Electric Current, Resistance

and Potential Difference

Use Smart Class Software with

EXPERIMENT - 5(A) Virtual Lab on the smart board in

class to perform this experiment.

AIM
To study the dependence of potential difference (V) across a resistor on the
determine its resistance. Also, plot agraph between Vand I current () passing through it and

MATERIALS REQUIRED
A resistor (or a resistance wire), a dc ammeter (0-1.5 A), a dc voltmeter (0-1.5 V), rheostat, a dry cell or a
lead
storage cell, a plug key, connecting copper wires, a piece of sandpaper and a table
THEORY
When two ends of a resistance are connected across the terminals of a battery ora cell,
current flows through it.
The current flowing through the resistance or resistor depends on the
(a) potential difference (V) (or applied voltage) across the two ends of a resistor,
(b) resistance (R) of a resistor
According to Ohm's law, the potential difference'V' developed across the ends
of a conductor is directly proportional to the current T flowing through it.
-volt)
’ V= IR (at constant temperature)
’ R = (in
I VV
If we plot a graph between the current flowing through the conductor and
the applied potential difference between its ends,the graph willbe a straight
line. From the graph (Fig. 5.1), we can find the resistance of the conductor in
the circuit by calculating the slope of the V-I graph,
BC V,-V, I(in ampere)
Slope of V-lgraph (R) = AC Fig. 5.1 V-l graph

PROCEDURE
1. Arrange the various electrical components
as per the circuit diagram (Fig. 5.2) on the key rheostat
table.
2. Note down the least count of ammeter and
(A) ammeter
voltmeter.
resistor
3. Connect these components with the help
of conducting wires (connecting wires) as
shown in the circuit diagram (Fig. 5.2). The voltmeter
voltmeter should be connected across the
resistor in parallel and the ammeter should Fig. 5.2 Circuit diagram for studying Ohm's law
be connected in series.

49
4. Insert the plug in the hole of the key and adjust the rheostat, so that a very smallcurrent flows through
iuit (the reading of ammeter must be very small).
in Table 5.1.
5. Note the neadingsof ameter and the voltmeter in tabular form as shown
. lake at least 5 sets of readings by changing the current flowing through the circuit with the
help of
rhostat and record the subsequent readings.
7. Find the ratio for cach set of observations and find the mean value of this ratio which gives the value.
the resistance of the given resistor in the circuit.
8. Plot the graph V vs Ior Ivs V in accordance with the readings.

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

A to A
Range of an1meter
Least count of ammeter A
Zero error of ammeter (if any) A
Range of voltmeter V to
Least count of voltmeter
Zero error of voltmeter (if any)
Table 5.1

S. No. Reading of Ammeter (A) Reading of Voltmeter (V) =R (in ohms)

Observed Corrected Observed Corrected
1
2.
3.
4.
5.
Mean Value of R=........9

Graphical Analysis
as follows:
The collected data can be analysed graphically by plotting V vs I or I vs V graph
Graph plotting of V vs I
of
1. Plot the values of potential difference (V) on the y-axis and values
current (I) on the x-axis. (volt)
2. Join all these points by a straight line and extrapolate (extend) it to the (V)
origin (0, 0). difference
3. The extrapolated straight line passes through the origin.
4. Calculate the slope of the straight line plot.
potential
5. Slope of V-I plot is equal to the resistance of the resistor. stope reststane
Resistance of resistor = slope of V-I plot
Graph plotting of I vs V
1. Plot the values of current (1) flowing through the resistor on the y-axis current () (ampere)
and the values of potential difference (V) on the x-axis.
2. Join all these points by a straight line and extrapolate it to the origin (0, 0). Fig. 5.3 V vs I graph

3. The extrapolated straight line passes through the origin.

50
 4. Calculate the slope of the straight lineplot.
E Slope of I-V plot is equal tothe
reciprocal of the resistance of resistor
Resistance of resistor -
slope of V plot
RESULT
1 The ratio of V and l is found to be a
Val. constant quantity R. Theretore,
The graphs plotted lbetween V and resistare ()
straight line graphs that show that Iand between I and V are
potential difference applied
across the conductor is directly
proportional
through it or vie versa. This verifies Ohm's law.to the current flowing Opotenhal dittree('V(Vo)
Resistance of the given resistor= Fig, 5.4 I vs Vgraph
PRECAUTIONS
1. The ends of the connecting wires
must be cleaned with the help of a sandpaper.
2. Allconnections should be tightly made.
3. The circuit should be completed by closing the key
key must be immediately unplugged after the with the plug when the reading is to be taken and the
reading.
4. Excessive current shouldnot be
allowed to pass through the resistor.
5. Current must be changed
smoothly with the help of rheostat in the circuit.
6. The circuit should be handled in
such away that the cell or battery does not get
short-circuited.
Use Smnart Class Software with
EXPERIMENT - 5(B) Virtual Lab on the smart board in
class to perform this experiment.

AIM
To determine the equivalent resistance of two resistors when
connected in series
MATERIALS REQUIRED
Two resistors of known value, a dc ammeter (0-5 A), a de voltmeter (0-5 V), a rheostat, a
plug key, three dry cells
of 1.5 Veach (or a battery eliminator), connecting copper wires and a piece of
sandpaper
THEORY
When two or more resistances are joined end to end, so that the same current flows through each of them, thev
are said to be connected in series. A single resistance which can replace any
comnbination of resistances, so that
the current flowing through the circuit remains the samne is called the equivalent resistance of the combination
of resistors. A series combination of resistances R, and R, is shown in Fig. 5.5.
In aseries combination of resistors, the current across each resistor is same but the voltage applied across each
resistor is different.
A R R, D
B
Wnen anumber of resistances are connected in series, their equivalent wWww
resistance is equal to the sum of the individual resistañces. Thus, if R,,
Ky.. etc., are combined in series, the equivalent resistance R is R B R, D
given by
Fig. 5.5 Series combination of
R,=R+R,+ R,t. (Where R is the equivalent resistance.) resistances R, and R,

51
 PROCEDURE
Determining the resistance of individual resistors
1. Connect the various electrical
with one of the given resistors. components as shown in the circuit diagram (Fig. 5.6) using copper wire,
Let us consider this given as resistor resistor A

battery rheostat
key

ammeter

resistor A

voltmeter

Fig. 5.6 Circuit diagram with only resistor Aconnected in the circuit
2. Plug in the key and adjust the rheostat so that a verv small current flows through the circuit.
3. Note the readings of anmmeter and voltmeter.
4 Take at least three sets of readings by changing the current with the help of rheostat.

5. Using these values, calculate the resistance of the resistor 'A' in the same way as calculated in the previous
experiment, i.e., in experiment 1 (A).
6. Repeat the above steps for another resistor "B by inserting it in place of resistor 'A' in the circuit shown in
Fig.5.6.
7. Similarly, note down the readings (at least three sets of readings) and calculate the resistance of resistor B.
Determining the equivalent resistance of the two given resistors connected in series
8. Now, connect both the resistors Aand Bin series as shown in the circuit diagram (Fig. 5.7).

battery key rheostat

(A) ammeter
resistor A resistor B
W

voltmeter

Fig. 5.7 Circuit diagram showing two resistors Aand Bconnected in series

9. Follow steps 2 and 3, described above and take at least three sets of readings by changing the current
with the help of a rheostat.
10. Record all the observations.
11. Using these values,calculate the mean value of resistance of the series combination of resistors 'A and 'B.

52
OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS
A to A
Rangeofammeter
ammeter A
Leastcountof ammeter A
Zeroerrorof Vto
Rangeofvoltmeter
voltmeter = V
Leastcountof V
voltmeter
Zeroerror of Table 5.2
Mean value
Observation Ammeter Reading (A) Voltmeter Reading (V) R-Ya of R2
Resistor No. Observed Corrected Observed Corrected
1

2
A
3
R,=

2
B
3
R=

Series 1

Combination 2
of A and B

R,=

Mean value of resistance of resistor A, R,

Mean value of resistance of resistor B, R, =
combination of A and B, R, =
Mean value of resistance of series
calculations, it is seen that
From the above observations and
R, = (R, + R) 2
RESULT
of resistors 'A' and 'B' =
Equivalernt resistance of series combination

CONCLUSION
From the above experiment, we can conclude that of all the individual
the equivalent resistance is equal to the sum
I. tor a combination of resistances in series,
resistances connécted in series.
resistance.
the equivalent resistance of a series combination of resistances is higher than each individual
Z.
53
 PRECAUTIONS
I. The ends of the onnectiy wines should be cleaned witlh sandpape.
2. Allconnections shouldt be
tight.
3. The plug key reading, Renove the plug as
should be closed only when you are abo0ut to take the soon a
youhave taken the reading.
4. Excessive current should not be allowed to pass throughthe resistorto avoid heating up of the circuit an
the resistors.
3. Current in the circuit should bechanved smoothly with the help of rheostat
6.
Ine ponter of the ammeter and voltmetershould be at zero mark when no current is passing through th
circuit.

Use Smart Class

Virtual Lab on the Software w%
EXPERIMENT -5(C) smart board.
class to perform this experimer
AIM
lodetermine the equivalent resistance of two resistors when connected in parallel

MATERIALS REQUIRED
Two resistors of known value, adc ammeter (0-5 A), avoltmeter (0-5 V), arheostat, aplug key, three dry cells (f
1.5 V each (or abattery eliminator), connecting copper wires and a piece of
sanapaper
THEORY)
When two or more resistances are connected between two common points, so that the same potential differenge
1s applied across each of them, they are said to be connected in parallel. Aparallel combination of resistances R
and R, can be diagrammatically represented as
R B
A R, W

R
D
R, D

Fig. 5.8 Parallel combination of resistances R, and R,

Inaparallel combination of resistors, the voltage (or potential difference) across each resistor is the same and s
equal to the applied voltage (or voltage of the battery or cellconnected to the circuit).
The current flowing through each resistor is inversely proportional to their resistances. Thus, higher the resistance
of the resistor, lower willbe the current flowing through it.
The total current flowing through the circuit is equal to the sum of the currents flowing through each resisto, ie.
I=1, +1,(Fig. 5.8).
When a number of resistances, i.e, R, R, Ry . etc, are connected in parallel, their equivalent resistance a
given by

1 1 , 1,1
R, R R, R, (Where R, is the equivalent resistance)

54
PROCEDURE
individual resistors diagram with one
Determiningthe resistance of the wires as shown in the circuit
components using copper
Connect the various electrical Let us consider this given resistor as resistor A.
(Fig. 5.9).
f the two given resistors
1.

rheostat

battery key

(A) ammeter
resistor A
w

voltmeter

resistor A connected in the circuit

Fig. 5.9 Circuit diagram with only
circuit.
the rheostat so that a very small current flows through the
2. Plug in the key and adjust
correspornding readings of ammeter and voltmeter.
3. Note down the
the current with the help of rheostat.
4. Take at least three readings by changing
5. Using these values, calculate
the resistance of the resistor 'A.
the circuit (Fig. 5.9).
replace the resistor A' with another given resistor, considered as resistor 'B' in
6. Now,
calculating the resistance of resistor 'B'.
7. Repeat the above steps for
given resistors connected in parallel
Determining the equivalent resistance of the two diagram
resistor B by a parallel combination of resistors A and B as shown in the circuit
8. Replace the
(Fig.5.10).

rheostat
battery key

(A)ammeter resistor A
w

resistor B l,

voltmeter

Fig. 5.10Circuit diagram showing two resistors A and B connected in parallel

9. Follow steps 2 and 3, described above and take at least three readings by changing the current with the
help of rheostat.
10. Record all the readings of ammeter and voltmeter.
11. Using these values, calculate the mean value of resistance of the parallel combination of resistors 'A' and
'B'.
55
 OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS
Range of ammeter
Least count of A lo

Zero error of anmeter A

ammeter
Range of voltmeter
Vto
Least count of
Zero error of voltmeter
voltneter
1.
Table 5.3

Resistor Observation Voltmeter Reading R= V Mean value of

No. Ammeter Reading (A) (V)
Observed Corrected Observed Corrected
RO

A 2

3 7.

R,=

B 2

R, =
Parallel 1
Combination 2
of A and B
3

R=
Mean value of the resistance of resistor A, R, =
Mean value of the resistance of resistor B, R, =
Mean value of resistance of parallel combination of Aand B, R
For parallel combination of two resistors, the equivalent resistance is given by,

1 1 1

R, RA

R, =
R,x R
(On solving by taking the values of R, and &
R, +K from the observation table)
R

RESULT
Equivalent resistance of parallel combination of resistors 'A and'B' =

56
 Reflection and Refraction of
Light
Software with
Use Smart Class
Virtual Lab on the smart board in
EXPERIMENT -10(A) class to perform this
experiment.

AIM
To determine the focal length of a concave mirror by obtaining the image of a distant object
MATERIALS REQUIRED
Concave mirror, a wooden table, a mirror stand, ametre scale, a rectangular white screen fixed on a stand
A

THEORY
When aparallel beam of light rays coming from adistant object is incident on the reflecting surface of the concave
mirror, then after reflection, the rays converge at a point and this point is called principal focus of the concave
mirror as shown in Fig. 10.1(a). The image of the distant object generally forms on focal plane. Focal plane is
the plane which is vertical to the principal axis and passes through the principal focus as shown in Fig 10.1(b)

focal plane
(a) (b
Fig. 10.1 Principal focus of a concave mirror
If a screen is placed at the principal focus or focal plane, a sharp, real and inverted image of the distant object
is formed. The distance between the pole and the principal focus of a spherical mirror is called focal length of
mirror. It is denoted by 'f".

PROCEDURE
1. Select a distant object such as a tree or pole or the Sun through the window of your laboratory, so that it is
clearly visible to your naked eyes.
2. Mount the concave mirror vertically on a mirror stand and place it on the woodern table near the open
window.

3. Adjust the concave mirror in such away that the rays of light coming from distantobject (tree) fall on its
reflecting surface.
4. Now, place the screen fitted to a stand in front of the concave mirror. Move the screen gently back and
forth tilla sharp, clear and inverted image of distant object (tree) is formed on the screen.
5. Mark the position of the centre of the stands holding the mirror and the screen on the table, when a sharp
image of the distant object (tree) is obtained on the screen. Here, mirror is so placed on its stand such that
the centre of the mirror stand is in line with the pole (P) of the concave mirror.
87
 6
Ler Pbe the position of mirror and 'F be the position of screen marked on the table.
Measure this horizontaldistance between the screen and the concave mirror with the help of a metre scal.
as shown in Fig, 10.2.
concave
mirror
rays fron
a distant object

SCreen
mirror
stand

0 cm 10 30 60 60 70
40

focal length -
Fig. 10.2 Determining the focal length of a concave mirror
This will give you the approximate focal length of the concave mirror.
. Kepeat the experiment at least two more times by selecting different distant objects at different distances
and measure the distance between the concave mirror and the screen in each case and record your
observations in observation table.
10. Calculate the mean focal length of the concave mirror.

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

Table 10.1
Name of distant Position of concave mirror Position of screen Focal length (f)of concave
S.No.
object 'P' (in cm) "F (incm) mirror, PF (in cm)
1.
f,=
2 f,=
3

Hence, mean focal length 'f of a concave mirror = 1t + Cm

3
RESULT
The focal length of the given concave mirror (f) = cm

According to sign conventions, the focal length of a concave mirror is negative. Therefore, f =-, Cm

PRECAUTIONS
1. It must be ensured that the concave mirror and the screen are fixed in a vertical position.
2. The distant object should be clearly visible to the naked eyes.
3. The image obtained on the screen should be welldefined and sharp.
4. There should be no obstacle in the path of rays of light from the distant object to the concave mirror.

88
 scale.
Thebase of the stands of the concave mirror and screen should be parallel to the metre
and carefulyto obtain asharpimage.
5.
concave mirror or the screen should be movedI very slowly
6. The
Software with
Use Smart Class
Lab on the smart board in
EXPERIMENT - 10(B) Virtual
class to perform this
experiment.

AIM
determine the focal length of aconvex lens by obtainingtheimagee of a distant object
To
MATERIALS REQUIRED
fixed on astand
Aconvex lens,
a wooden table, alens stand, a metre scale and arectangular white screen
THEORY
or adistant tree are considered to be parallel to each
The light rays coming trom a distant object such as the Sun principal axis, after refraction converge at a
other. The parallel rays of light falling on aconvex lens along its lfoci of the convex lens asshown
otherrside of thelens and this point is called one of thetwo principal
point onthe
in Fig. 10.3.

F F

(a) (b)
Fig. 10.3 Rays from distant object converge at one of the principal foci of convex lens
image of the distant object is formed.
If a screen is placed at the principal focus, a smal, sharp, real and inverted length of a lens.
The distance between the optical centre and the principal focus of the lens is called the focal
PROCEDURE
it is
1. Selecta distant object such as a tree or poleor the Sun through the window of your laboratory, so that
clearly visible to your naked eyes.
2. Mount the convex lens vertically on a lens stand and place it on the wooden table near the open window.
3. Adjust the convex lens in such a way that the rays of light coming from distant object (tree) fall on one of
its convex surface.
4. Now, place the screen fitted on a stand on the other side of the convex lens.

5. Move the screen gently back and forth till a sharp, clear and inverted image of distant object (tree) is
formed on the screen.
6. Mark the position of the centre of the stands holding the convex lens and the screen on the table when a
sharp image is obtained on the screen. (Here, lens is so placed on the stand such that the optical centre '0
of the lens is in line with the centre of the stand)
. Let 'O be the position of lens and 'F' be the position of screen, marked on the table.
8. Measure this horizontal distance between the screen and the convex lens with the help of a metre scale as
shown in Fig. 10.4.
89
 O)vex leng

ravs Inom
a distant obt

principal axis

Screen

focal
plane
onvwr lens
stand

0 cm 40 50 60 70
10 30

focal length
Fig. 10.4 Determining the focal length of a convex lens
This will give you the approximate focal length of the convex lens.
10. Repeat the experiment at least two more times by selecting different distant objects at different

recorddistanyource,
and measure the distances between the convex lens and the screen in each case and
observations in the observation table.
11. Calculate the mean focal length of the
convex lens.
OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS)
Table 10.2

Position of convex lens Position of screen 'F'

S.No. Name of distant object
'O (in cm) (in cm)
Focal length
1
f=OF (in cm)
f, =...
2.
f,-.
3
f,=
Hence, mean focal length 'f of a convex lens = Cm
3

RESULT
The focal length of the given convex lens (f) = cm

According to sign conventions, the focal length of aconvex lens is positive. Therefore, f= + Cm

PRECAUTIONS)
1. It must be ensured that the convex lens and the screen are fixed in vertical position.
2. The distant object shouldbe clearly visible to the naked eyes.
3. The image obtained on the screen should be well defined and sharp.
4. There should be no obstacle in the path of rays of light from the distant object to the convex lens.
5. The base of the stands of the convex lens and the screen should be parallel to the metre scale.
6. The convex lens or the screen should be moved very slowly and carefully to obtain a sharp
image.
90
 Use 5mart Class

EXPERIMENT -10(D) Virtual Lab on

Software
class to performthethissmart be vig

AIM)
exImeasu.
perinet
for different angles ofi
To trace the path of ray of light passing througha rectangular glass slab
de ange of inidence, angle of refraction, angle of emergence and interpret the resuits i ncidence,
MATERIALS REQUIRED
Drawing board, drawing pins, alpins, asheet of white paper, arectangular glass slab, aa protractor,,a scale (rule
and a sharp pencil

THEORY
its travsl:
When a ray of light travelling in one medium enters another medium obliquely, the direction of
path gets changed, i.e., it deviates from itsoriginal path. This deviation in the path of light ray at the intersert
boundary (interface) of the two optical media is termed as refraction.
The change in the direction of the light ray is due to the change in the speed of light while entering from a;
medium to the other.
Whenaray of lighttravelling in air (rarer medium)entersarectangularglass slab (densermedium), itbendstowari.
the normal at the surface of the air-glass interface (or boundary). Similarly, when a ray of light travelling ftor
glass (denser medium) to air (rarer medium), it bends away from the normal at the boundary of the two surface
94
 shall observethat -
Thus, we
(. is
Angleof incidence(i) equal to the angle of emergence (Ze).
(a)
(6) Emergent ray is parallel to the incident ray but is laterally displaced by some distance.
incident
ray
normal

air

glass

normal
8ent, ray
Fig. 10.8 Alight ray passing through a rectangular glass slab

PROCEDURE
1. Take adrawing board and fix asheet of white paper on it with the help of drawing pins.
2. Place arectangular glass slab in the middle of the paper and mark its boundary (outline) ABCD with the
help of asharp tipped pencil as shown in Fig. 10.9.
incident X normal
ray
P.

rarer medium
P, (air)
A B

denser medium
glass)

lateral
displacement
D

N
emrgnt Y

Fig, 10.9 Refraction through a rectangular glass slab

3. Remove the glass slab and mark apoint Oon the line AB (one of the faces of the glass slab).
*. At point 'O,draw a perperndicular to the line AB. Let it be NM.
5. Draw a line 'OX'from point '¡ with the help of scale such that ZNOX is between 30° to 60°.
6. Fix two alpins P, andP, vertically on the line OX about 5cm apart from each other.
95
 7. Put the glass slab back exactly on the
markedoutline ABCD.
8. Looking at the fect of alpins P, and 1', through the glass slab (from the face CD of the slab), fix
alpns 1,and P, so that all the four alpins appear to be in a straight ne. two other
9. Remove the glass slab and all the four alvins and cncircle the pin polnts.
10. Joinl, and P,(pin points of the 3nd and 4th
T1. alpins).
Draw a line YO passing throuch P and P which meets face CD atO.
12. At pointO, make a
13.
perpendicular to CD. Let it be N'M.
loin the points O and O.
I. Kays XO, OO and OY are incident ray, refracted rav and emergentray respectively (Fig. 109).
15. Measure the angle of refraction (ZMOO), and angle of
with the help of a incidence NOX), angle of emergence
(
protractor. (ZNOY,
l6. Repeat the above steps for at least two more angles of incidence.
17. Record your observations carefully in the observation table.
OBSERVATIONS
Table 10.4

S. No. Angle of Angle of Refraction Angle of Emergence Deviation (if any)

Incidence (i) (Z) (Ze) (Zi-Le)
1

2
3

RESULT
The light rays follow the laws of refraction while passing through the glass slab. Thus
1. The path of incident ray, refracted ray and emergent ray of light are different through a glass slab.
2. When aray of light travels into the glass from air, it gets deviated towards the normal.
3 The angle of incidence (i) is greater than the angle of refraction (r).
4. The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of emergence, i.e., Zi= Le.
5
The emergent ray is parallel to the incident ray but is laterally displaced by some distance, ie, OT (s
shown in Fig. 10.9).
6. The angle of refraction (Zr) increases with an increase in the angle of incidence (Zi).

PRECAUTIONS
1 The sheet of white paper should be fixed firmly on the drawing board.
2. The outline of the glass slab should be drawn carefully and accurately.
3. The alpins must be fixed vertically.
4. The positions of the alpins must be marked carefully.
5. While fixing the pins P, and P, the eyes should be kept at some distance fronm the pins so that the feet of
allof them can be simultaneously seen in the same straight line.
6 The angles should be measured acurately with the help of the protractor, by keeping the eve above the
marking.
96
 Use Smart Class Software with

EXPERIMENT -10(E) Virtual Lab on the smart board in

class to perform this experiment.
AIM
path of aray
of light through a glass prism
Totracethe
MATERIALS REQUIRED
board, asheet of white paper, drawing pins, a glass prism, alpins, a scale (ruler), a protractor and a
Adrawing
sharppencil

THEORY
1 Aglass prism is a transparent optical medium angle of
bounded by three triangular surfaces. All these angle of
deviation
surfaces are inclined to each other at an angle called prism

the angle of prism. A ray of light that falls on the normal normal
surface of the prism, undergoes refraction twice before fefracted ray
it emerges out of the prism. i n c i d er
nat y
R
) Whena ray of light PQ falls on aprism on the face AB
at point Q with an angle of incidence i,, at point Q, it
undergoes refraction and bends towards the normal.
P
emergent ray
The refracted ray QR falls on the face AC at an angle air glass air

of incidence i,.At point R, itundergoes refraction and C

bends away from the normal along RS (Fig. 10.10). Fig, 10.10 Aight ray passing through a glass prism
3. When the incident ray (PQ) and the emergent ray (RS) are extrapolated, they meet at a point O. The line
POO describes the originalpath of the incident ray. The line ORS describes the direction of the emergent
ray. Thus, the incident ray suffers a deviation by an angle '8 due to refraction through the prism. The
angle '8 is called angle of deviation.
A
PROCEDURE
1. Fix a white sheet of paper on the drawing board with
the help of drawing pins.
2. Place the glass prism on the paper and mark its outline "refracted ray
(boundaries) with the help of a sharp pointed pencil. incident
ray
R
3. Remove the prism and name the prism outline as ABC
as shown in Fig.10.11.
4. Draw a normal MQM, i.e., perpendicular to side air glass
M
em rgent ray
P:
air
AB at Q and also, draw a line PQmaking an angle
B C
between 30 and 60° with the normal. Here, PQ is the Fig. 10.11 Refraction of light through a glass prism
incident ray.
5. Fix two alpins P,and P, vertically on the line PQ gently by pressing their heads with the thumb into the
drawing board about 5cm apart from each other.
6. Put the prism back exactly over the outline drawn ABC.
View the images of alpins P, and P, through the prism from the side AC.
b. Now, fix two more alpins P, and P, vertically such that the feet of the pins P, and P, appear to be in the
same straight line as the feet of the images of the alpins P, and P,.
9. Remove the prism and allthe four alpins and encircle all the alpin points. Join the pin points P, and P,.
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 A nAs m i r

R(Fig. 10.11).
10. Draw a line SR passing through P, and P, which intersects AC at h o l l o w

11. Join QR. respectively as shown

and emergent ray
2 W h a

12. Here PQ, QR and RS are the incident ray, refracted ray
Fig. 10.11. Ans
A ve

OBSERVATIONS axis

of
th

1. PQRS is the obtained path of a light ray passing through the prism. after
surface bends towards the normal
sph

to elass at frst refracting

Ine ray of light entering from
air bends away rrom the
air at second refracting surface
2.
ray of light entering fron glass to
rerracthon and the
normal after refraction. A n sI
. i
ts

3. It is observed that light ray bends towards the base of the prism.
in
RESULT
light ray (i.e., incident ray, refracted ray and emergent ray) passing through a triangular glass 4 .WW

Ihe path of a
prism is shown in Fig. 10.11. Ans. Tr

PRECAUTIONS
1. The outline of the prism must be marked carefully and accurately.
2. All the alpins must be fixed vertically. 5.
working space.
3. Alpins should be at least 5 cm away from each other so as to maintain the Ans.
4. The glass prism should be triangular with all its faces smooth.
from the pins so that all the pins are
5. While fixing the pins P, and P, the eyes should be kept at a distance
seen simultaneously in a straight line. 6.
Ans.
NOTE FOR THE TEACHER/STUDENTS

1 You may observe the various deviations in the path of light by taking the different angles of incidence in
this experiment. Observe angle of deviation (8) for different angles of incidence given in Table 10.5.
Table 10.5

Angle of Angle of Emergence Angle of Deviation

S. No. (8) An
Incidence (Zi) (Ze)
1. 30°

2. 40°

3. 45°
A
4 50°

5. 60°

2. You will observe that as the angle of incidence increases, the angle of deviation (8) first decreases to
minimum and then increases. Thus, for a certain value of angle of incidence, the light ray passing through
the prism sufers minimum deviation. The angle of deviation at this position is called the angle of
minimum deviation.

3. Also, you will observe that at the position of minimum deviation of a light ray, the angle of incidence is
equal to the angle of emergence and the refracted ray is parallel to the base of the prism.
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