INTRODUCTION TO THE

MECHANICAL BEHAVIOUR OF
PARTLY SATURATED SOILS
Julio Esteban Colmenares Montañez
Titular Professor
Ciudad Universitaria, Bogotá D.C., February, 2024
 Contents
• Introduction
• Basic Concepts
• Importance of Suction in Soil Mechanics
• Soil suction measurement
• Soil-Water Relationships

2
 From previous session
• Partly saturated soils are the general case. Fully
saturated soils are one particular case.

• There is a need to understand the behaviour of partly

saturated soils.

• Concept of suction: Total suction, matrix suction and

osmotic potential.

• For a partly saturated soil, changes in u result in a

completely different behaviour from changes in σ.
Therefore, it is necessary to measure soil suction.
3
 Soil Suction
• Matric Suction: The energy required to remove a
water molecule from the soil matrix without the
water changing state (Ridley, 1993).

• Total Suction: The energy required to remove a

water molecule from the soil matrix throughout
evaporation (Ridley, 1993). Total water potential.

• Osmotic potential: The difference between total

suction and matric suction. It is a measure of the
additional stress to remove a water molecule
from the water phase due to the presence of
dissolved salts (Colmenares, 2002). 4
• The addition of common salts to water has
only minor effect on the surface tension of
the solution

Concentration of NaCl at 20̊C Surface tension of solution

Pure water 72.75x10-6 kN/m
0.1 Molar 72.92x10-6 kN/m
0.5 Molar 73.57x10-6 kN/m
1.0 Molar 74.39x10-6 kN/m

5
• The equivalent osmotic potentials and
matrix suction for a meniscus with a radius
of curvature equal to 0.002mm are:

OSMOTIC POTENTIAL MATRIX SUCTION

Pure water 0 kPa 72.75 kPa

0.1 Molar 456 kPa 72.92 kPa

0.5 Molar 2500 kPa 73.57 kPa

1.0 Molar 4500 kPa 74.75 kPa

6
• Whilst the surface tension and the presence of dissolved salts will contribute to
the total suction, their effects can be considered independent of one another.

• It is important to appreciate that, in a soil, a change in the concentration of salts

in the pore water may significantly influence the molecular and physic- chemical
forces acting at the particle water interfaces.

This could be reflected as a change in

the behaviour of the soil.

• It follows that a suction measuring device:

• In contact with the water vapour phase will measure total suction.
• In intimate contact with the soil water should measure the matrix suction.
7
SOIL SUCTION
MEASUREMENT

8
 SUCTION MEASUREMENTS

Measurement Techniques

Total Suction Osmotic Suction

Direct

Indirect Matric Suction

9
• All piezometers consist of a porous tip that makes contact with the
ground and allow water, under the influence of the prevailing ground
water pressure, to permeate into a reservoir where its pressure is
measured using a suitable sensor.

• It is important to note that the water pressure that is measured is that

of the water in the reservoir and not necessarily that of the water in
the soil.

10
 Direct Techniques
IMPERIAL COLLEGE TENSIOMETER

• Ridley (1993) developed a miniature tensiometer based on a commercial pore pressure

transducer. It was capable of measuring suction up to 1500 kPa.
• The key elements that allow the successfully measurement of high suctions are the use of a
high air entry ceramic filter (15 bar), minimising the volume of water in the system and
saturating under very high water pressures prior to use.
• A modified version was introduced, Ridley and Burland (1995). This new instrument
incorporates an integral strain gauged diaphragm, slightly larger porous ceramic (still 15 bar
air entry value), and a reduced water volume.
• Recently the instrument has been used successfully to make field measurements and
continuous measurements lasting several weeks have been made in both laboratory and
field situations.

11
Direct Techniques
IMPERIAL COLLEGE TENSIOMETER

Dineen, 1997 Colmenares, 2002

12
Direct Techniques

IMPERIAL COLLEGE TENSIOMETER

Saturated Porous
Stone
Water reservoir

Diaphragm


Strain gauge
Locktite

13
Arrangement used to establish the initial drying part of the soil water
characteristic curve in a sample with 5% bentonite content.

14
Arrangement used to establish the initial drying part of the soil water
characteristic curve in a sample with 5% bentonite content.

15
 Pre-Saturation Process
a) Vacuum is applied into the chamber.
b) The chamber is rotated to allow water to fill the porous stone and the
reservoir.
V accuum
V accuum

IC S u c tio n
P ro b e

W a te r

W a te r
O -r in g
seal O -r in g
seal
IC S u c tio n 16
P ro b e
I.C. Suction Probe. Stability and Repeatability of the
Measurement
0

Pore water pressure (kPa)

- 5 0

- 1 0 0
1 - A
2 - A

2 - C 1 - B 2 - B
1 - C
- 1 5 0
3 - C

- 2 0 0
0 5 1 0 1 5 2 0 2 5 3 0 3 5 4 0 4 5 5
17
T i m e ( h o u r s )
Suction Measurements in Statically Compacted
Sand – Bentonite
0

-1 0 0 C o m p a c Tt eo dp 1
T o p 1 s a m p le

Pore water pressure (kPa)

-2 0 0 B o tto m T o p
-3 0 0 T o p 2

-4 0 0

-5 0 0

-6 0 0

-7 0 0

-8 0 0

-9 0 0
B o tto m
-1 0 0 0
0 5 0 1 0 01 5 02 0 02 5 03 0 03 5 04 0 04 5 05 0 0
T im e (H o u rs ) (b )

(a )
a) Pore water pressure measured.
18
b) Relative location of the individual probes.
 Direct Techniques
The fundamentals of enabling pore pressure measuring systems to sustain
large tensile stresses has been studied by Ridley (1993) and Marinho (1994).
Both identified a number of possible causes for tension breakdown. These can
be related to one of three phenomena:

• Cavitation. The formation of bubbles within the fluid.

• Loss of adhesion between fluid and instrument surface.
• Air entry through the porous ceramic

19
 Indirect Techniques
FILTER PAPER
Cling film
Perspex disc

Soil sample

Filter paper in contact

Filter Water
paper content

20
Filter Paper (Matric Suction and Total Suction)

21
 Indirect Techniques
FILTER PAPER

For statically compacted materials

where the dry densities achieved are
well below those obtained by
dynamic procedures and the
surfaces of the samples are rough,
filter papers give lower values of
suction than the suction probe when
adopting the calibration line
corresponding to initially dry papers.

Colmenares, 2002 22
LABORATORY EQUIPMENT

23
Suction controlled odometer (Universidad Nacional de Colombia)
 A IR
A C T U A T O R

G L A S S D IS H

S IL IC O
O IL
L O A D
C E L L D IS P L A C E M E N T
T R A N S D U C E R
S U C T IO N
M E A S U R E M E N T
O IL P R E S S U R E
E Q U IV A L E N T T O
S E M I- P E R M E A B L E R A D IA L S T R E S S
M E M B R A N E

P U M P

P E G O .O O O
S O L U T IO N

E L E C T R O N IC B A L A N C E 24
 1 6 0 0

W i l l i a m s a n d S h a y k
1 4 0 0 ( p s y c h r o m e t e r )

Osmotic potential (kPa)

1 2 0 0
O e d o m e t e r c a l i b r a t
1 0 0 0 ( D i n e e n , 1 9 9 7 )

8 0 0
T e n s i o m e t e r i n i s o l a t i o n
( D i n e e n , 1 9 9 7 )
6 0 0

4 0 0
P e c k a n d R a
2 0 0 ( O s m o t i c t e

0
5 1 0 1 5 2 0 2 5 3 0 3 5 4
C o n c e n t r a t i o n P E

PEG solution calibration (Dineen, 1997) 25

26
 Indirect Techniques
PSYCHROMETERS

• Psychrometers measure relative humidity of the atmosphere.

• Relative humidity is the relationship between the partial pressure of the water
vapour in the air (𝑃𝑃), and the saturation vapour pressure (𝑃𝑃0 ), at the same
temperature.
• The relative humidity can be directly related to total suction:
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑃𝑃
𝜑𝜑 = − ln
𝑉𝑉𝑤𝑤0 𝜔𝜔𝑉𝑉 𝑃𝑃0

𝜑𝜑 = is the Soil suction or total suction (kPa)

𝑅𝑅 = is the universal (molar) gas constant [i. e. 8.31432 J/(mol K)].
𝑇𝑇 = is the absolute temperature (K).
𝑉𝑉𝑤𝑤𝑤 = is the specific volume of water [i. e. 1/ 𝜌𝜌𝑤𝑤 ]
27
𝜔𝜔𝑉𝑉 = is the molecular mass of water vapour.
 Indirect Techniques
PSYCHROMETERS

• In its simplest form it consists of a

thermometer which has a wetted bulb from
which evaporation into the adjacent air
causes a depression in the temperature of
the bulb.
• When evaporation ceases and equilibrium
with the ambient vapour pressure is
reached the temperature is measured and
is compared with the temperature of a dry
bulb thermometer.
Screen-caged single-junction Peltier
• The temperature difference can be related thermocouple psychrometer (after Brown
to the relative humidity. and Collins, 1980). 28
 AXIS TRANSLATION TECHNIQUE

2σs
γ w h = ( ua − uw ) =
r

In a soil sample, it is not By controlling the air pressure (and the

possible to use the pore water pressure) it is possible to
concept of capillary rise. measure high suctions by using pore
pressure transducers to measure positive
pore water pressures.

29
 Direct measurement (without axis
translation) ua = 0

Water cavitation:
uw = -1 atm (-101 kPa)

• AEV porous stone < matrix
suction
• Loss of continuity between
pore water and measuring
system
• AEV porous stone > matrix
suction
• Cavitation in the water
beneath the porous stone,
independently of the AEV
• Direct measurement only up
30
to: -101kPa
Measurement with Axis Translation Technique

• Before applying an increase in • For long times, air tends to go

ua, uw = -101 kPa
into solution.
• After air pressure increase, uw =
101 kPa • In drained tests, it is necessary
to measure the dissolved air.
• No cavitation problem and
continuity between pore water
and measuring system is
maintained. 31
Limitations of the axis translation technique
Equipment:
• Maximum suction is limited to the air entry value of the porous media. Commercially
available ceramics have a maximum air entry value of 15 bar. An alternative is to use a
cellulose semipermeable membrane, the AEV is thought to be in excess of 100 bar.
• Diffusion of air can occur below AEV, slowing response and introducing errors in the
measurement.

Materials:
• The air phase must be continuous, in order that the applied elevated air pressure does not
cause volume changes to occur. Sample volume change will cause an over estimation of the
suction to be recorded. A degree of saturation less than 80 % is thought to be necessary to
ensure a continuous air phase.

32
Pressure Plate (Matrix Suction)

Water Volume change

Contact soil
Soil measurement
pore-porous
stone pore samples
High AEV
porous stone

33
 Devices for Measuring Soil Suction and Its
Components

34
Fredlund & Rahardjo, (1993)
 SOIL-WATER
RELATIONSHIPS

35
 Soil-Water Retention Curve

Water content
Drying process

Wetting process

Matrix suction (log)

36
 MAIN FACTORS INFLUENCING THE
SWRC
• Soil Fabric.

• Initial Void Ratio.

• Stress History.

• Initial Water Content (Drying / Wetting process).

• Stress State.
37
 Features of The Soil Water
Retention Curve
1 0 0

Degree of saturation, S r (%)

B o u n d a r y
e f f e c t d u a l z o
z o n e T r a n s i t i o n R z eo sn i e
o f s a t u r a t i o

R e s i d u a l
d e g r e e o f
s a t u r a t i o n

0
1 A i r e n t r y 1 60
v a l u e
M a t r i x s u c t i 38
 Drying Stages
S o i l
p a r t i c l e W a t e r
A

( a ) ( b )

( c ) ( d )

a) Boundary effect stage.

b) Primary transition stage.
c) Secondary transition stage.
39
d) Residual stage of saturation.
(After Vanapalli et al, 1996)
 Schematic representation of the hysteretic phenomenon
for a two-phase system in a rigid soil

θn w r

P D C
Volumetric phase content

θw
S W C
M D C
+θ w
θn w

S D C
M W C

θn w

θw r
P W C

S u c tio n 40
(after Luckner at al, 1989)
 Capillary Height
Water table
comes down

Water table
comes up

41
 Typical SWRC

Hydraulic Conductivity
Silt
Matric Suction
Clay
Silt
Clay
Sand Sand

Matric Suction
Vol. Water Content

As soil becomes finer, Re-saturation starts at higher suctions

in finer soil, and the soil re-saturates
maximum pore size more gradually.
decreases and pore
size distribution
becomes broader. Hydraulic conductivity 42
drops slowly.
 Tutorial Capillary Height

• Using the concept of capillary height, draw the

moisture retention curve (pw – S) of a porous
material, in which all pores have the same size
(r = 0.00010 mm) (T=20°C). (e.g. a porous
stone).

• What is the maximum value of suction that can

be applied on this material when it is saturated
without it starting to become partly saturated?

43
 Comparison Between Compacted Samples and an Initially Saturated
Sample. Gravimetric Water Content-Suction Relationship
2 5
C o m p a c t i o
i n i t i a l c o n d i t i o n s
6 %
Gravimetric Water Content (%) 2 0
1 1 . 5 %
1 4 %
R e c o n s t

1 5 D r y i n g e n

1 0

5 W e t t i n g e n v e l o p e

0
0 . 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 01 0 0 01 00 0
44
S u c t i o n ( k P a )
 Comparison Between Compacted Samples and an Initially Saturated
Sample. Volumetric Water Content-Suction Relationship
3 5
i n i t i a l c o n d i t i o n s
D r y i n g e
Volumetric Water Content (%)
3 0

2 5

2 0

1 5 W e t t i n g e n v e l o p e

1 0C o m p a c t i o n g r a v . w / c
6 %
1 1 . 5 %
5 1 4 %
R e c o n s t i t u t e d
0
0 . 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 01 0 0 01 00 0
S u c t i o n ( k P a ) 45
 Comparison Between Compacted Samples and an Initially Saturated
Sample. Degree of Saturation-Suction Relationship

1 0 0

D r y i n g e n
Degree of Saturation (%) 8 0

6 0

W e t t i n g e n v e l o p e
4 0
C o m p a c t i o n g r a v . w / c
6 %
2 0 1 1 . 5 %
1 4 %
R e c o n s t i t u t e d
0
0 . 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 01 0 0 01 00 0
46
S u c t i o n ( k P a )
 DRY OF OPTIMUM
Dense sample: As compacted

47
 DRY OF OPTIMUM
Dense sample: Flooded

48
Loose sample: flooded. Compacted dry of the optimum

49
 Void Ratio Suction Relationship During Cycles
of Drying And Wetting
0 . 9
C o m p a c t i o n
1 . 8 5 g / c m 3
0 . 8 1 . 7 5 g / c m 3
Void Ratio 1 . 6 5 g / c m 3

0 . 7

0 . 6

0 . 5 i n i t i a l c o n d i t i o n s

0 . 4
0 . 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 01 0 0 01 00 0
S u c t i o n ( k P a ) 50
 Volume Change Behaviour for Unconfined Conditions
0 . 9

0 . 8 5

0 . 8
S I
0 . 7 5
D r y i n g
Void Ratio

0 . 7

0 . 6 5

0 . 6 W e t t i n g
S D
0 . 5 5

0 . 5 i n i t i a l c o n d i t i o n s D r y i n g
0 . 4 5

0 . 4
0 . 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 01 0 0 01 00 0
51
S u c t i o n ( k P a )
 Soil Water Characteristics Under Confined Conditions
1 0 0

S c a n n i n g w
8 0
Degree of Saturation (%)
f o r c o n f i n e

6 0
D r y i n g
u n c o n
c o n d i
4 0 W e t t i n g e n v e l o p e
u n c o n f i n e d c o n d i t i o n s
T e s t N o . 1 - A
2 0 T e s t N o . 1 - B
T e s t N o . 3
T e s t N o . 4
T e s t N o . 4 - A
0
0 . 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 01 0 0 01 00 0 0
S u c t i o n ( k P a ) 52
 SWRC: Bogota Clay
1,00
0,90 e
0,80
0,70
0,60
0,50
0,40
0,30
0,20
0,10
0,00
40 30 20 10 0 10 100 1000 10000 100000
w(%)
Ua-Uw (kPa)

1,10 AEV
1,00 S
0,90
0,80
0,70
0,60
0,50
0,40
0,30
0,20
0,10
0,00
40 30 20 10 0 10 100 1000 10000 100000
w (%) Ua-Uw (kPa)
53
Volume Change consequences in clayey
soils with relatively high organic matter
content

54
 Secondary compression?

https://www.eltiempo.com/bogot https://conexioncapital.co55
SWCC: Colombian Volcanic Ash

Drying Path Wetting Path

56
 SWRC: Compacted Kaolin
40
Variables Iniciales
M1: w=37% γd= 1,31 g/cm³
35 M2: w=37% γd= 1,14 g/cm³
M4: w=37% γd= 1,20 g/cm³

30
M1 M2 M4
Humedad Gravimétrica %

M1H M2H M4H

25

20

15

10

0
10 100 1000 10000 100000
Succión kPa
57
Drying – Wetting Paths
SWCC: Colombian Residual and Saprolitic Soils
From Granodiorite

Saprolitic Soil – Drying Path Residual Soil – Drying Path

58
SWRC: Predictive Equations

59
 Summary
• Whilst the surface tension and the presence of dissolved
salts will contribute to the total suction, their effects can
be considered independent of one another.

• It follows that a suction measuring device:

• In contact with the water vapour phase will measure total
suction.
• In intimate contact with the soil water should measure the matrix
suction

• Suction measurement techniques:

– Direct: Axis translation technique, Tensiometers.
– Indirect: Psychrometer, Gypsum block, Thermal Conductivity,
Filter paper. 60
 Summary

• SWRC is a useful tool to study flow phenomena in partly

saturated soils.

• Knowledgement of the hydraulic conductivity function of

soils allows more accurate predictions of seepage when a
partly saturated condition is expected.

• Rigorous modelling, using appropriate constitutive models

and considering changes in soil properties with time is
needed.

61
 References
• Brown, R. W., & Collins, J. M. (1980). A screen-caged thermocouple
psychrometer and calibration chamber for measurements of plant and soil
water potential. Agronomy Journal, 72(5), 851-854.
• Colmenares, J.E. (2001). Suction and volume changes of compacted sand-
bentonite mixtures. Ph.D. Thesis, University of London.
• Dineen, K. (1997). The influence of soil suction on compressibility and
swelling. Ph.D. Thesis, University of London.
• Fredlund D.G and Rahardjo H. (1993) Soil Mechanics for Unsaturated Soils.
John Wiley and Sons. New York.
• Fredlund, D. G., Rahardjo, H., & Fredlund, M. D. (2012). Unsaturated soil
mechanics in engineering practice. John Wiley & Sons.
• Hilf J.W. (1956) An investigation of pore water pressure in compacted 62
cohesive soils. US Bureau of Reclemation.
 References
• Luckner, L., Genuchten, M. T. V., & Nielsen, D. R. (1989). A consistent set of
parametric models for the two-phase flow of immiscible fluids in the
subsurface. Water Resources Research, 25(10), 2187-2193.
• Medeiros, F.A. (1994). Shrinkage behaviour of some plastic soils. Ph.D.
Thesis, University of London.
• Ridley, A.M. (1993) The measurement of soil moisture suction. Ph.D. Thesis,
University of London
• Ridley, A. M., & Burland, J. B. (1996). A pore water pressure probe for the in
situ measurement of a wide range of soil suctions. In Advances in site
investigation practice (Vol. 1-0, pp. 510-520). Thomas Telford Publishing.
• Vanapalli, S. K., Fredlund, D. G., Pufahl, D. E., & Clifton, A. W. (2011). Model
for the prediction of shear strength with respect to soil suction. Canadian
63
Geotechnical Journal.