-me and make it
an integral part of its core acvity, ensuring the
involvement of all facules in a certain way.
this approach will avoid duplicaon of
administrave and other systems. However,
such an organisaon-wide approach can lead to
diluon of funds allocated for the development
of innovaon and to the absence of the
creaon of whole programs or to a limited
impact on the instuon as a whole. although
this approach can benefit students in the field,
giving them the flexibility of learning in some
modules but any broader goals of distance
educaon are not achievable outside the
instuon.
• Some universies use the department to
implement and manage the development of
distance learning, while retaining management
at the facules. This enables the taeching staff
to focus on creang learning materials without
the need to provide input data and links
between the departments. Thus, this model
shows that innovave achievements and
pracces are implemented on a centralised
basis and are distributed on a larger scale. The
trend of this model is to ensure that entusiasts
and leaders of the training regime are always
present at the collecve at all levels

Fig. 1  Models of learning. Source Leontyeva (2018)

more modest resources than those of the conventional face-
to-face traditional classrooms (World Bank, 1988), in addi-
tion to radio support for correspondence courses. Study
center supervisors have a mandate to assist learners as they
use course materials (Wolff & Futagami, 1982). Physical
attendance is usually carried out once per semester over
a period of three to four continuous months. During that
period learners may be overwhelmed with the volume of
work in the form of class attendance and assignments, but
assignments are usually submitted a month after delivery,
directly to the facilitator/teacher.
2.2.3 Parallel Method
The parallel method of distance learning has been intro-
duced in several universities in Africa such as the
University of Lusaka in Zambia, a private university. This
model has been used for undergraduate programs—the dif-
ference from the conventional approach being that students
attend classes in the evening for two hours. The challenge
for these students is that they spend less time at college or
universities than the conventional learners which means
they have less exposure to institutional resources such as
libraries, the administration department (responsible for
addressing their individual queries), and program facili-
tators. Time is in short supply for this group of learners
because during the day they will usually be at work and
every evening they must attend lessons, putting them under
increased pressure as opposed to group correspondence.
These learners take the same examinations as the conven-
tional groups since resources are considered to be the same,
that is the semester period will be equal, the facilitator/
teacher is the same (Fig. 2).
2.3 The Benefits of Distance Learning
The World Bank as cited (Murphy & Zhiri, 1992) suggested
the following as advantages of distance education.
2.3.1 Economies of Scale
Distance education is offered to many learners at a conveni-
ent time for them, thereby reducing the usual costs associ-
ated with running a traditional formal education system.
For instance, the number of printed materials nowadays has
been greatly reduced to make use of online teaching and
learning management facilities such as YouTube, e-mail,
Microsoft Teams, and ZOOM. The costs of delivering
teaching and learning material over these platforms are far
less than running a formal education system. In addition, if
learners come to face-to-face learning for a specific time-
frame and spend most of the learning hours by themselves
indirect costs such as fuel, accommodation, and food will
20 H. Magd and B. Ruzive

• Suitable for individuals

• Requires self-directed learning
• Learning at own pace
• Less aenon from facilitator
Individual • Less popular with technocrats and public at large
Correspondence • An inglorious approach as celebraons and failures are faced individually

• Suitable for post graduate learners

• Ideal for groups with similar needs/program designs
• Less me for phyiscal contact with facilitator and instuonal resources
Group • Can run for three to four consecve weeks
• The movaon for learners is usually promoon at work or self-actualisaon
Correspondence

• Learners aend classes in the evening only

• Learners have limited access to instuonal resources
• Usually suitable for the working class learners
• Learners are over-whelmed with tasks as they have to aend to work and classes during the same period
Parallel • Runs over the same semester period with convenonal classes
Approach • Learners take the same examinaon with the convenonal learners

Fig. 2  Models of distance learning

be reduced, and the money can be invested by these indi-
viduals elsewhere.
2.3.2 Flexibility
It cannot be over-emphasized that flexibility is one of the
greatest benefits offered by distance education in that learn-
ers get access to teaching materials at their own time and
pace, when it is convenient for them. Learners can always
refer to materials availed to them for distance education.
The advent of technology such as cloud storage makes it
flexible for a learner to save their work anywhere and have
it be accessible anytime, anywhere. This is an advantage
over carrying books, flash drives, and other gadgets—which
if they get lost or stolen, will not be recovered.
2.3.3 Educated People Are Better Consumer
The World Bank advocates that educated people are better
consumers, if they have made a choice by themselves to
embark on distance education, as is the usual target market
for distance education. Unlike those in formal education
systems, where a learner would have been taken through
the process by a formally prescribed route, those in distance
education value time and other resources available, know-
ing full well that they do not want to miss the opportunity.
two hours. There are several factors in the formal systems
to force completion of tasks within prescribed timeframes
such as sharing of classes and students joining other sub-
jects as soon as they complete one. Yet, for distance edu-
cation, materials can be made available at once and it will
be the learner’s initiative to craft a self-directed learning
plan.
2.3.5 Keeps Adults Abreast of Technology
Technology has been changing rapidly, not only in the edu-
cation sector but also in all other spheres of the economy.
As such, distance education makes it possible for adults
to upgrade their knowledge bases on a regular basis. For
example, in industry and machinery, technology which
was available a decade ago is becoming obsolete thereby
demanding users to learn new technologies.
2.4 Distance Education Technologies
See Table 1.
3 Discussion and Conclusion

2.3.4 Ability to Absorb Teaching Material
and Content
Distance education enables learners to absorb content at
their own rate. For instance, it might take a learner three
hours to complete learning material which under the for-
mal education system would be delivered in a space of
This study adopted desk research as a methodology to dis-
tinguish distance learning from face-to-face learning in the
higher and tertiary education sector as the major objective.
Other objectives included identifying models applicable for
distance education, finding the benefits of distance educa-
tion, and establishing the technologies ideal for distance
Distance Learning and Online Learning: A Preferred Approach to Higher Education 21

Table 1  Summary of main Technology Advantages Disadvantages

distance education technologies
Print • Material inexpensive • No interactions
• Portable • Limited sensory
• High comfort level involvement
• Readily available • Requires reading skills
• Time delay
Voicemail • Low cost • Length may be limited
• Easy to use • No visual cues
• Increases interactions • May involve to charges
Audio files/CD • Inexpensive • No visual cues
• Easy to set-up • Requires hardware
E-mail • Flexible • Requires hardware
• Interactive • Software variations
• Convenient
Online chat • Real-time • Requires similar software
• Instant feedback • Must be scheduled
• Requires hardware
Web-based education • May incorporate multi-media • Requires computer
• Worldwide access • Requires web access
• Interactive • May be slow
Videotape/DVD • Inexpensive • Complex to record
• Easily accessible • No interaction
• Easily duplicated • Requires hardware
• Audio and visual elements
Satellite videoconference • High realism • Expensive hardware
• Maybe interactive • Must be scheduled
• Usually one way only
Internet videoconference • High realism • Must be scheduled
• Maybe interactive • Small windows
• Relatively inexpensive • Maybe slow, jerky video
Cable/broadcast television • Easy to use • High production costs
• Easily accessible • Requires hardware
• May be video taped • No interaction
• Includes audio and visual • Must be scheduled
Source 2009. “A Teacher’s Guide to Distance Learning.” http://fcit.usf.edu/distance/default.htm

education in higher and tertiary education. Literature was
reviewed to gain an understanding of research gaps in the
field as well as what previous researchers had found and
recommended. Masader, ResearchGate, and Google Scholar
were used in order to execute a thorough search of previous
studies.
A cross-sectional approach to the literature review
showed that distance education is not a new phenom-
enon but has been in existence for quite some time. The
dimensions and extent of its application are what differed
from region to region, and from generation to generation.
Recently, developments such as globalization, competi-
tion, and natural disasters such as COVID-19 have now
forced higher learning institutions to embrace distance edu-
cation to gain a competitive advantage as well as survival
in this new environment. Great deal of technologies have
been available for the provision of distance education, from
ancient methods of delivery to the modern ones; which
are print, voicemail, audio files or compact disks, internet
conferences and broadcast television services, among oth-
ers. However, the composition of the various methods of the
distance learning will depend on each institution strategy as
well as its audience.
4 Recommendations
In the wake of greater competition, globalization and natu-
ral disruptions, institutions of higher learning are encour-
aged to conduct a needs-based assessment which involves
identifying the target audience, the ideal model for each
situation and the technologies to be used, before embark-
ing on distance education. It is critical to set clear goals
and instructional objectives or learning outcomes, as well
as avoiding underestimating the commitment required in
distance education, securing top management commit-
ment, appropriate infrastructure, and offer training and
development for teaching online. Moreover, skills used in
22
face-to-face learning environments are completely differ-
ent from those required for distance education, and there-
fore competencies required for teaching online or through
the distance learning mode must be identified and faculty
trained on these competencies. For instance, the technolo-
gies used for face-to-face teaching might be easy to use and
manipulate whereas technologies for distance education
require the facilitator to have a great deal of skills.
References
Curran, C., & Murphy, P. (1989). Distance education at the second
level in six countries in Africa. Dublin HEDCO
Gunawardena, C., & McIsaac, M. (2004). Distance education:
Handbook of research for educational communications and tech-
nology (2nd ed.). Jonassen
H. Magd and B. Ruzive
Hilpe, D., & Flemming, S. (2002). Models for distance education in
critical languages: Evolving definition of distance education. In
New technologies and language learning: Case in the less com-
monly taught languages
Hunover Research. (2011). Distance education models and best
practices
Leontyeva, I. A. (2018). Modern distance learning technologies in
higher education: Introduction problems. EURASIA Journal of
Mathematics, Science and Technology Education., 14(10), 1578.
Murphy, P., & Zhiri, A. (1992). Distance education in anglophone
Africa. Experience with secondary education and teacher training.
The World Bank D.C
Perraton, H. (1982). The cost effectiveness of distance education. IEC
Broadsheets, 17, 196.
Skylar, A. (2005). Distance education: An exploration of alternative
methods and types of instructional media in teacher education.
Journal of Special Education Technology, 20(3), 25–33.
Wolff, L., & Futagami, S. (1982). The Malawi correspondence col-
lege. Perraton Ed. Alternative Routes to Formal Education
World Bank. (1988). Education in Sub-Saharan Africa. Policies for
Adjustment, Revitalization and Expansion
 Big Data Exploration Towards
Analysing and Predicting
Student’s Academic Progress
in Higher Education: A Review
Ibtisam Yakub Mogul and Satya Shah
Abstract
The Industry 4.0 revolution encompassing technologies
like Artificial intelligence (AI), Big data and the Internet
of Things is integrating and influencing Education,
Business, Health care, and other sectors. Big data ben-
efits business by providing enhanced decision making,
offering novel perceptions, and incorporating compe-
tent processing. Big data and Industry 4.0 are also used
to enhance the learner’s involvement and experience and
utilization of Tutor time. University leaders are keen
in using technologies to check if students get detached
and are at risk. Big data helps Universities to deter-
mine the institute’s retention, progress and completion
aspects relating to students. This further assists in low-
ering attrition by the early discovery of at-risk learners
and informing teachers and administrators. This paper
attempts to provide an insight of the research and steps
taken by various universities or education bodies towards
pooling this varied data both structured and unstructured
that is present in a massive amount and can be exploited
for prediction related to student’s progress and status.
The review paper explores Learning Analytics technol-
ogy and classification methods: Decision Tree, Artificial
Neural Networks, Naïve Bayes, Bayesian Network and
Multi-Linear Regression and software like data analyt-
ics using WEKA tool, Statistical Package for Social
Sciences (SPSS) analysis tool, Python among others for
prediction.
I. Y. Mogul (*)
University of Bolton Academic Centre Ras al Khaimah,
Ras Al Khaimah, United Arab Emirates
e-mail: i.mogul@bolton.ac.uk
S. Shah
University of Bolton, Dean Road, Bolton, UK
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024
A. Salman and A. Tharwat (eds.), Informatics for Digital Education,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-49393-5_4
Keywords
Big data · Prediction · Learning analytics · Decision
making
1 Introduction
The Industry 4.0 revolution encompassing technologies
like Artificial intelligence (AI), Big data, and the inter-
net of things is integrating and influencing Education,
Business, Health care and other sectors. Big data benefits
business by providing enhanced decision making, offering
novel perceptions, and incorporating competent processing
(Shah et al., 2017). Big data analytics is found innovative
to businesses recently because it offers higher productivity
and profitability and generates real-time solutions to dif-
ferent industries. Amazon utilizes consumer’s information
about contact, payment and search records to enhance asso-
ciations with consumers. Employing big data, American
Express is analysing and predicting consumer’s actions. In
healthcare field (Dash et al., 2019), big data processing of
“genomics” data in Human Genome Project, the research-
ers processed large amount of raw data to establish the
functional aspects in the human genome like the SparkSeq
used for interactive genomic data analysis with nucleotide
precision.
Big data and Industry 4.0 are also used to enhance the
learner’s involvement and experience and utilization of
Tutor time (Times Higher Education (THE), 2019). In
Universities UK Conference 2018, Jisc introduced the
Education 4.0 concept to discuss on harnessing the prow-
ess of new trends and technologies. University leaders were
keen in using technologies to check if student get detached
and are at risk. They stated that learning analytics will aid
instructors to develop an all-inclusive perception of learn-
ers’ engagement and progress. Educational Data Mining
23
24
(EDM) is an emerging tool for academic intervention that
can help comprehensive analysis of learners’ characteristics
(Mueen et al., 2016).
2 Problem Statement
Many university systems have data related to a student
spread across different documents of various types struc-
tured or unstructured. The data is composed of admin-
istrative data related to previous education grades,
extra-curricular activities, awards and interests and current
batch student’s grades achieved in the prior module’s his-
tory and historical data of previous batch student perfor-
mances. This causes a lapse to predict student academic
performance and at-risk status.
3 Evidence of Previous Research
This paper attempts to provide an insight of the research
and steps taken by various universities or education bodies
towards pooling this varied data both structured and unstruc-
tured that is present in a massive amount and can be exploited
for prediction related to student’s progress and status.
3.1 Mining of Big Data Collaborating
Learning Analytics in Higher Education
Data mining in Higher Education is securing significance
in trending fields of Educational data mining and learning
analytics (Aldowah et al., 2019). This framework forms
an environment that constantly gathers, processes and pro-
vides information regarding status of students. It further
facilitates resolutions for effective decision-making and
enhances the educational development. This educational
framework provides better individualized, robust, and col-
laborative space to improve learning outcomes, efficiency
of teaching and learning, and elevating organizational com-
petence, and mapping both instructor and student perfor-
mance. Universities are thus motivated to assemble huge
amounts of data concerning to their learners stored in learn-
ing management systems.
Many data mining procedures have been employed to
investigate cases in an aim towards prediction. A brief view
of machine learning techniques, inputs like student’s earlier
module marks, virtual learning environment interaction,
demographic details and Tools like Weka, SPSS, Python are
harnessed and some Universities Dashboard systems like
Open University Analyse, Progress and Course Engagement
(PACE) systems were utilized to predict outputs regarding
at-risk students and to estimate their academic grades.
I. Y. Mogul and S. Shah
3.2 Literature Review Framework
Framework of the Literature Review performed is presented
in the Fig. 1.
Middle East College (MEC), Sultanate of Oman, has
many streams of science and engineering. MEC has student
information system (SIS) that has details regarding to learn-
ers and Moodle which is virtual learning environment for
teaching that provides student learning activity. Hasan et al.
(2020) applied an approach to MEC courses which employs
Business Intelligence and Data Mining for forecasting
issues learners might face. The approach implemented clas-
sification for forecasting learner performance. Then the
results were provided to the stakeholders using effective
Visualization. This aided the stakeholders in their method
of decision making.
In a study at Jordanian Al-Bayt University (Alhusban
et al., 2020), the details encompassed data of learners
across 27 programs provided at the university between
the duration of 2011–2019. Data covered 49,235 records
and 15 elements. Details evaluated included gender, per-
formance in high-school, nationality, and admitted year.
Hadoop was used to store and process the data using big
data processing. Hue, an opensource analytics technique,
was then employed to extract information efficiently as it
provides with data organization, text analytics and fast
query processing analytics. Their method analysed the vast
data of university learners to compile features that influence
the performance of the undergraduates in their duration in
the University.
New York Institute of Technology (NYIT), USA uti-
lizes predictive model (Sclater et al., 2016), to determine
at-risk students with good precision. Their goal was to
boost retention of students by determining which students
require further support, and to give knowledge about the sit-
uation of every student which then guided support-counsel-
lors to council. Their method employed 4 sources of details:
admission, registration/placement, a student survey, and
finance data. The method involved data mining, performing
analytics and generating the result that would support the
counselling staff. Bayesian network and dynamic Bayesian
network was implemented to estimate at-risk student by
Hafzan et al. (2019) as it is resilient to inadequate data and
real time altering and active environment.
Ahmad et al. (2015) suggested a method for forecasting
Year 1 computing course undergraduate’s academic out-
comes. Information of 8 years that included the learners’
demographics, preceding academic grades and family envi-
ronment was considered. Technologies like Decision Tree,
Naïve Bayes, and Rule-based Classification were used on
learners’ details to generate an academic performance pre-
diction model. Rule-based was deducted to be the best fit-
ting approach between the other techniques as it achieved
Big Data Exploration Towards Analysing and Predicting Student’s
Fig. 1  Literature review
framework
Data Mining Techniques
-Bayesian network
-Decision Tree, Naïve Bayes, and
Rule Based classificaon
-Mulple Linear Regression
System Inputs
-student's previous subjects marks
-me-gap of teaching material
accessed, pupil academic grades of
assignments, quizzes, and forum-
discussions
-demographic data- gender, age,
educaonal-degree, ongoing/new
learner, and involvement
informaon of virtual learning
environment interacon
the maximum accuracy. The information from prediction
model helped to detect and define the phase of success of
students in the first semester.
Another approach used Learning Analytics technol-
ogy (Oyerinde & Chia, 2017) on secondary data obtained
from Computer Department, University of Jos. Statistical
Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) analysis tool is applied
to perform Multiple Linear Regression. A hypothesis was
tested to predict if a student who performed well in two
Maths-related subjects would hence perform better in
Computer module.
In research by Mueen et al. (2016), student learning
information was obtained from the Learning Management
System (LMS) which entailed time-gap of teaching mate-
rial accessed, pupil academic grades of assignments, quiz-
zes, and forum-discussions. Process involved data analytics
using WEKA tool. Three classification techniques were
used to predict student academic performance, namely deci-
sion trees, artificial neural networks, and Naïve Bayes. The
research aided Tutors to identify learners who were pre-
dicted to not succeed in the module. Tutor then provided
extra guidance to those students to improve their academic
performance.
The Open University (Shacklock, 2016) utilizes OU
Analyse analytics tool to assist their learners studying at
distance. The strategy intends to detect learners at risk of
dropping out of academics to provide interventions at an
early stage. The model applies predictive analytics depend-
ing on the performances and demographics of preceding
25
Tools
-Weka
- (SPSS) analysis tool
Stakeholders
-Python
- University
-Parents
-Students
-Employers
-Educaon Quality Assurance Bodies
Big Data in
Higher
Educaon
Predicon Outputs
-predicng at-risk student
-detect learners at risk of dropping
out.
-Two-weekly predicon of
assignment submission and final
Dashboard So‡wares grades
-Open University Analyse
-Progress and Course Engagement
(PACE) system
semesters of learners. The approach uses demographic
data, involving gender, age, educational degree, ongoing/
new learner, and involvement information of virtual learn-
ing environment interaction. It assesses VLE interaction and
generates a behavioural “fingerprint” representing the stu-
dent engagement with learning exercises on weekly basis.
The information is further used to make a predictive ana-
lytics model, which generates a two-weekly prediction of
every learner—first about assignment submission and other
of their final grades. The outputs are signified on a console
as a traffic light system. The teachers and the support staff
obtain a weekly “at-risk” students list. They can harness
this information to provide the suitable intervention, involv-
ing either sending emails or meeting the target learner.
Rio Salado Community College in Arizona uses Progress
and Course Engagement (PACE) system (Picciano, 2012)
to automate monitoring of learner improvement—with
intervention. Success is predicted based on 3 factors: regu-
larity of a learner signing in; site involvement—check if
they accessed online study resources and performed tasks;
and grades of their assignments. Reports generated by their
system represent like a traffic light to Tutors indicating at-
risk student coloured as red. A Tutor can examine student
involvement whenever required during the curriculum and
information in PACE is retained on a real-time basis. This
helps the university to utilize big data and prediction to help
non-traditional learners accomplish their educational aspira-
tions through courses customized to individual requirements
(Table 1).

Table 1  Review summary
Sr. No Author
1 Sclater et al. (2016)
2 Hafzan et al. (2019)
3 Ahmad et al. (2015)
4 Oyerinde and Chia (2017)
5 Mueen et al. (2016)
6 Shacklock (2016)
7 Picciano (2012)
8 Alhusban et al. (2020)
9 Hasan et al. (2020)
26
Tools and technique/algorithm/software Input Output Stakeholders
Predictive model data mining, performing analytics Admission, registration/placement, a Determine at-risk students New York Institute of
student survey, and finance data Technology (NYIT),
USA
Bayesian network and dynamic Bayesian network Inadequate data and real time altering Predicting at-risk student
and active environment
Decision tree, Naïve Bayes, and rule-based Learners’ data Forecasting Year 1 undergradu- University Malaysia
classification ate’s academic outcomes Pahang
Learning analytics technology-multiple linear Student’s previous 2 maths-related Prediction of performance in University of Jos,
regression, statistical package for social sciences subjects marks computer module Nigeria
(SPSS) analysis tool
Classification techniques: decision trees, artificial Student learning information from Predict student academic King Abdulaziz
neural networks, and Naïve Bayes, data analytics learning management system (LMS): performance—identify learners University, Saudi
using WEKA tool, Learning Management System time-gap of teaching material accessed, who were predicted to not Arabia, Jeddah
(LMS) pupil academic grades of assignments, succeed in the module
quizzes, and forum-discussions
OU analyse analytics tool Demographic data gender, age, educa- Detect learners at risk of Open University
tional degree, ongoing/new learner, dropping out. Two-weekly
and involvement information of virtual prediction of assignment
learning environment interaction submission and final grades
Progress and course engagement (PACE) system Regularity of a learner signing in; site Traffic light indicating at-risk Rio Salado
involvement and assignments grades student Community College
in Arizona
Hadoop, Hue (extract information efficiently, text Gender, performance in high-school, Features that influence the Jordanian Al-Bayt
analytics and fast query pro-cessing analytics) nationality and admitted year performance of the University
undergraduates
Business intelligence and data mining, classification Student information system Forecasting learner Middle East College
(SIS) + Moodle performance, issues learners (MEC), Sultanate of
might face Oman
I. Y. Mogul and S. Shah
Big Data Exploration Towards Analysing and Predicting Student’s
4 Challenges to Big Data in Education
Benefits of big data cannot overlook some issues faced
in the process for prediction in Higher Education. Issues
regarding privacy and ethics (Leitner et al., 2019) are
involved in collection and dissemination of information.
Privacy of the student is reduced to their details stored. The
classification of students to mere profiles is perceived harm-
ful as a student would be just characterized by very limited
features. Individuality regarding their situation also needs to
be considered. This indicates that analysis should also take
into account the disparities in data.
Many ethical apprehensions are also posed since individ-
ual student information will be used to process and provide
interventions to them. Ethics will involve regarding what
data of a student can be processed, who can the details be
conveyed to and how would it impact. The big data explora-
tion for Higher Education should balance the ethical norms,
privacy aspect and guarantee an advantageous result to all
stakeholders.
5 Conclusion
Big Data Analytics in Education (Anirban, 2014) has ena-
bled Tutors to recognize the pupils who need added help
and consideration. This paper has attempted to provide a
view of approaches used to examine, identify, and analyse
student’s academic performance and at-risk students using
Big Data Techniques in Higher Education Institutes (HEI)
s on the basis of the historical and current information
related to the students. Such research provides the Tutors/
Academicians with a Big Data Analytics framework that
will guide in understanding and analysing the vast amounts
of data related to students and predict students at risk and
their academic performance to further support timely
intervention. Personal Tutors can use this analytical infor-
mation to plan appropriate interventions for such pupils.
Administrators would also benefit in decision-making using
the analytical information. Big data helps them to determine
the institute’s retention, progress, and completion aspects
relating to students. This further assists in lowering attri-
tion by the early discovery of at-risk learners and informing
teachers and administrators.
References
Ahmad, F., Ismail, N. H., & Aziz, A. A. (2015). The prediction of stu-
dents’ academic performance using classification data mining tech-
niques. Applied Mathematical Sciences, 9(129), 6415–6426.
27
Aldowah, H., Al-Samarraie, H., & Fauzy, W. M. (2019). Educational
data mining and learning analytics for 21st century higher educa-
tion: A review and synthesis. Telematics and Informatics, 37, 1–49.
Alhusban, S., Shatnawi, M., Yasin, M. B., & Hmeidi, I. (2020).
Measuring and enhancing the performance of undergraduate stu-
dent using machine learning tools. In Proceedings of the 2020 11th
international conference on information and communication sys-
tems (ICICS) (pp. 261–265). IEEE
Anirban, S. (2014). Big data analytics in the education sector: Needs,
opportunities and challenges. International Journal of Research in
Computer and Communication Technology, 3(11), 1425–1428.
Anozie, N., & Junker, B.W. (2006). Predicting end-of-year account-
ability assessment scores from monthly student records in an
online tutoring system. In Educational data mining: Papers from
the AAAI workshop. AAAI Press
Arsad, P.M., Buniyamin, N., Ab Manan, J.L., & Hamzah, N. (2011)
Proposed academic students’ performance prediction model: A
Malaysian case study. In Proceedings of the 3rd international con-
gress on engineering education (ICEED) (pp. 90–94)
Daniel, B. (2015). Big data and analytics in higher education:
Opportunities and challenges. British Journal of Educational
Technology, 46(5), 904–920.
Dash, S., Shakyawar, S. K., Sharma, M., & Kaushik, S. (2019). Big
data in healthcare: Management, analysis and future prospects.
Journal of Big Data, 6(1), 54.
Hafzan, M.Y.N.N., Safaai, D., Asiah, M., Saberi, M.M., & Syuhaida,
S.S. (2019) Review on predictive modelling techniques for iden-
tifying students at risk in University Environment. In MATEC web
of conferences (Vol. 255, p. 03002). EDP Sciences
Hasan, R., Palaniappan, S., Mahmood, S., Naidu, V. R., Agarwal, A.,
Singh, B., et al. (2020). A review: Emerging trends of big data in
higher educational institutions. In Micro-electronics and telecom-
munication engineering (pp. 289–297). Springer
Hung, B.K. (2020) Applying big data in higher education: A case
study of teacher-focused learning analytics. In Applied degree edu-
cation and the future of work (pp. 341–348). Springer
Leitner, P., Ebner, M., & Ebner, M. (2019) Learning analytics chal-
lenges to overcome in higher education institutions. In Utilizing
learning analytics to support study success (pp. 91–104). Springer
Mueen, A., Zafar, B., & Manzoor, U. (2016). (2016) Modeling and
predicting students’ academic performance using data mining tech-
niques. International Journal of Modern Education and Computer
Science, 8(11), 36.
Oyerinde, O.D., & Chia, P.A. (2017) Predicting students’ academic
performances: A learning analytics approach using multiple linear
regression
Picciano, A. G. (2012). The evolution of big data and learning ana-
lytics in American higher education. Journal of Asynchronous
Learning Networks, 16(3), 9–20.
Popescu, F., Iskandaryan, R., & Weber, T. (2019). Big data and inter-
national accreditations in higher education: A Dutch–Russian case
study
Sclater, N., Peasgood, A., & Mullan, J. (2016). Learning analytics in
higher education. JISC
Shacklock, X. (2016). From bricks to clicks: The potential of data and
analytics in higher education. Higher Education
Shah, S., Soriano, C. B., & Coutroubis, A. D. (2017). Is big data
for everyone? The challenges of big data adoption in SMEs.
IEEE International Conference on Industrial Engineering and
Engineering Management (IEEM), 15, 803–807.
Times Higher Education (THE). (2019). Preparing for education 4.0.
https://www.timeshighereducation.com/hub/jisc/p/preparing-edu-
cation-40. Accessed 17 Oct 2019
 Innovative Pedagogy: A Case Study
of Incidental and Context-Based
Learning
Maisa El Gamal and Vasila Alkhaldi
Abstract
Being an educator means upgrading the teaching styles
to accommodate vast changing environments of teach-
ing. This study reflects on the implementation of inno-
vative pedagogical approaches, namely, context-based
learning and incidental learning. The research was con-
ducted on 125 higher education students who were
undergoing a science course. Two major interventions
were introduced, and variation in students’ performance
was measured through the learning experience, survey,
and students’ grades. The results of the study illustrated
the value of incidental and context-based learning on the
improvement of the student’s skills.
Keywords
Incidental learning · Context-based learning · Innovative
pedagogy · Effective learning outcomes
1 Introduction
The term innovation derives from the Latin word innovatus,
generally it means to renew or change. Innovation has been
incorporated into most of our life aspects; starting from
daily lifestyles and ending with great inventions. And since
being an educator means inflicting life skills into the educa-
tional process, nowadays every educator should think about
the best innovative pedagogy that he or she can implement
in their classrooms.
M. El Gamal (*)
College of Natural and Health Sciences, Zayed University,
Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
e-mail: maisa.elgamal@zu.ac.ae
V. Alkhaldi
Zayed University, Abu Dhabi,
United Arab Emirates
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024
A. Salman and A. Tharwat (eds.), Informatics for Digital Education,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-49393-5_5
In the education industry, innovation refers to the crea-
tion of better or more effective products, processes, tech-
nologies, or ideas. These creations should be acknowledged
and accepted by the people in charge of education; teachers,
higher management, parents, and students. Subsequently,
innovation differs from invention or renovation in signify-
ing a substantial positive change compared to incremental
changes; this might cause nonacceptance and even rejec-
tion of innovations by educators or policymakers. Having
said that, with the vast tremendous changing environment in
the workplace, educators need to occupy the students with
the proper skills. In fact, just learning what is between the
hardcovers of a textbook is no longer enough in today’s
competitive economy world (Michel et al., 2009). As such,
to confront the continuously growing industry, there is an
urgent need for next-generation innovative mentalities that
can handle these changes in the best possible way.
Although the lecture style remains to be the center-
piece of the class time, it has been reported that it does not
improve students’ innovative thinking and lecture cognitive
contents (McCarthy & Anderson, 2000).
In this pedagogy, students passively receive informa-
tion and then internalize it in some sort of memorization
in preparation for periodic graded assessments. What can
be clearly debited is that today’s lifestyle requires critical
thinking, which means memorization of information won’t
help in such a dynamic environment.
Watkins et al. (2018) defined incidental learning as a
byproduct of another formal or intentional learning activity.
In contrast to formal learning, it is not highly structured or
controlled. Examples of incidental learning may include but
are not limited to; interpersonal interaction, trial-and-error
experimentation and presentation techniques.
Yet another innovative pedagogy that is used currently is
context-based learning which is referred to the involvement
of teaching activities that stimulate students’ thinking about
the subject matter (Kreiner, 2009). Active learning tools
such as laboratory experiments are usually taught alongside
29
30 M. El Gamal and V. Alkhaldi

with the traditional approach of teaching, reinforcing the analyzed via Minitab software. In addition, a questionnaire
scaffolded theory of teaching. Active non-traditional teach- during class time was distributed to assess the effect of the
ing strategies are highly important in almost all disciplines new learning method.
and fields, but it is especially critical in science-based mod- The incidental learning was assessed through a com-
ules where there is a great urge to hand on learning rather parison of student’s interaction and delivery methods of the
than by only receiving information. learned concepts. This was measured and reflected on their
Wingfield and Black (2005) reported through a com- marks and their course satisfaction degree.
parative study between passive and active teaching style of
same course content that students did perceive the class as
more relevant and helpful for their future careers. In addi- 4 Results and Discussion
tion, Michel et al. (2009) compared 8 qualitative papers
who found that active learning is more effective than pas- The aim of the research was to compare the effectiveness of
sive learning regardless of the variables used in the study. using context-based pedagogy instead of traditional lectur-
Simple strategies can be used to incorporate student-cen- ing style in increasing the comprehension of the students in
tered activities like the ones that Lom (2012) tried including science topics. To do so, first, the survey aimed to identify
reader’s theater, think-pair-share, roundtable, jigsaw, in- the various test sample characteristics. As shown in Table
class quizzes, and minute papers. Furthermore, on a sample 1, most students (36%) were in their 3rd year and another
size of 72 undergraduate students in an animal physiology 26% in 2nd year of university. While 20% in their 1st year
course, Minhas et al. (2012) found that student’s informa- and only 18% in their 4th year. This confirms that the stu-
tion retention and performance have been improved with dent has already adjusted to the university educational
the integration of active learning using a peer-led seminar delivery method and that they can evaluate the various
instead of just instructor lecturing. methods of course content delivery.
Moreover, Table 2 shows the different backgrounds of
the students who were involved in the research. It’s clearly
2 Significance of the Study demonstrated that some of the participants are from back-
grounds that don't usually deal with hands-on activities and
This paper reports on the findings of data analysis of student’s this adds value to the significance of the outcomes.
grades as well as a survey conducted on students in a federal After establishing the student’s background, it was
higher education institution within the UAE which may help essential to evaluate the student’s previous knowledge of
in designing more effective and innovative classrooms for science topics and activities. It was found that 100% of the
undergraduate Emirati students. The study aims to explore the
effect of the use of context-based learning. The study aims
to explore the effect of the use of context-based learning. As Table 1  Participants profile—academic level
well as exploring the incidental learning and its overall rela- Year No. of participants Percentage of participants
(%)
tion with student’s interaction and academic performance.
1st year 18 20
2nd year 23 26
3 Methodology 3rd year 32 36.0
4th year 16 18.0
This study was carried out over a semester with five sec-
tions, each section comprising about 25 students. A total of
125 students studying a science course, the outcome of four Table 2  Participants profile—major
activities were completed: two activities were completed
Year No. of Percentage of
outside the classroom (experimental activity) and two activ- participants participants (%)
ities were completed inside the classroom. For the context- Business 32 36.0
based learning, each section was divided into 9 groups with
Communication and media 5 5.6
3 students per group. Each group shared the load of experi- sciences
mental work, students reported their experimental findings
Natural health sciences 19 21.3
online for grading. On the other hand, traditional teaching
Technological innovation 12 13.5
activities inside the classroom were processed through the
learning of scientific theories and performing an online Humanities and social sciences 16 18.0
assessment for grading. Based on the students’ grades, Art and creative enterprises 3 3.4
learning through various pedagogy has been compared and Other 2 2.2
Innovative Pedagogy: A Case Study of Incidental … 31

Fig. 1  Degree of participant

satisfaction—traditional
pedagogy

Fig. 2  Degree of participant

satisfaction—context-based
pedagogy

participants have gained some experience either through represent students’ grades after applying interventions sym-
their other courses, extracurricular activities, or workshops. bolized by context-based learning along with incidental
Furthermore, the degree of satisfaction of the students learning, this demonstrates the enhancement of the grade
with reference to the traditional and context-based peda- distribution which reflects on the overall academic perfor-
gogy was surveyed and is reported in Fig. 1a, b. More than mance of the students.
half (55%) of the students were satisfied, while 38% stated The second part of this research project was aimed
that they have a neutral attitude against the used peda- to understand the types of incidental learning that can
gogy and around 4.4% were unsatisfied. This result might
be explained by the fact that the students usually have the
change resistance mindset as the fear of the unknown is
dominant in their minds. In contrast, when participants
were asked about their satisfaction with the use of context-
based pedagogy, 79.8% expressed their satisfaction with the
new approach only 18% were unbiased and no participants
showed their dissatisfaction.
To understand the reasons behind the student’s prefer-
ences in more depth, participants were asked to state their
preference reason, and the results were as follows; involve-
ment of more practical learning, the lecture being more
engaging and use of critical thinking/problem-solving tech- Fig. 3  Participants reasons for preferring context-based pedagogy
niques were the main reasons that made the context-based
learning more appealing to students. While the use of com-
plex equipment and unusual classroom environment caused
some participants to prefer traditional learning styles, these
finds are shown in Figs. 2, 3 and 4 consequently.
Moving on to the major outcomes of this research where
students were asked about their preference 71.9% preferred
the context-based learning pedagogy while 28.1% preferred
the classroom activities.
The overall score of the students along with the devia-
tion in each of the control sections and intervention sec-
tions was analyzed and illustrated in Fig. 5. Unit 1 and
Unit 2 activities represent the grade distribution based on
traditional pedagogy. While Unit 3 and Unit 4 activities Fig. 4  Participants reasons for preferring traditional pedagogy
32
Fig. 5  Participants grade distributions before and after applying interventions
be considered kind of intentional to a certain limit. In the
course under investigation, the students were asked to
showcase their findings in any form they wish. Although
this was part of the rubric they were assessed by, students
used various methods to present including; infographics to
present information, draw record, collage, video, and more!
It was noticed that the students have not been exposed to
such programs previously, and they had to research and
train on these programs without having this as part of their
course learning outcomes. Surprisingly, when participants
were surveyed regarding the degree of understanding and
comprehension of presented topics, the majority chose the
projects where students used interesting programs and info-
graphics. This shows that although it was unplanned stu-
dents may learn much more than required by giving them
the guided freedom learning environment. It also confirms
the importance of using incidental pedagogy in classrooms.
5 Conclusions and Suggestions
Teaching is a human interaction activity. Although most
of the teachers are significantly qualified and trained,
daily interaction with students enhances and enriches the
M. El Gamal and V. Alkhaldi
pedagogical knowledge of educators. This research has
proven that the use of innovative pedagogical approaches,
such as context-based learning and incidental learning,
increases the comprehension and overall academic perfor-
mance of the students.
An extension of the work might be done by using other
pedagogical approaches such as argumentation, crossover
learning, and adaptive teaching.
References
Kreiner, D. S. (2009). Problem-based group activities for teaching sen-
sation and perception. Teaching of Psychology, 36(4), 253–256.
Lom, B. (2012). Classroom activities: Simple strategies to incorporate
student-centered activities within undergraduate science lectures.
Journal of Undergraduate Neuroscience Education, 11(1), A64.
McCarthy, J. P., & Anderson, L. (2000). Active learning techniques
versus traditional teaching styles: Two experiments from his-
tory and political science. Innovative Higher Education, 24(4),
279–294.
Michel, N., Cater, J. J., & Varela, O. (2009). Active versus passive
teaching styles: An empirical study of student learning outcomes.
Human Resource Development Quarterly, 20(4), 397–418.
Minhas, P. S., Ghosh, A., & Swanzy, L. (2012). The effects of pas-
sive and active learning on student preference and performance
in an undergraduate basic science course. Anatomical Sciences
Education, 5(4), 200–207.
Innovative Pedagogy: A Case Study of Incidental …
Watkins, K. E., Marsick, V. J., Wofford, M. G., & Ellinger, A. D.
(2018). The evolving Marsick and Watkins (1990) theory of
informal and incidental learning. New Directions for Adult and
Continuing Education, 2018(159), 21–36. https://doi.org/10.1002/
ace.20285
33
Wingfield, S., & Black, G. (2005). Active versus passive course
designs: The impact on student outcomes. The Journal of
Education for Business, 81, 119–123. https://doi.org/10.3200/
JOEB.81.2.119-128
 Assessment of Student Readiness,
Willingness and Acceptance
for Effective Transitioning
Toward Online Instruction
Nessrin Shaya
Abstract
The purpose of this research is to examine student
readiness, willingness and acceptance of online educa-
tion on the basis on E-Learning Theoretical Framework
and Online Readiness Assessment Measure. This paper
draws on data collected from a total of 305 students using
e-learning tools as part of an extensive stakeholder anal-
ysis project that studies Middle East higher education
system readiness to accredit online education. Mixed-
method research approach was employed to generate a
comprehensive final study model on key findings framed
under prospects and barriers, then offer a strategic plan
for successful implementation of online education. As
hypothesized, findings revealed that student readiness for
online education is influenced by students’ self-compe-
tence, perceived usefulness, self-directed learning, moti-
vation and financial status, that proved to be a significant
determinant of willingness to enroll in online classes. The
study showed adequate readiness and proficiency levels
among learners and increased acceptance to implement
online education, demonstrated in better academic per-
formance, perceived usefulness and personal develop-
ment. Barriers surfaced as doubts in self-regulatory skills
among students, affected academic rigor, market accept-
ance and social influence. The study generated strate-
gies to overcome impeding barriers based on developed
model, practical contributions, contributions to knowl-
edge and finally recommendations for future work.
Keywords
Online education · Student readiness · Willingness ·
Acceptance · Middle East
N. Shaya (*)
American University in the Emirates, Dubai, United Arab Emirates
e-mail: Nessrin.shaya@aue.ae
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024
A. Salman and A. Tharwat (eds.), Informatics for Digital Education,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-49393-5_6
1 Introduction
The substantial global advancements in ICT and the inte-
gration of internet-based applications into organization’s
business models and daily operations resulted “in the emer-
gence of contemporary global economies driven by knowl-
edge” (Chipemble & Bwalya, 2016, p. 315). Readiness for
online education appears as a critical success factor for the
participation of organizations and markets in these global
economies to exploit the multiple possible digital opportu-
nities brought forth (Chipemble & Bwalya, 2016; Lou &
Goulding, 2010), thus, e-readiness is grounded with success
premises. In higher education, participating in the knowl-
edge society to harness associated digital prospects lies
in the capacity of HEIs to incorporate ICT “in their core
mandate of teaching, learning, collaborative research and
community development” (Chipemble & Bwalya, 2016, p.
315). Universities are rapidly adjusting their business plans
to adopt online learning platforms to stay up-to-date with
advancements in technology and achieve their competitive
edge. Online education will reduce over-dependence on
resources, namely space and time, allowing for increased
access to tertiary education, in line with global international
efforts to spread education wider. E-learning platforms,
and subsequently online learning, have become an integral
feature of HEI activity, that induce engagement and inter-
action between institutional management and their internal
and external stakeholders. Expanding ICT infrastructure has
a number of reported benefits, such as increasing transpar-
ency and accountability in budgeting and financial decision-
making, “revenue mobilization and expenditure through
simplifying various university processes, student enrollment
and provision of quality education” (2016, p. 316).
Counter to neighboring countries, to date Lebanon
doesn’t officially recognize online learning due to a num-
ber of reasons, among which is lack of quality assurance
agency and abundance of higher educational institutions,
relative to small country in geographical area like Lebanon
35
36
(El Amine, 2016). Ministry of Education and Higher
Education has put forth some efforts in embracing online
education, such as creating a taskforce of different expertise
to draft a national strategy and create a framework of action
to recognize and accredit distance learning, yet the most
serious efforts remain from private institutions. Currently,
the vast majority of private higher education institutions
have learning management systems that are heavily utilized,
however, unlike the rest of the world public and federal
institutions are still far. In spite of minute progress, online
education still faces numerous challenges denoted by tech-
nology advancements, trust, policies, standards and out-
dated prevailing administrative systems.
This research argues that online education offers the
opportunity of expanding access to higher education, yet
at the same time, is capable of harnessing the advantages
to modernize the education sector to meet a wide variety of
students’ need and maintain competitive advantage in a fast-
changing market. Those universities which do not embrace
online education will be left behind in the race for globali-
zation and technological development.
The current research understudy aims to examine higher
education student readiness, willingness and acceptance of
online education, as part of an extensive stakeholder analy-
sis study addressing the country’s HE system readiness to
accredit and implement online education system, then offer
a strategic plan for successful implementation of online
education. Therefore, the study seeks to answer the follow-
ing main and sub-research questions:
• What are the prospects and barriers in the e-learner read-
iness level among higher education students in Lebanon
and perception toward online learning?
− What is the level of e-learner readiness among stu-
dents to enroll in online classes?
− What are the factors affecting e-learner readiness of
the Lebanese student?
− Is there a relationship of statistical significance between
student e-readiness and willingness to learn online?
− How could the acceptance of online education among
Lebanese students be described?
The final model will be developed as a framework for pros-
pects and barriers in readiness, acceptance and willingness
to study online among Lebanese higher education students.
2 Theoretical Framework and Literature
Review
This study stems from social cognitive theory perspec-
tive of a belief that students, exhibiting high levels of self-
regulation and self-directing skills, show adequate levels
N. Shaya
of motivation, apply effective independent learning strate-
gies and respond effectively to situational and contextual
demands (Pintrich, 2002). The fundamental relationships
between social cogitative theory and distance learning gov-
ern this research and guided the selection of models and
instruments for data collection. The study is part of a larger
extended higher education stakeholder analysis research
that utilizes the E-Learning Theoretical Framework (devel-
oped by Aparicio et al., 2016) as a foundational phase
to investigate the current status of student readiness and
acceptance, faculty readiness and acceptance, the percep-
tion of senior executives and legislative decision makers.
Literature agrees on the lack of widely accepted definition
of online learning, and accordingly, this research understudy
will adopt the definition proposed by Bacow et al. (2012). In
the current research understudy, online learning and e-learn-
ing will be interchangeably used that is restricted to higher
education level and referring to the “highly sophisticated,
interactive technologies in which instruction is delivered
online and is largely machine guided” (p. 34), although some
delivery might be a blend of online and face-to-face.
E-readiness is defined as the degree to which premium
users are ready and prepared to apply their technologi-
cal proficiency in an environment run by electronic learn-
ing systems (Akaslan & Law, 2011; Gay, 2016). Many
international e-readiness assessment models, at the lev-
els of nations and societies, are available, such as the
United Nations Development Programme’s Technology
Development Index, the Economist Intelligence Unit
e-readiness index, World Economic Forum NRI, the
UNCTAD Index ICT Diffusion, the UNPAN e-Readiness
Index, etc. E-readiness has been extensively studied in dif-
ferent parts of the world, namely, in the Far East (Hung,
2001; So & Swatman, 2010; Siritongthaworn et al., 2006;
Vate-U-Lan, 2007), South Asia (Purnomo & Lee, 2010;
Kaur & Abbas, 2004; Iqbal & Ahmad, 2010; Iqbal et al.,
2013), MENA region (Abouchedid & Eid, 2004; Akhu-
Zaheya et al., 2011; Darab & Montazer, 2011), Africa
(Addah et al., 2012; Bediang et al., 2013; Ditimi & Ayanda,
2013; Folorunso et al., 2006; Ngampornchai & Adams,
2016), North America (Alem et al., 2016; Gay, 2016; Linos
et al., 2014; World Bank, 2005) and Europe (Aydin & Tasci,
2005; Lou & Goulding, 2010). E-readiness is not restricted
to students, faculty and education, rather could be expanded
to communities e-learning readiness (Navidoo & Klopper,
2005), business e-learning readiness in sectors such as
health, agriculture (Gay, 2016).
E-readiness has been measured using different dimensions
and factors through e-readiness surveys, verified benchmark-
ing, statistics and various forms of analyses (Hashim & Tasir,
2014; Gay, 2016). The aforementioned e-readiness indices
and frameworks bring about difficulty to globally stipulate
what e-readiness comprises (Chipemble & Bwalya, 2016;
Assessment of Student Readiness, Willingness and Acceptance …
Hassan & Fatimah, 2014). Yet, results and findings derived
from similar assessments appear to be of tremendous benefit.
In order to ascertain e-readiness of HEIs, e-readiness assess-
ment has to be undertaken (2016). Thus, this research evalu-
ates e-readiness of core stakeholders, namely learners and
instructors, using quantitative methods.
The level of readiness is the particular attributes and
characteristics of skills and orientation that the learner
should possess, in the form of prerequisites, to take online
courses. Two issues continue to capture the attention and
interest of distance education leaders are online readiness
of students and their satisfaction (Adkins et al., 2011).
Literature shows that online student readiness could be a
predictor for satisfaction following taking online courses
(Akridge et al., 2002), and accordingly, studying the readi-
ness of Lebanese students for online technologies would
be an evaluative study of the factors affecting successful
implementation of e-learning systems, preventing failure of
such systems. Also, if students are satisfied with their online
learning, the chances are high that they would complete the
program, inducing better retention rates. Accordingly, if
online readiness is a predictor for satisfaction, it may imply
that it can predict retention as well.
Yet despite its importance, literature seemed to ignore
the level of preparation among users and rather focused on
pedagogical features and technological aspects, and inno-
vation. Some researchers even suggested that measuring
students’ readiness through reliable tools may help in fore-
casting success in online learning, and improve retention
and attrition rates (Alem et al., 2016; Watkins et al., 2014).
3 Methodology
Mixed-method research methodology was employed to
generate a comprehensive model on key findings in terms
of prospects and barriers, where “the use of both methods
provides a more complete understanding of research prob-
lems than does the use of either approach alone” (Fraenkel
et al., 2015, p. 555). Quantitative data and qualitative data
were treated equally, allowing for triangulation. A struc-
tured questionnaire was developed, and circulated online,
based on Alem et al. (2014) stemming from socio-cognitive
perspective of learning, to first quantitatively measure readi-
ness of students and willingness to enroll in online degrees,
and second, to qualitatively explore their perception on
advantages and disadvantages of learning online. The target
population was undergraduate and/or post-graduate students
enrolled in private and federal Lebanese higher educa-
tion institutions, on part-time or full-time basis. Data was
collected from students based on their availability, where
subject participation was voluntary and far from awarding
37
financial incentives. A total of 305 usable responses were
collected. The questionnaire had four main sections, where
the first covered students’ demographical data. The second
part measured the variable e-learner readiness as a multi-
dimensional facet consisting of 5 factors, comprising 17
scale items on Self-competence, Perceived usefulness, Self-
directed learning, Motivation and Financial. The third part
measured the variable willingness as a unidimensional vari-
able comprises of 5 items. In the last section, acceptance of
online education was investigated through open-ended ques-
tions on the perception toward this mode of delivery. Data
was quantitatively analyzed using SPSS. Factor Analysis
and Reliability tests were performed to confirm construct
validity and research questions were answered through
descriptive Statistics and Pearson correlation test. The effect
of demography on study variables was tested using One-way
ANOVA, independent-samples t-test and Levene’s test.
Thematic analysis was used for qualitative analysis by
identifying patterns across dataset, entitling the researcher
to search “through the data for themes and patterns”
(Glesne, 2011, p. 187). Finally, triangulation of data took
place that led to Final Study Model on prospects and bar-
riers pertaining to student readiness and attitude. Special
attention was given in comparing derived findings against
local and international literature.
4 Findings
4.1 Quantitative Results
Descriptive Statistics. Total number of 305 responses
were collected, among which 86% were between 17 and
24 years age group, 10% were between 25 and 35 years,
whereas only 3.6% are above 35 years old. Female and male
response rates were almost similar with ratio 51.1:48.9.
Majority of the respondents were unmarried (95%) and only
15% were married. Students of different educational back-
grounds filled the questionnaires where the largest group
was undergraduate (83%), while only 17% were graduate
students, either master’s or Doctoral candidates, which tends
to be consistent with the age findings that almost 87% of
respondents were below 24 years old age group. The larg-
est group of respondents are enrolled in private universities,
where only 32.5% are State University students, and the rest
(68%) are from public institutions in Lebanon. Regarding
educational achievement, majority reflected high CGPA,
where 55% of students taking this questionnaire indicate a
high GPA of 3.00 and above, 34% had CGPA between 2.00
and 3.00, only 1% were below 2.00 and around 10% were
unsure about their CGPA, either because they are unaware
38 N. Shaya

of their performance or the marking and scale system embracing attitude toward online education surfaced, with
doesn’t use grade point average (Table 1). particular reference to perceived usefulness on increasing
productivity, enhancing performance and promoting effec-
Student Readiness. To answer the question “What is the tiveness. Yet, the students are easily distracted, presenting a
level of e-learner readiness among students to enroll in challenge in commitment to complete course requirements,
online classes?”, the mean scores and standard deviation for and otherwise unprovided, students are not capable of
e-learning readiness items were first calculated. The results applying for a loan either through bank or any other organi-
are summarized in Table 2. zation to own a computer/laptop (Table 3).
To analyze and reflect on the above results, this study
adopted Aydin and Tasci’s (2011) e-learning expected level Willingness to Purse Online Education: Total number of
of an individual readiness for e-learning systems, which is student responses were 305, among which only 131 gave
identified as mean score of 3.40, Fig. 1. meaningful answers, distributed as follows in Table 4.
The mean scores for e-learning readiness 17 items are Around 43% of students agreed on pursuing online edu-
displayed in the above table. Based on the adopted assess- cation, whereas 40% show reluctance and 17% are unsure.
ment model, most of the items scored well, and the sur- Results show increased acceptance of online education, in a
veyed Lebanese students proved to possess adequate country where Ministry of Education and Higher Education
readiness levels for e-learning. Students have access to a yet to acknowledge the need for transmuting educational
personal computer and Internet connection, are familiar systems to be embracive to web-instruction and accrediting
with computer systems and comfortable in using associ- online education. Thus, they are considered to be important
ated tools, knowledgeable on the required software used findings, indicating a shift in the culture among Lebanese
in online education, and its usage and can overcome tech- students, toward better acceptance of online degrees.
nical challenges and stay engaged. Most importantly, an
Factors Affecting Student Readiness for Online
Learning. The survey was first tested for validity and
Table 1  Demography results
reliability.
Variable Frequency Percentage
Age Construct Validation for Readiness Survey. The 17 items of
17–24 years 94 86.6 e-learner readiness factors were first factor analyzed with
25–35 years 30 9.8 the minimal loading cutoff score considered to be ± 0.5
Above 35 years 11 3.6 (Suliman, 2001). All of the 5 factors were successfully
Gender loaded. The factors scored 0.50 and above on the varimax
Male 149 48.9 rotation. Reliability Test of the Learner E-Readiness as
Female 156 51.1 global variable, followed factor analysis, with the mini-
Marital status mal alpha value that is to be accepted in this study is 0.6
Married 15 4.9 (Suliman, 2001). Therefore, the above table indicates that
the global factor and components are reliable, with Alpha
Unmarried 290 95.1
Cronbach values of 0.878, 0.914, 0.837, 0.638 and 0.623,
Educational background
respectively. Hence, readiness for online education is
Undergraduate 254
influenced by self-competence, perceived usefulness, self-
Masters 45 14.8
directed learning, motivation and financial status of the stu-
Doctoral 6 2 dent (Table 5).
Enrolling university
Public University 99 32.5 Correlations. Two main hypotheses were tested and another
Private University 206 67.5 two hypotheses were developed to test the effect of demo-
CGPA graphic variable on main study variables.
3.00–4.00 167 54.8
H1: There is Relation of Statistical Significance Between
2.00–3.00 105 34.4 E-Learner Readiness and Willingness.
Below 2.00 3 1
There is a positive correlation between the dependent vari-
Unsure 30 9.8
able willingness and the independent variables e-learner
Nationality
readiness. The relation is significant at the 0.05 level, with
Lebanese 294 96.4 corresponding significant value of ρ = 0.037, whereas
Non-Lebanese 11 3.6 the correlation coefficients are r = 0.120. These findings
Assessment of Student Readiness, Willingness and Acceptance … 39

Table 2  Mean scores of student readiness items

Mean SD
Self-competence: this part shows your ability to utilize your skills in the use of any computer tool
I am competent using a computer 4.1377 0.82362
I am confident with computers 4.0787 0.87003
Perceived usefulness: this part shows your derived benefits from using online systems
I believe that using the online learning improves my performance in my studies 3.7443 0.99679
I believe that using online learning will increase my productivity 3.7377 1.04978
I believe that using online learning enhances my effectiveness in my studies 3.6885 1.02182
Self-directed learning: this part reflects on your strategies for managing learning
I effectively take responsibility for my own learning 4.1574 0.80795
I am confident in my ability to independently prioritize my learning goals 3.9639 0.89333
I am able to set my own learning goals 4.0295 0.84825
I am independent in my learning 4.0000 0.89222
I am able to manage my study time effectively and easily complete assignments online 3.7311 1.03548
Motivation: this part reflects your encouragement to learn
I am able to complete my work even if there are distractions in my home (i.e., television, children and such) 3.2984 1.25636
I cannot complete my work if there are online distractions (i.e., friends, sending e-mails or websites to surf) 3.140 1.15414
Even in the face of technical difficulties, I am certain I can learn the material presented in online learning 3.5115 0.92162
Financial: this part describes your financial support that is sufficient to complete online courses
I can take a loan or borrow money to buy a computer for e-learning purposes 2.7934 1.18930
I have access to a personal computer and Internet access for e-learning purposes 4.0590 1.00154
My institution provides a computer loan to the student 2.2197 1.15035
Total 3.63

Table 4  Student willingness results

Response Frequency
Yes, they would pursue online degree 56
43%
No, they wouldn’t consider online degrees 52
40%
Unsure 23
17%

Table 5  Reliability test

Alpha Cronbach No of
items
Fig. 1  E-learning readiness assessment model. Adapted from Aydin
Total 0.803 16
and Tasci (2011)
Global factor self-competence 0.878 2
Global factor perceived usefulness 0.914 3
Global factor self-directed learning 0.837 5
Table 3  Summary of mean scores
Global factor motivation 0.638 3
Scale Qualitative scale Items
Global factor finance 0.623 3
1–2.6 Significant lack of readiness 15, 17
2.6–3.4 Lack of readiness 3, 12, 13, 15
3.4–4.2 Average readiness 2, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 11, confirm the hypotheses H1, the readier the student for online
14, 16
education is, the better accepting he/she is to be engaged in
4.2–5 High readiness 1, 2 online learning. The better readiness among the student for
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR
ANY PURPOSE.

1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied

warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of
damages. If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this
agreement violates the law of the state applicable to this
agreement, the agreement shall be interpreted to make the
maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by the applicable
state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any provision of
this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.

1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the

Foundation, the trademark owner, any agent or employee of the
Foundation, anyone providing copies of Project Gutenberg™
electronic works in accordance with this agreement, and any
volunteers associated with the production, promotion and
distribution of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works, harmless
from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, that
arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do
or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project
Gutenberg™ work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or
deletions to any Project Gutenberg™ work, and (c) any Defect
you cause.

Section 2. Information about the Mission of

Project Gutenberg™
Project Gutenberg™ is synonymous with the free distribution of
electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of
computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new
computers. It exists because of the efforts of hundreds of
volunteers and donations from people in all walks of life.

Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the

assistance they need are critical to reaching Project
Gutenberg™’s goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg™
collection will remain freely available for generations to come. In
2001, the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was
created to provide a secure and permanent future for Project
Gutenberg™ and future generations. To learn more about the
Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and how your
efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 and the
Foundation information page at www.gutenberg.org.

Section 3. Information about the Project

Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non-
profit 501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the
laws of the state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by
the Internal Revenue Service. The Foundation’s EIN or federal
tax identification number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the
Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation are tax
deductible to the full extent permitted by U.S. federal laws and
your state’s laws.

The Foundation’s business office is located at 809 North 1500

West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact
links and up to date contact information can be found at the
Foundation’s website and official page at
www.gutenberg.org/contact

Section 4. Information about Donations to

the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
Foundation
Project Gutenberg™ depends upon and cannot survive without
widespread public support and donations to carry out its mission
of increasing the number of public domain and licensed works
that can be freely distributed in machine-readable form
accessible by the widest array of equipment including outdated
equipment. Many small donations ($1 to $5,000) are particularly
important to maintaining tax exempt status with the IRS.

The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws

regulating charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of
the United States. Compliance requirements are not uniform
and it takes a considerable effort, much paperwork and many
fees to meet and keep up with these requirements. We do not
solicit donations in locations where we have not received written
confirmation of compliance. To SEND DONATIONS or
determine the status of compliance for any particular state visit
www.gutenberg.org/donate.

While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states

where we have not met the solicitation requirements, we know
of no prohibition against accepting unsolicited donations from
donors in such states who approach us with offers to donate.

International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot

make any statements concerning tax treatment of donations
received from outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp
our small staff.

Please check the Project Gutenberg web pages for current

donation methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a
number of other ways including checks, online payments and
credit card donations. To donate, please visit:
www.gutenberg.org/donate.

Section 5. General Information About Project

Gutenberg™ electronic works
Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project
Gutenberg™ concept of a library of electronic works that could
be freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and
distributed Project Gutenberg™ eBooks with only a loose
network of volunteer support.

Project Gutenberg™ eBooks are often created from several

printed editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by
copyright in the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus,
we do not necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any
particular paper edition.

Most people start at our website which has the main PG search
facility: www.gutenberg.org.

This website includes information about Project Gutenberg™,

including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg
Literary Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new
eBooks, and how to subscribe to our email newsletter to hear
about new eBooks.