Art of the Viking Age

Google Classroom
by Andrea C. Snow

Animal head post found in burial mound near Tønsberg (Oseberg ship
burial), 9th century, Oseberg style, wood and paint (no longer existing)
(The Museum of Cultural History in Oslo; photo: Kirsten Helgeland, CC
BY-SA 4.0)
Animal head post found in burial mound near Tønsberg (Oseberg ship burial), 9th century, Oseberg style,
wood and paint (no longer existing) (The Museum of Cultural History in Oslo; photo: Kirsten Helgeland,
CC BY-SA 4.0)
Modern representations of the Vikings can be fun, but are often limited to
sensationalized depictions of violent, raiding warriors. In reality, Vikings
were a small group of a larger community of people called the Norse (or
Norsemen). Few of these Norsemen raided, and many more were
merchants, farmers, and craftsmen. Political and mercenary work were
among their enterprises, but exploration, colonization, and mercantilism
also fueled their expeditions.

Areas of early Vikings (underlying map © Google)

Areas of early Vikings (underlying map © Google)

What initiated the Viking Age? Scholars typically identify the Viking raid
of the wealthy monastery on the island of Lindisfarne in 793 (off the coast
of England) as its starting point. During the Viking Age, which lasted from
the late 8th century through the 11th century, people from Denmark,
Norway, and Sweden employed their maritime skills to journey around the
globe. In addition to western Europe, they traveled to Byzantium, West
Asia, China, Russia, Eastern Europe, Northern Africa, Greenland, and
even North America. Interacting with many cultures and settling in many
geographic regions, the Norse were more cosmopolitan than they receive
credit for.

The Norse visual world

The visual world was of great importance to the Norse. Significant
resources were devoted to the creation of astonishing objects and the
acquisition of foreign goods (through plunder and trade alike), and because
of their highly mobile endeavors, Norse-made and Norse-influenced
objects have been found across a wide geographic expanse.

An array of sophisticated, meticulously crafted objects survive. Fine

imported materials were used, but local materials were also expertly
handled by highly skilled craftspeople. Woodworking, for example, was
an essential skill, and detailed wood carvings have been uncovered and
restored. This material is susceptible to rot and fire, and so we can
conclude that what survives today is a small fraction of the woodwork that
once existed.

Objects made from more tenacious materials—like metal and stone—

comprise the majority of what art historians have left to examine. Metal
jewelry, storage vessels, and other utilitarian objects have been uncovered
from burials and hoards. Ivory and bone carvings have also been found, as
have a limited number of precious textiles and stone carvings.
 Viking art styles timeline from 775 C.E. to circa 1125 C.E.; from left to
right Oseberg, Borre, Jellinge, Mammen, Ringerike, Urnes.
Viking art styles timeline from 775 C.E. to circa 1125 C.E.; from left to right Oseberg, Borre, Jellinge,
Mammen, Ringerike, Urnes.

The styles of Viking Art

Many objects served practical and symbolic purposes and their complex
decorative patterns can be a challenge to untangle. Highly-stylized motifs
weave around and flow into one another, so that following a single form
from one end to the other can be difficult—if there are end points at all.
Imagery was created to communicate ideas about social relations, religious
beliefs, and to recall a mythic past. Although many objects served pagan
intentions, Christian themes began to intermingle with them as new ideas
filtered into the region. Viking art is visually distinct from
contemporaneous cultures (as traded objects and integrated customs
demonstrate), and represents a unique way of thinking about the world.
Various beasts are carved into the Oseberg ship’s stern: a ribbon-animal (in
blue, also called a streaming-animal); gripping-beasts rendered with
humanoid heads (in red); and more ambiguous forms that echo the bodies
of creatures seen at the prow (in green). Oseberg oak longship and detail of
prow with ribbon-animal and gripping-beast motifs, 9th century, found in
burial mound near Tønsberg (Viking ship museum, Oslo; photo: Chad K,
CC BY 2.0)
Various beasts are carved into the Oseberg ship’s stern: a ribbon-animal (in blue, also called a streaming-
animal); gripping-beasts rendered with humanoid heads (in red); and more ambiguous forms that echo the
bodies of creatures seen at the prow (in green). Oseberg oak longship and detail of prow with ribbon-
animal and gripping-beast motifs, 9th century, found in burial mound near Tønsberg (Viking ship museum,
Oslo; photo: Chad K, CC BY 2.0)

The animal motifs that frequently embellished objects are actually a

continuation of artistic traditions from previous periods. Two were
particularly widespread: the “ribbon-animal” and the “gripping beast.” We
see both of these on the stern of the Oseberg longship.

The ribbon-animal was typically pictured as a highly abstracted creature

with an elongated body and simplified features, appearing individually and
in pairs. In contrast, the gripping beast—a fantastical creature with clearly
defined limbs—was anchored to the borders of designs and surrounding
creatures. Other animal motifs developed throughout the period, and
human figures were also present. These elements, which are thought to
have had particular assigned meanings, are central to the categorization of
Viking Age art styles.

Viking Art Style Date

Oseberg c. 775/800–875 C.E.

Borre c. 850–975 C.E.

Jellinge c. 900–975 C.E.

Mammen c. 960s–1000/1025 C.E.

Ringerike c. 990–1050 C.E.

Urnes c. 1050–1125 C.E.

Oseberg style
The Oseberg style was popular throughout mainland Scandinavia. Some of
the most remarkable wood carving from the Viking Age was created in
this style. A spectacular oak longship—found within the burial mound
from which the style’s name was derived—is one of the most studied
works of the period. Featuring carvings of the ribbon-animal and gripping-
beast motifs in fluid combinations on its prow, it served as an elite
funerary vessel for two women.
 Oseberg oak longship and detail of prow, 9th century, found in burial
mound near Tønsberg (Viking ship museum, Oslo; left photo: Petter
Ulleland, CC BY-SA 4.0 and right photo: mararie, CC BY-SA 2.0)
Oseberg oak longship and detail of prow, 9th century, found in burial mound near Tønsberg (Viking ship
museum, Oslo; left photo: Petter Ulleland, CC BY-SA 4.0 and right photo: mararie, CC BY-SA 2.0)

The Oseberg style shows a strong interplay between zoomorphic and

geometric patterns that continues artistic traditions predating the Viking
Age.

Bearded man, detail on the cart, before 800, wood, found in the Oseberg
burial mound (Museum of Cultural History, photo: Helen Simonsson, CC
BY-SA 4.0)
Bearded man, detail on the cart, before 800, wood, found in the Oseberg burial mound (Museum of
Cultural History, photo: Helen Simonsson, CC BY-SA 4.0)
In Oseberg art, animal motifs—which included birds, human faces
sometimes thought to be masks (such as we see on the Oseberg burial
cart), and the gripping beast—appear short and stocky, nearly equal in
size, have rounded eyes, and tendril-like limbs. These schematic figures
are situated within fields that divide surfaces into clear segments and
emphasize the balance and organization of images. With mixtures of high-
and low-relief carvings flooding their surfaces in tightly interlacing
ornament, very little background is visible.

The “Academician’s” animal head post, 9th century, wood, found in burial
mound near Tønsberg (Oseberg ship burial) (Museum of Cultural History,
Oslo; photo: Kirsten Helgeland, CC BY-SA 4.0)
The “Academician’s” animal head post, 9th century, wood, found in burial mound near Tønsberg (Oseberg
ship burial) (Museum of Cultural History, Oslo; photo: Kirsten Helgeland, CC BY-SA 4.0)
The Oseberg ship burial included carved wooden posts, decorated sleds,
and an oak wagon that may have been made by master craftsmen from a
nearby workshop. For example, the “Academician’s” animal head post is
one of five wooden animal-headed posts found in the Oseberg ship burial.
Although the purpose of these objects remain unclear, their detailed
carvings demonstrate advanced woodworking skills.

Also included was a set of tapestries that, despite their poor condition, are
believed to depict battle scenes and a religious procession. They illustrate
many objects found in the grave, indicating that material goods were
important for performing customs in life and in death.

Borre style
Overlapping with the Oseberg style is the Borre style, which was also
popular on the mainland. However, unlike the Oseberg style, Borre artistic
conventions spread to the British Isles and the Baltic region as the
Norsemen traveled both East and West. Exchanges between local and
foreign artistic customs can be seen on objects found in these areas (with
less overt characteristics appearing in the British Isles and more emphatic
characteristics appearing to the east of the Baltic Sea).
Animals with their tongues licking their backs, alternating with four human
figures who face the object’s center, gripping unidentified protrusions from
their necks. Silver disc brooch, Borre style, late 9th–10th century, silver,
7.8 cm in diameter, found in Gotland, Sweden (© The Trustees of the
British Museum)
Animals with their tongues licking their backs, alternating with four human figures who face the object’s
center, gripping unidentified protrusions from their necks. Silver disc brooch, Borre style, late 9th–10th
century, silver, 7.8 cm in diameter, found in Gotland, Sweden (© The Trustees of the British Museum)

Borre objects swarm the viewer with décor. Forms are arranged in closed
compositions with tight, knot-like interlacing that almost fully obscures
the background. Animal motifs appear comparatively more naturalistic,
with squat, relaxed bodies. Spirals are introduced to represent hip joints,
and figures may be reduced to decorative heads or appear as fully in-the-
round forms.

Side view: Animal licking its back (detail), silver disc brooch, Borre style,
late 9th–10th century, silver, 7.8 cm in diameter, found in Gotland,
Sweden (© The Trustees of the British Museum)
Side view: Animal licking its back (detail), silver disc brooch, Borre style, late 9th–10th century, silver,
7.8 cm in diameter, found in Gotland, Sweden (© The Trustees of the British Museum)

On a silver disc-brooch from Gotland, a series of animal and human

figures protrude outward into space. In a motif rarely seen outside of this
style, the animals’ heads are oriented backward, their tongues licking their
backs. Alternating between them are four human figures who face the
object’s center, gripping as of yet unidentified protrusions from their
necks.
 Gold spur from Verne Kloster in Norway, 10th century, Borre style, gold
(The Museum of Cultural History, University of Oslo)
Gold spur from Verne Kloster in Norway, 10th century, Borre style, gold (The Museum of Cultural
History, University of Oslo)

The “ring chain” pattern, which combines ribbon shapes to create a

continuous band, is another Borre style trend. It is seen on small metal
objects, such as the gold spur from Verne Kloster, and seems to have
influenced stone carving traditions on the Isle of Man and in northwest
England. This gold spur allowed a rider to control the movements of a
horse. Featuring granulation and filigree details, along with the “ring
chain” pattern, it is far more complicated than what is normally found in
the Borre style.
 Silver Cup, 958/959, Jellinge style, found in Jelling, Jutland, Denmark
(National Museum of Denmark)
Silver Cup, 958/959, Jellinge style, found in Jelling, Jutland, Denmark (National Museum of Denmark)

Jellinge style
Sitting chronologically between the Borre style and the soon-to-be-
discussed Mammen style, the Jellinge style is a malleable one. It appears
on a diverse body of objects and can share features with the previous and
subsequent styles, leaving it difficult to define as a separate movement. It
was named for a cast silver cup that was found in a royal burial mound in
Jelling, Jutland, Denmark (an “e” was accidentally added to the style’s
name in the nineteenth century). Despite this mishap, this unique spelling
helps art historians differentiate the style from the place.

Red annotations show the wrist/ankle segments. Silver Cup, 958/959,

Jellinge style, found in Jelling, Jutland, Denmark (National Museum of
Denmark)
Red annotations show the wrist/ankle segments. Silver Cup, 958/959, Jellinge style, found in Jelling,
Jutland, Denmark (National Museum of Denmark)

We can see this style’s main motif around its belly: a set of interlacing
creatures that form a row of fluid, S-shaped forms. Within their bodies are
single rows of beading (dot-like metal forms) and their feet resemble mitts.
Lappets, the protrusions that look like ponytails, extend from their heads,
distinguishing them from creatures of the Borre style.

Compositions in this style open up and expand, with the backgrounds

becoming more visible. The anatomy of animal and human figures is
simpler, with bodies portrayed as solid masses defined by individual or
double contour lines. Hip joints are represented by spirals, while ankles
and wrists are defined by small, geometric segments like those seen on the
Jellinge cup. Heads have round or almond-shaped eyes and lips are apt to
curl, while ribbon-animals are more prominent and the gripping beast
fades.

Grave slab with Jellinge style elements, 10th century, gritstone, 26.8 x 37
cm, from the cemetery beneath York Minster (Image courtesy of York
Museums Trust, CC BY-SA 4.0)
Grave slab with Jellinge style elements, 10th century, gritstone, 26.8 x 37 cm, from the cemetery beneath
York Minster (Image courtesy of York Museums Trust, CC BY-SA 4.0)

The Jellinge style expanded as far as the Volga Bulgars and the Lower
Volga River, along the Caspian Sea. It influenced art in western Europe,
where stone sculptures from York show its considerable influence. A 10-
century grave slab from the cemetery beneath York Minster, for instance,
integrates the Jellinge style ornament with the
Anglican
tradition of marking burials with recumbent monuments.
 Mammen-style axe (side with a possible tree), 970–71, inlaid with silver,
from Mammen (National Museum of Denmark)
Mammen-style axe (side with a possible tree), 970–71, inlaid with silver, from Mammen (National
Museum of Denmark)

Mammen style
Named for a ceremonial axe head found near the Danish village of
Mammen, this innovative style was popularized as the “court” style of
King Harald Bluetooth (King of Denmark and Norway who ruled from c.
958–986). Its compositions span elongated waves and terminate in loose
tendrils. We also see foliate motifs that were borrowed from other
European traditions. A few of the qualities associated with the Jellinge
style are exaggerated in it, like geometric shapes that segment the wrists,
ankles, and other body parts of animals.
 Top: a bird with a prominent hip joint; bottom: a set of winding tendrils,
possibly depicting a tree. Mammen axe head. Diagram from Mette,
Iversen, Ulf Näsman, and Jens Vellev, Mammen. Grav, kunst og samfund i
vikingetid (1991).
Top: a bird with a prominent hip joint; bottom: a set of winding tendrils, possibly depicting a tree.
Mammen axe head. Diagram from Mette, Iversen, Ulf Näsman, and Jens Vellev, Mammen. Grav, kunst og
samfund i vikingetid (1991).

This can be seen at the base of the bird’s neck on the Mammen axe, along
with ornamental beading throughout its body. Its limbs and wings are
represented as expanding coils. Some background is visible, with glimpses
of the underlying surface peeking out from beneath lively, energetic
designs.
Each side of the Mammen axe head is inlaid with silver: on one side, a set
of winding tendrils; and, on the other, a fabulous bird loops through even
more tendrils and has a prominent spiral hip joint. Axes were very
important to the Norsemen, who used them for domestic purposes and in
battle, but the inlays of the Mammen axe indicate that it was a ceremonial
object.

Jelling stone with traits of the Mammen style, 970 and circa 986, raised by
King Bluetooth. Left: side B with Great Beast motif (photo: Casiopeia, CC
BY-SA 2.0); right: diagram of side B showing Great Beast motif
Jelling stone with traits of the Mammen style, 970 and circa 986, raised by King Bluetooth. Left: side B
with Great Beast motif (photo: Casiopeia, CC BY-SA 2.0); right: diagram of side B showing Great Beast
motif

Often discussed are the

runestones
at Jelling (in Denmark), which feature traits of the Mammen style. It is in
this style that a magnificent motif emerges: the Great Beast. We can see it
on one side of the Jelling Stone, standing above a runic inscription that
references his conquest of Norway and the religious conversion of
Denmark.
The Great Beast is an amalgamation of several animals; it has features that
appear similar to horns or antlers protruding from its head, and what
appears to be a mane falling from its long neck. Its feet are segmented with
claws, and in some representations—like the greater Jelling stone—
serpents may wind around its body to create a dynamic interplay between
the two motifs. The creature has been interpreted as a symbol of power.

Jelling stone with traits of the Mammen style, 970 and circa 986, raised by
King Bluetooth. Left: side A showing Christ bound in tendrils (photo:
Casiopeia, CC BY-SA 2.0); right: side A with reconstruction of original
polychromy (National Museum of Denmark)
Jelling stone with traits of the Mammen style, 970 and circa 986, raised by King Bluetooth. Left: side A
showing Christ bound in tendrils (photo: Casiopeia, CC BY-SA 2.0); right: side A with reconstruction of
original polychromy (National Museum of Denmark)

Carved with runic inscriptions, these monumental stones were raised by

King Bluetooth in memory of his deceased parents. As a Christian convert,
Bluetooth was responsible for Denmark’s increasing acceptance and
adoption of the religion. He had one side of the larger stone depict Christ
bound in tendrils that end in pronounced foliates (leaf forms). With an
inscription surrounded by serpentine ornament on its third side (not
illustrated), this object is exceptionally detailed for a runestone.

A replica of the Cammin Casket (also called the Cammin shrine), a

masterwork of Viking Age art, c. 1000, found in Kamen Pomorski, Poland.
The original disappeared during World War II (Hamburg Archaeological
Museum)
A replica of the Cammin Casket (also called the Cammin shrine), a masterwork of Viking Age art, c. 1000,
found in Kamen Pomorski, Poland. The original disappeared during World War II (Hamburg
Archaeological Museum)
 Bamberg Casket (or so-called Casket of St Kunigunde), c. 1000, oak with
mammoth? Ivory, 13.3 x 25.7 cm (from St. Stephans in Bamberg, now in
the Bavarian National Museum, Munich)
Bamberg Casket (or so-called Casket of St Kunigunde), c. 1000, oak with mammoth? Ivory, 13.3 x 25.7
cm (from St. Stephans in Bamberg, now in the Bavarian National Museum, Munich)

Three particularly fine examples of the Mammen style survived into the
modern era: the Cammin casket found in Kamen Pomorski, Poland, the
Bamberg casket of southern Germany (now located in Munich), and
the León reliquary of Spain, which is the only known Viking object to be
found on the Iberian Peninsula. These three examples demonstrate how
Mammen-style objects have been found in many regions, attesting yet
again to the far reach of Norse visual culture.
 Heggen weathervane (left) and drawing of the designs which include the
Great Beast (right) (Kulturhistorisk museum, UiO, CC BY-SA 4.0)
Heggen weathervane (left) and drawing of the designs which include the Great Beast (right)
(Kulturhistorisk museum, UiO, CC BY-SA 4.0)

Ringerike style
The Mammen style was short-lived, but the subsequent style—called
Ringerike—was energized by its ingenuity. Continuing to use the double
contour lines and spiral hip joints seen previously, Ringerike ornament is
tightly composed. Bird motifs become more common and the Great Beast
appears in full force, but neither feature the beaded ornamentation of
Jellinge and Mammen creatures.

The adoption of European influences into Norse artistic conventions are

visible in the Ringerike style. Diverse uses of foliates and tendrils, for
example, are features that were taken from Frankish and British influences
and modified to suit Norse sensibilities. Appearing in clusters of varying
thicknesses, tendrils grow outward from animal bodies. This can be seen
on several weathervanes (such as the Heggen weathervane), which were
customarily gilded, fixed to the prows of ships, and later, repositioned on
the roofs of churches. Their borders feature friezes of vegetal motifs, and
on their plates are beasts—including birds and the Great Beast—tangled
within foliates.

Stone from sarcophagus at St. Paul’s churchyard, London (photo: David

Beard MA)
Stone from sarcophagus at St. Paul’s churchyard, London (photo: David Beard MA)

New variations on the Great Beast appear in the Ringerike style. The Great
Beast may be shown with other Great Beasts, with multiple snakes, or with
monsters we cannot always identify. A carved stone slab that was found at
St. Paul’s churchyard in London, for instance, shows the Great Beast with
long tendrils that curl at the far end (a variation of the lappets seen in the
earlier Jellinge style) forming tendril-like horns and tongue. It also has
spiral hip joints. Its body is entwined with a serpent and another, smaller
creature wraps around its forelimb. The carved stone slab comes from the
end of a box-tomb. The runic inscription carved into its side suggests that
the carver was Swedish.
 Ringerike-style runestones that only feature inscriptions were common.
For example, Runestone Sö 130 from Södermanland County, Sweden, has
only bands of runic text. These commemorate a man who died in what
would be modern-day Russia (photo: Berig, CC BY-SA 3.0)
Ringerike-style runestones that only feature inscriptions were common. For example, Runestone Sö 130
from Södermanland County, Sweden, has only bands of runic text. These commemorate a man who died in
what would be modern-day Russia (photo: Berig, CC BY-SA 3.0)

Due to the growing popularity of Christianity, funerary customs shift and

there are fewer grave goods in the Ringerike style. Architecture, weapons,
and ivory carvings become the more prevalent remains, and runestones—
although less detailed than the greater stone raised at Jelling—become
more common.

The Urnes Stave Church north portal, c. 1132, wood, Ornes, Norway
(photo: Micha L. Rieser)
The Urnes Stave Church north portal, c. 1132, wood, Ornes, Norway (photo: Micha L. Rieser)

Urnes style
In the last phase of Viking Age art, the Urnes style, there is a turn to
elegant, schematic forms. Animals are portrayed with tapered anatomical
features and in regal stances.

The Urnes style has three primary motifs: a standing, four-legged animal
resembling the Great Beast; a snake-like creature but with a single foreleg
and/or hind leg; and a thin ribbon. Perhaps associated with the growth of
Christianity, there was an increased esteem for this style across mainland
Scandinavia. Surviving examples of it can be seen on architecture and
runestones, each of which could use pagan and Christian iconography
simultaneously.

Left: the Urnes Stave Church with a view toward the north portal (photo:
Evelina Ander, CC BY-NC 2.0); right: detail from the Urnes Stave Church
north portal, c. 1132, wood, Ornes, Norway (photo: Bjørn Erik Pedersen,
CC BY-SA 4.0)
Left: the Urnes Stave Church with a view toward the north portal (photo: Evelina Ander, CC BY-NC 2.0);
right: detail from the Urnes Stave Church north portal, c. 1132, wood, Ornes, Norway (photo: Bjørn Erik
Pedersen, CC BY-SA 4.0)

Although its origins are likely Swedish, this style is associated with a stave
church in the Norwegian village of Urnes. Its relief carvings, which fully
embody the style’s characteristics, have been the subject of art-historical
interpretation for some time. Their rhythmic compositions have elegant
swooping, symmetrical, and interlace designs, and the background is more
clearly visible.
 The Great Beast motif is in blue, a snake-like creature is in green, and a
ribbon is in red. The Urnes Stave Church north portal, c. 1132, wood,
Ornes, Norway (photo: Micha L. Rieser)
The Great Beast motif is in blue, a snake-like creature is in green, and a ribbon is in red. The Urnes Stave
Church north portal, c. 1132, wood, Ornes, Norway (photo: Micha L. Rieser)

Although the use of spiral hip joints persist, the proportions of creatures’
bodies curve and swell in a fashion that differentiates them from previous
styles. Eyes are enlarged, nearly filling the heads, and lower jaws are given
hook-like extensions. The feet of the Great Beast standing next to the door
gracefully end in wisps that rest between delicate vegetal motifs. Although
the structure is Christian in function, these decorative forms remain
indebted to pre-Christian styles.
 The Urnes Stave Church north portal, c. 1132, wood, Ornes, Norway
(photo: Micha L. Rieser)
The Urnes Stave Church north portal, c. 1132, wood, Ornes, Norway (photo: Micha L. Rieser)

As the Norsemen traveled, traded, and settled across new regions, this
style’s influences were carried with them. Urnes-styled objects appear in
the Baltic, and examples such as the Pitney Brooch demonstrate a
localized adaptation of it in England. In Ireland, the Norse re-occupation
of Dublin fueled artistic interest in the Urnes style, with metal and stone
objects exhibiting its features. When looking at gold filigree ornamenting
the bell shrine of St. Patrick, for example, precisely-crafted patterns
demonstrate interest in geometry and rhythmic compositions. The style’s
acceptance there, however, came just as it was dying in Scandinavia.

The Viking Age comes to an end

Prior to the 10th century, Scandinavian regions were considered peripheral
to western Europe. It was from the 10th through the 13th centuries that the
introduction of Christianity and the introduction of European-style
monarchy eventually brought the Viking Age to a close. The Ringerike
and Urnes styles described above flourished through this time, until the
European Romanesque style was popularized, displacing pagan traditions.

There is much more to Norse art than style. While objects were made by
skilled workers, they were also situated within a complex society whose
endeavors affected a vast geographic expanse. Those discussed here
provide only a small window into the Viking Age.

Additional Resources
Susan Braovac, “The Long Soak.” The Museum of Cultural History, The
University of Oslo. November 3rd (2018).

Signe Horn Fuglesang, Some Aspects of the Ringerike Style: A Phase of

11th-Century Scandinavian Art (Odense: Odense University Press, 1980).

James Graham-Campbell, Viking Art (London: Thames & Hudson, 2013).

Neil Price, The Viking Way: Magic and Mind in Late Iron Age
Scandinavia (Oxford: Oxbow, 2019).

Paul D. Sturtevant, “Schrödinger’s Medievalisms.” The Public

Medievalist (blog). December 28 (2017).

Sverre Bagge, Cross and Scepter: The Rise of the Scandinavian Kingdoms
from the Vikings to the Reformation (Princeton; Oxford: Princeton
University Press, 2014).

Nancy L. Wicker, “The Scandinavian Container at San Isidoro, León, in

the Context of Viking Art and Society.” Journal of Medieval Iberian
Studies vol. 11, no. 2 (2019), pp. 135–156.

David M. Wilson and Ole Klindt-Jensen, Viking Art (London: George

Allen and Unwin Ltd, 1966).
Anders Winroth, The Conversion of Scandinavia: Vikings, Merchants, and
Missionaries in the Remaking of Northern Europe (New Haven: Yale
University Press, 2012).

By Andrea C. Snow