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THIRD EDITION

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IMPROVING YOUR
FUNDAMENTAL
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COMMUNICATION
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SKILLS
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THE ART OF
COMMUNICATION

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ALSO BY RANDY FujISHIN

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The Natural Speaker
Creating Effective Groups
Natural Bridges: A Guide to Interpersonal Communication
Gifts from the Heart: 10 Ways to Improve Your Relationships
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Discovering the Leader Within
Your Ministry of Conversation
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THE ART OF

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COMMUNICATION
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Improving Your Fundamental

Communication Skills
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Third Edition
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Randy Fujishin
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ROWMAN & LITTLEFIELD

Lanham « Boulder « New York « London
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Published by Rowman & Littlefield
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A wholly owned subsidiary of The Rowman & Littlefield Publishing Group, Inc.
4501 Forbes Boulevard, Suite 200, Lanham, Maryland 20706
WWW.rowman.com

Unit A, Whitacre Mews, 26-34 Stannary Street, London SE11 4AB, United Kingdom
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Copyright © 2016 by Rowman & Littlefield

First edition 2001. Second edition 2009.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any
electronic or mechanical means, including information storage and retrieval systems,
without written permission from the publisher, except by a reviewer who may quote
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passages in a review.

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Information Available

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Available

978-1-4422-6622-3 (cloth : alk. paper)
978-1-4422-6623-0 (pbk. : alk. paper)
978-1-4422-6624-7 (electronic)
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ed The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of American
National Standard for Information Sciences—Permanence of Paper for Printed Library
Materials, ANSI/NISO Z39.48-1992.

Printed in the United States of America

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For Helen Fujishin,
my loving and joyful mom
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Contents

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cHAPTER1 The Art of Communication . . ................ 1
THE ART OF COMMUNICATION ©. © + vt tv vu et ee eee a eee 2
THE PROCESS OF COMMUNICATION. . . «+ vv vv vv eee eae 3
VERBAL AND NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION . . . . ........ 5
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COMPONENTS OF COMMUNICATION ©. . . + vv vv vv vee eens 5
MODELS OF COMMUNICATION. . © + vt tv vt et ee ee ee eee 7
PERCEPTION : : : s 25 ® 3 ss SRB s 5 8 aM pS EW a 55 wie 10

PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATION . + «vv vv vv ee ee ee eee 13

Do You ENLARGE OR DIMINISH OTHERS? . . . . . . . ....... 16
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How SELF-CONCEPT DEVELOPS. . . . . . . «viii inv. 17

SKILLS PRACTICE . . . . . . «i i itt tt ee ee ee eee 22
THINKINGAND EXPLORING . . ............ cui... 23
cHApTER2 Verbal Communication .................... 24
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VERBAL COMMUNICATION © + + vv tt tt ee ete eee ee ees 25

PRINCIPLES OF VERBAL COMMUNICATION . . . . . « + «ovo. . . 25
I-STATEMENTS—OWNING YOUR LANGUAGE . . . . ......... 27
THE FOUR LEVELS OF COMMUNICATION . . . «+ 2 vv vv uuu. 29
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GENDER DIFFERENCES IN CONVERSATIONAL STYLES . . . . . . . . 34

GUIDELINES FOR EFFECTIVE VERBAL COMMUNICATION . . . . . . 37
SKILLS PRACTICE . . . . . . «i i itt tt ee ieee eee 39
THINKINGAND EXPLORING . . ............ cui... 40
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cHAPTER3 Nonverbal Communication . . . ............... 41

PRINCIPLES OF NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION . . . . ....... 42

TYPES OF NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION . . . . +o vou vou. 45
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vii CONTENTS

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GUIDELINES FOR EFFECTIVE NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION . . . 50

THINKING AND EXPLORING . . ....... 0... 52

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cHAPTER4 Listening . . ........................... 53
THE IMPORTANCE OF LISTENING . . . «vv vv vt ieee eens 53
THE PROCESSOF LISTENING . . «+ vt vv i ieee eee eee as 54
LISTENING STYLESTOAVOID . . . . uti vi ite eee een 54
BARRIERS TOLISTENING . . . . «vt i itt vite vite enna 56

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ACCEPTANCE—THE BASISOF LISTENING. . . . . . ......... 57

GUIDELINES FOR EFFECTIVE LISTENING . . . . .. ......... 66

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THINKING AND EXPLORING . . .. .. ...... ou... 68

cHAPTER 5 Intercultural Communication ................ 69

CREATING SPACIOUS COMMUNICATION ©. . . «4 vv vive una 70
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CHARACTERISTICS OF CULTURE + + + vv vt tt ee aioe eee 71
VERBAL AND NONVERBAL CULTURAL VARIABLES . . . . ...... 74
GUIDELINES FOR MORE EFFECTIVE INTERCULTURAL
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THINKING AND EXPLORING . . ....... 0... 81

cHapTER6 Relationship Communication ................ 82

THREE KINDS OF RELATIONSHIPS . . . «+ vv vv vee ee ean 83
THE CIRCULAR STAGES OF RELATIONSHIPS . . . . . ........ 83
PRINCIPLES OF HEALTHY RELATIONSHIPS . . . . . . ........ 85
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BEST RELATIONSHIP INTERVIEW . . . ................ 88

CREATING HEALTHY RELATIONSHIPS . . . . . + vv vv vv vv. 89
CREATING HEALTHY SELF-DISCLOSURE . . . . . .. ........ 91
MAINTAINING A HEALTHY RELATIONSHIP. . . . .......... 92
RESOLVING RELATIONSHIP CONFLICTS . + + « vv vv vv vv vue 94
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GUIDELINES FOR RESOLVING CONFLICT . . . «+ + vv vv vv na 97

SEILLSPRACTICE « sss + +s s5% s 8 6 ssn ss 8s sini sss 100
THINKING AND EXPLORING . . ................... 101
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cHAPTER7 Small Group Communication. . . . ............ 102

WORKING IN SMALL GROUPS . . . vv iit eee eee een 103
ELEMENTS OF A PROBLEM-SOLVINGGROUP . . . .. ....... 103
CHARACTERISTICS OF GROUPS . . . «+ ov vv vee ieee ee 104
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Contents ix

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DECISION-MAKING TECHNIQUES + + + + + vv vv ve eee ee 110
THE STANDARD PROBLEM-SOLVING AGENDA . . . . ....... 112
RESEARCHING FORA DISCUSSION. . . . . . «vv vv vin vn 116

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GUIDELINES FOR EFFECTIVE GROUPS. . . . . . . . «oo... .. 118
SKILISPRACTIOR + vm s + 4 ssw 28 ¢ 50 £ 4% 4 HWW 2 5 4» 121
THINKING AND EXPLORING . . . . .. .... cu... 121

cHAPTER8 Small Group Leadership . . . ................ 123

DEFINITION OF LEADERSHIP . . . . . cv vv vive eee een 124

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THE FUNCTION OF GROUP LEADERSHIP . . . ........... 124
TASK GUIDING BEHAVIORS . . . «vt titi i eee eens 124
SOCIAL GUIDING BEHAVIORS . . . . vv vv tiie eee eens 127
LEADERSHIP STYLES . . «+ vt tt tt et ee ete eee eens 129
LEADING AN EFFECTIVE MEETING . . . «+ vv vv vv ve een 130

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GUIDELINES FOR CONDUCTING VIRTUAL MEETINGS . . . . . . . 135
LEADERSHIP HEALTH. « + +s ssn ss s swims ss mmm as 4» 136
SKILLS PRACTICE . . . . . «ti iit tie eee eee eee 138
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cHAPTER9 PublicSpeaking ....................... 140

DETERMINING YOUR SPECIFICPURPOSE . . . ........... 141

ANALYZING THE SPEAKING SITUATION . . . « «+ vv vv vv vn 142
RESEARCHING YOURSPEECH . . + + vv vv vite e eee eens 143
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CREATING YOUR SPEECH OUTLINE . . . + + vv vv vee ee an 151

BEING AN ETHICAL SPEAKER . . . . . «vv vive e ieee en 153
SPEAKER DELIVERY . . . . . «ov i iii i ieee eee eee 154
PRACTICING YOURSPEECH . . . . «vv v viii e eee ae 161
GUIDELINES FOR DELIVERINGA SPEECH . . . . . . . . .. .... 163
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THINKING AND EXPLORING . . ................... 166

cHAPTER 10 Informative and Persuasive Speaking . . . . ....... 167

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INFORMATIVE STRATEGY GOALS. . . . «cv vv ie eevee 168

BASIC INFORMATIVE SPEECH STRUCTURES . . . + . « «v2... . 171
PERSUASIVESPEECHES . . + + vv tv i tte a ete eee eens 176

THEPROPOSITION wun: ss sam s 5 8 sm 5 523 mm #55 5 177

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THREE MEANS OF PERSUASION . . . . . «uv v vv vin un 177

BASIC PERSUASIVE SPEECH STRUCTURES . . . «+ + vv ovo... 183
QUESTION AND ANSWER SESSION. . . «vv vv vv even an 186
GUIDELINES FOR SUCCESSFUL SPEAKING . . . . +. + «vv vv... 188
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Xx CONTENTS

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THINKING AND EXPLORING . . ........ 0. uuu... 191

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cHApTER11 Interviewing . ................ 0... 192

THE INFORMATION-GATHERING INTERVIEW. . . . . ....... 193

THE EMPLOYMENT INTERVIEW . . . . «vv vv vee eee ns 196
GUIDELINES FOR INTERVIEWING . . . «vv vv ve eine an 205

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SKILLS PRACTICE . . . . . ti iit te ee ee eee ees 206
THINKING AND EXPLORING . . .......... 00... 207
cHarTER 12 Technology and Communication . . ........... 208
TECHNOLOGY AND COMMUNICATION. . . + « vv vv vv vu un 209
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How TECHNOLOGY AFFECTS COMMUNICATION. . . . . ..... 211
BALANCING TECHNOLOGY AND FACE-TO-FACE

SKILISPRACTIOR + vm s + 4 ssw 28 ¢ 50 £ 4% 4 HWW 2 5 4» 224

THINKING AND EXPLORING . . . ......... 0.0... 224
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Selected Bibliography . . . ........... 0000. 225
229
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Preface

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One word can change a conversation. One tender touch can soften an argument.
One smile can invite a friendship. One angry word withheld can save a relation-
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ship. And one conversation can change a life.
As an instructor of communication studies and as a family therapist, I have
witnessed how the way you communicate and interact with those around you
determines, to a great extent, the kind of person you become and the life you
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experience. No single factor is more important in determining the nature of your
relationships and the quality of your life than your ability to communicate effec-
tively with others.
Each chapter in this book addresses a specific dimension of your daily com-
munication in your personal and professional life and the skills necessary to effec-
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tively speak, listen, and interact with others. The purpose of this book is to provide
you with the knowledge and skills to communicate in the most important areas
of your life.

NEw IN THiS EpITION

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New to this third edition is a chapter on Technology and Communication in

which we explore the impact technology has on the way we communicate with
one another and with the world. We will examine the specific characteristics of
technology, especially smart devices, and how they influence and shape the way
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we speak, listen, and interact. And more important, we will consider simple yet
powerful ways to balance the influences of this technology with our face-to-face
interactions with others. Every chapter of the book now includes both practical
and reflective exercises that address technology and communication.
Also in this third edition are new sections on conducting effective virtual meet-
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ings, impromptu speaking, guidelines for effective impromptu speaking, guide-

lines on speaker delivery, and question and answer session suggestions, as well
as new informative and persuasive sample speech outlines. I have also added sec-
tions on self-concept and how to speak more positively to yourself. Many new

xi
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xi PREFACE

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chapter stories provide added excitement and depth to this revised edition, along
with updated examples, illustrations, and anecdotes that round out this third edi-
tion of The Art of Communication.

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It is my hope that after reading this book, you will know how to communicate
in ways that will improve your personal relationships, interact more effectively with
people of different cultures, enhance your participation and leadership in groups,
develop your public speaking skills, and strengthen your interviewing abilities. By
understanding and developing these new concepts and skills, you will experience a

DF
more productive and meaningful life with The Art of Communication.
I would like to thank my senior editor, Leanne Silverman, for giving me the
opportunity to publish this third edition of The Art of Communication, and to
her assistants, Karie Simpson and Carli Hansen, who helped pull all the threads
together. Special thanks go to my production editor, Alden Perkins, for insightful

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and encouraging guidance on this project.
I want to thank Steve Richmond for his friendship over the years and to my
mother, Helen Fujishin, for her cheerful, godly example. And finally, I would like
to express my deepest love and appreciation to my wife, Vicky, and our sons, Tyler
and Jared. They have created a loving home for me in this world.
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Randy Fujishin
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The Art of Communication

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The highest art we create is the
way we live each day.
—BALINESE SAYING
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It was just another class assignment for Karen, but it changed her life.
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The first homework assignment I give my communication students is to be

more spacious—more accepting and nonjudgmental—in their conversational lis-
tening. I coach them to punctuate their daily conversations with periods of silence
as they listen to others. Rather than verbally interrupt a speaker with judgment,
advice, encouragement, or questions every twelve seconds, which seems to be the
norm for my students, they are to listen without any interruptions for thirty sec-
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onds or more, whatever students feel is appropriate for the speaker, the topic, and
the flow of the discussion.
“I thought this assignment would be boring—to listen so long without saying
anything,” Karen began. “But I tried it out on my mom last night and it was won-
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derful! I would normally interrupt her after a few seconds, give my opinion, and
then just walk away.
“But last night was different! I let her talk for long periods of time without
interrupting, just like we practiced in class. At times, I kept quiet for thirty sec-
onds, and one or two minutes at other times. Sometimes even longer. It was so
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weird. But she really opened up during our talk. In fact, she talked about things
I've never heard before—about Dad, her job, and how she feels about me.”
“So, your mom said things she normally wouldn't tell you?” I asked.
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2 CHAPTER ONE

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“I think she’s always wanted to say these things, but I was the one who wasn't
listening,” Karen admitted. “This assignment forced me to pay attention to her for
a change. I feel liked I've created a whole new relationship with her”

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“What a wonderful creation,” I said.
“I feel like I made something really important happen”
“Almost like an artist,” I chuckled.
“Yeah, I'm getting good at this art of communication!” she smiled.

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THE ART OF COMMUNICATION
Whether or not you realize it, you are an artist, and your life is the canvas on
which you will create your greatest work. Your most important creation will not
be a painting, a sculpture, or a book. Rather, it will be the person you become
during this lifetime.
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Your greatest work will ultimately find its form and structure in the blending of
the broad-brush strokes of your family, relationships, career, and education. More
important, it will be textured and imbued with the thousands upon thousands of
finer, more delicate brush strokes of every word and action you paint each day on
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the canvas of your life.
It will be these smaller brush stokes during your everyday life—the way you
treat your loved ones, the manner in which you interact with people at school,
work, and in your neighborhood, and even the way you greet strangers—that will
most significantly determine the kind of person you become.
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The art of communication helps you create the atmosphere within which your
interactions with others occur. Whether it’s a quick smile to a stranger, a heartfelt
speech at a wedding reception, or a minute of attentive silence when a loved one is
speaking, you are creating the masterpiece of your life moment by moment.
Now, you may be saying to yourself that “I'm no artist” or “Art is for those who
are trained or gifted.” But that’s not true. We are all creative, often consciously
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selecting the words, behaviors, circumstances, responses, and attitudes we bring

to our communication interactions with the people in our lives.
Every day you talk, listen, and interact with others. Most of the time, you
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speak, listen, text, or tweet more out of habit than anything else, not even vaguely
aware of your role in the communication process. But I'm inviting you not only
to become more aware and skilled in those fundamental communication skills,
but also to become more creative in the ways in which you think, speak, listen,
and interact with others, whether it’s in a face-to-face interaction or with your
mobile communications. If you don’t, you may be limiting your opportunities to
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effectively connect with people. You may even be limiting your opportunities to
develop as a person.
Author Thomas Moore warns against our reluctance and maybe even our fears
of becoming more creative in our everyday lives: “When we leave art only to the
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The Art of Communication 3

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accomplished painter and the museum, instead of fostering our own artful sen-
sibilities in every aspect of daily life, then our lives lose opportunities for soul”
Rather than being unconscious, unconcerned, or disillusioned about how you

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communicate with others, take up this invitation to practice the art of communi-
cation as you interact with others.
Your acceptance, however, to create more effective communication will not
necessarily guarantee success in every interaction. Human communication is
much too complicated and involved. There are thousands of unconscious nonver-

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bal behaviors involved in even a single conversation and we are usually aware of
only a few of them during the course of the conversation.
The same holds true for the verbal dimension of that same conversation. The
hundreds of thousands of words in our language and the millions of possible
arrangements of those words are equally staggering. There is no possible way

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we can consciously choose the perfect words and the perfect sentences for every
thought and feeling we wish to communicate.
Verbal and nonverbal communications are also governed by habit. It is easier
to say hello and smile as we pass others than it is to create a unique and special
greeting for each and every person. Effective communication requires that much
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of our interaction with others be governed by habit. Otherwise, communication
would be too dense, clumsy, and overwhelming. Even if we could select the per-
fect words, sentences, and behaviors to communicate, there is no guarantee that
the recipient of the message would interpret the words and the behaviors in the
way we intended.
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The process of human communication cannot be as intentional and predictable

as the brush strokes on canvas or the careful shaping of clay. We cannot control
the viewers’ interpretation when they “see” our painting or statue. But in commu-
nication with others, you can choose to be more aware of, sensitive to, and selec-
tive of your words and behaviors. Your decision to consciously participate in the
way you speak and listen to others will open the doors to more effective commu-
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nication. As Karen learned, even one change in her communication behavior—

listening without interrupting—created more space for her mother to share. This
one change created a wonderful change in their relationship. She was introduced
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to the fact that she can choose to communicate in ways that enhance her interac-
tion with others. Karen was beginning to appreciate the power and impact of the
Art of Communication.

THE PROCESS OF COMMUNICATION

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Let’s begin with an examination of communication itself, for it is communication

that enables us to experience our lives and share experiences with others. The late-
night talks, the laughter, the gentle touches, the tears, the encouragement, your
Facebook page, and the thousands upon thousands of other communication acts
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all combine to create what you experience as life. Our communication with others
is not a little thing. It is life itself.
The importance of communication cannot be overstated. Family therapist Vir-

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ginia Satir has suggested that “once a human being
All the arts we practice has arrived on this earth, communication is the
single most important factor determining what
are mere apprenticeship. kinds of relationships he makes and what happens
The big art is our life. to him in the world” Satir continues by stating

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—M. C. RICHARDS in no uncertain terms that “how he manages his
survival, how he develops intimacy, and how he
makes sense of his world are largely dependent
upon his communication skills”
So, what exactly is communication? Let’s define communication in a way that

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emphasizes your creative involvement in the communication process. Communi-
cation is the process whereby we create and exchange messages.

A Process
Any activity can be viewed as a thing or a process. A thing is static, time bound,
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and unchanging. A process is moving, continually changing, with no beginning or
end. In our definition, communication is a process—something that is continually
changing. Individual words, sentences, and gestures have no meaning in isolation.
They make sense only when viewed as parts of an ongoing, dynamic process.
To fully understand the process of communication, we must notice how what
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we say and do influences and affects what the other person says and does. We
must pay attention to the changes we experience and how these changes influ-
ence and affect our perception, interpretation, and interactions with others, from
moment to moment, year to year, and decade to decade.
Similarly, we also need to be sensitive to the ongoing changes in those we com-
municate with because they are changing too. Communication is alive, and to
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fully appreciate it requires that we view it as a dynamic, fluid, and continually

changing process.

Creating Messages
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Language in any culture contains thousands if not hundreds of thousands of words

to select from and arrange in endless combinations to form the basic structures of
verbal communication. There are even subtler and not so subtle nonverbal (or
nonlanguage) communication behaviors that can be added to the mix.
It is our ability to create messages from the verbal and nonverbal dimensions
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of communication that truly distinguishes us from all other forms of life. Our
ability to communicate not only is the most significant way humans differ from
animals and plants, but it also may be one of the deepest and strongest drives
within us—to express and share who we are. What more powerful and significant
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The Art of Communication 5

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way to express who and what we are than by communicating our thoughts and
feelings with others?

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Exchanging Messages
After selecting the words, sentences, and nonverbal cues to form the thought or
feeling we are attempting to communicate, we send the message to the recipient,
who processes the message and gives a response in the form of feedback. The
recipient’s role in the communication process is also a creative process, because

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what he or she selectively perceives and interprets from the original message will
determine the meaning of the message for him or her. The message recipient then
creates a response from all the words and nonverbal behaviors available, whether
it's during a face-to-face interaction or on your smart device. Receiving and cre-
ating a response is just as important as creating and sending the original message.

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VERBAL AND NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION
The communication process has two forms—verbal and nonverbal. Both forms
usually operate together in the majority of messages you send and receive.
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Verbal communication is all spoken and written communication. A mother
whispering reassuring words to a child, a speaker addressing an audience of five
thousand, a worker texting her supervisor, or a sunbather reading a book on the
beach is utilizing verbal communication.
Nonverbal communication is all communication that is not spoken or written.
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It is your body type, voice, facial expressions, gestures, movement, clothing, email
fonts, and touch. It is your use of distance, use of time, and the environment you
create. It is your laughter, your tears, your gentle touch, your relaxed breathing,
the car you drive, your Instagram images, and the color of your pen. All these
things and countless others make up your nonverbal communication.
Verbal communication and nonverbal communication enable you and me to
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communicate. They provide all that is necessary for the process of connecting, and
it is our privilege to use them creatively, effectively, and meaningfully.
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COMPONENTS OF COMMUNICATION
Even though the following seven components of communication operate almost
instantaneously, we will examine them separately to more clearly understand their
specific function. The seven components are source, message, receiver, encoding,
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channel, decoding, and context.

Source
The source is the originator of the message. It is the person or persons who want
to communicate a message to another person or a group of people. The source of a
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message can be an individual speaker addressing a group, a child asking for candy,
a couple sending out invitations to a family reunion, or a person writing a letter.

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The message is the idea, thought, or feeling that the source wants to communicate.
This message is encoded or converted into verbal and nonverbal symbols that will
most likely be understood by the receiver.

Receiver

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The receiver is the recipient of the message. The receiver can be an individual, a
group of people, or two hundred friends on Facebook. Once the receiver hears
the words and receives the nonverbal cues from the sender, she must interpret or
decode them if communication is to occur.

Encoding
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Once the source has decided on a message to communicate, he must encode or
convert that idea, thought, or feeling into verbal and nonverbal symbols that
will be most effectively understood by the receiver. This encoding process can be
s te
extremely creative because there are unlimited ways for the source to convert the
idea or feeling into words and behaviors.
Consider a simple message such as “I want to see you again” The source can
simply say, “I want to see you again,” and smile as he says the words. He can also
say, “Let’s get together again,” and cast a humorous glance, or he can murmur, “I
Ma

need to see you again,” with direct eye contact and outstretched arms. He could
simply scribble a note on a napkin saying, “We need an encore,” and place it gently
in front of the other person. There are countless ways to encode this simple mes-
sage and each one would be received and interpreted by the recipient in a slightly
different way.
The important thing to remember is that you can open yourself up to the end-
in

less possibilities of selecting, arranging, and delivering messages you want to com-
municate. Your willingness to put greater creativity into the encoding process will
enhance and deepen your communication with others.
te d

Channel
A channel is the medium by which the message is communicated. The source can
utilize the channels of sight, sound, touch, smell, and taste. For instance, if you
want to communicate affection for another person, you can utilize a variety of
channels or combination of channels. You can say, “I like you” (sound). You can
re a

give a hug (touch). You can wink an eye (sight). You can send cookies that you
baked (taste). Or you can deliver a dozen roses (smell). You can creatively select
the channels of communication to productively communicate your message.
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The Art of Communication 7

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Decoding
Decoding is the process of making sense out of the message received. The receiver
must decipher the language and behaviors sent by the source so they will have

Ed
meaning. After the receiver decodes the message, the receiver (now the source)
can encode a return message and send it back to the other person.

Context
All communication occurs within a certain context. The context is made up of

DF
the physical surroundings, the occasion in which the communication occurs, the
time, the number of people present, noise level, and many other variables that can
influence and affect the encoding and decoding of messages. The context plays an
important role in the communication process.
As you consider the effects that the context can have on communication, you

rP
might want to put your creativity to good use. Think of ways you can create a
serene, healthy, and productive communication environment. Simple things like
choosing a time when you both have an opportunity to meet. Making the actual
physical surroundings clean, uncluttered, and peaceful. Maybe straightening
up the house, buying some flowers to cheer the place up, and even putting on
s te
some soothing background music. Perhaps a drive in the country or a walk in a
park, rather than an email or text message, will create a more relaxed context in
which you can communicate more effectively. Whatever you do, remember that
you can have some influence over the context in which communication occurs
Ma

within your life.

MODELS OF COMMUNICATION
Models provide a concrete way to see how concepts and processes work. We'll
look at three communication models that show how the various communication
in

components interact. Although models help simplify the complex process of com-
munication, keep in mind that they only represent reality.
Models are like words. Words are not reality. They cannot tell us everything
about an object or event. For instance, the word “apple” is not an actual apple. You
te d

cannot slice or eat the word “apple” as you can a real one. The word “apple” does
not tell you everything about an apple either—the smell, the coloring, the texture,
the taste, the degree of ripeness, and whether or not the price sticker is still glued
to the skin.
Like words, these three models of communication are not reality. They can-
re a

not begin to tell us everything about the processes they are intended to describe.
However, they are extremely valuable in helping us visualize and understand the
process of human communication.
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Linear Model
One of the simplest models of communication was advanced by C. E. Shannon
and W. Weaver in 1949. Their conceptualization represents a message-centered

Ed
view of communication that is linear in design. This model has a source sending
a message through a channel to a receiver, a process similar to a telephone. Shan-
non and Weaver introduced a component labeled noise to represent any interfer-
ence to the fidelity of the message, such as physical noise from other people's loud
talking or internal noise such as multiple meanings for a word contained in the

DF
message. The linear model of communication, shown below, is a “one-way” model
because it fails to depict the receiver's feedback or response.
CHANNEL

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© Message ———» Receiver NOISE
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The linear model is useful for pointing out the basic elements of the commu-
nication process, but it is far too simple to describe the complexity of the process.
It shows only the flow of messages from the sender to the receiver, but not the
receiver's response.
Ma

Interactional Model
Communication involves more than the message transmission portrayed in the
linear model. The feedback must be taken into account. Feedback is the pro-
cess of sending information from the receiver back to the source. The source
uses this feedback to adjust her message based on what the receiver commu-
in

nicated. The source’s modification of the original message is called adaptation.

The illustration below shows how feedback and adaptation operate in the inter-
actional model of communication. The source sends a message to the receiver,
the receiver responds with feedback, and the source adapts her message until the
te d

message is successfully communicated.

NOISE

Message/Adaptation
Source Receiver
encodes CHANNELS decodes
re a

message message
Feedback

Again, this model is too simple to accurately reflect the communication process.
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The Art of Communication 9

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Transactional Model
Often, messages are sent and received simultaneously, and the “source” and
“receiver” may be one or more individuals. In fact, these individuals are more

Ed
accurately described as communicators, individuals who simultaneously send and
receive messages. This is one of the primary characteristics of the transactional
model of communication.
The most important idea of the transactional model is that communication
operates systemically. A system is a collection of interdependent parts arrayed in

DF
such a way that a change in one of its components will affect changes in all the
other components. In the transactional model, the various components or parts of
communication are not viewed as independent of one another, but as interdepen-
dent. A change in one produces a change in all the others.
The systemic view presented in the transactional model, shown below, includes

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the basic components of the first two models, yet also considers the context in
which communication occurs, the number of people involved, the background of
those individuals, and the simultaneity of the source and receiver roles.
s te
CONTEXT

Communicator 1 Communicator 2
sends/receives Messages
encodes/decodes encodes/decodes
Ma

Communication never takes place in a vacuum, but in a specific context or

environmental setting. To understand a communication event, we need to know
where and under what circumstances people are communicating, because these
in

have a major influence on the individuals involved. For example, discussing vaca-
tion plans in the comfort of your own living room with a friend would be entirely
different from discussing them in the front row of a rock concert, during an online
chat, or during a funeral service.
te d

Although communication often occurs between two people, there are many
times when more than two individuals are involved. The addition of even one per-
son to a conversation between two people can dramatically change its outcome.
A speaker will have a very different speaking experience addressing an audience
of five colleagues than facing an audience of five thousand. The number of people
re a

affects the communication event.

The backgrounds of the individuals involved—the cultural, psychological,
physical, gender, age, and other demographic differences and similarities—influ-
ence the communication. Do the individuals speak the same language? How might
gender affect communication styles and responses? Will age differences influence
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10 CHAPTER ONE

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the interpretation of a message? What will be the effect of educational differences?
What about cultural differences?
Unlike the earlier models of communication, the transactional model does not

Ed
make a distinction between the source and the receiver. In reality, you are sending
and receiving messages simultaneously and continually as you communicate with
others. As you are speaking, you are also receiving information from the listener. You
see her nodding, shifting posture, and smiling. As you are listening to her response,
you are simultaneously sending messages with your diverted gaze, slouching pos-

DF
ture, and audible yawn. This simultaneous nature of communication transactions
allows you to modify or change the messages you are sending even as you speak. A
change in one element of a system can bring about a change in the other elements.
The important thing to remember about the transactional model is that the
individuals communicating have an impact on each other. In this respect, what

and change others. rP

and how you communicate—your choice of words and actions—can influence

Remember Karen? Her mother shared more deeply because Karen listened
in a new way. Karen's perception of the event may be that her mother changed.
But Karen also changed. She not only changed her listening behavior, but she
s te
also became more open to her mother, more knowledgeable of her mother’s life,
more accepting, and perhaps a bit more loving. The relationship changed for both
women because Karen chose to create a different listening environment for her
mother. Keep in mind your influence as you speak and listen to others.
Ma

PERCEPTION
To more fully understand communication, we must recognize the importance of
perception. Perception is the process by which we assign meaning to a stimulus.
Or put another way, perception is giving meaning to the things we see and expe-
rience. If an attractive stranger smiles at you at a party, what do you immediately
in

think? Is the person simply being polite and acknowledging you? Recognizing you
from somewhere else? Actually smiling at the person behind you? Maybe even
flirting with you? Or perhaps the person is experiencing intestinal gas pains and is
te d

attempting to hide the discomfort? Whats your guess? These are just a few mean-
ings we can assign to that stimulus.

Selection
The process of perception involves our five senses. We see, hear, touch, smell, and
taste. From these five senses we take in the stimuli of the world. It’s from these
re a

five senses that we receive information to make sense of our lives. Because we are
exposed to much more stimuli than we could ever manage, the first step in per-
ception is to select which stimuli to attend to. In other words, we don't attend to
every stimulus that is present at any given moment.
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The Art of Communication 11

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Even in the location where you're reading this book, if you were to count each
stimulus in your field of vision, the number would be in the thousands, perhaps
the tens of thousands. To pay attention to each stimulus at the same moment

Ed
would be impossible. So you have to decide—do you select the words in this sen-
tence or gaze at your left foot? Each selection changes your focus of vision. You
can't select all the things, so you must select a few.

Interpretation

DF
Once we have selected our perceptions, the second step is to interpret them in
a way that makes sense to us. Interpretation is the act of assigning meaning to a
stimulus. It plays a role in every communication act we encounter. Is a friend’s
humorous remark intended to express fondness or irritation? Does your super-
visor’s request for an immediate meeting with you communicate trouble or a pay

rP
raise? When an acquaintance says, “Let’s do lunch,” is the invitation serious or
not? Almost every communication act we encounter involves some level of inter-
pretation on our part. Let's examine some factors that influence our perception.
Physical factors. The most obvious factors that influence our interpretation
are physical. What is the condition of our five senses? Can we see accurately or
s te
do we need glasses? Can we hear sufficiently or is our hearing diminished by age?
Can we smell and taste sharply or are allergies causing difficulties? Can you touch
and feel with adequate sensitivity or do clothing and gloves make it hard?
The time of day affects how we physically process the sensory input. Are you
more awake in the morning or late at night? Some people are most alert and atten-
Ma

tive in the morning, while others come alive late at night.

Your general state of health can influence interpretation. When you are ill,
hungry, or depressed, you see and experience a very different world than when
you are healthy, well fed, and cheerful.
Age also can affect your interpretation. Older people view the world and events
with a great deal more experience than do younger people. By simply having lived
in

longer, older people have generally been through more of life’s developmental
stages—early adulthood, parenthood, grandparenthood, and retirement. Younger
people, on the other hand, usually have much more physical energy and time to
te d

play, explore, and investigate the world around them. With fewer life experiences,
younger people interpret life differently.
Other physical factors are fatigue, hunger, stress, monthly biological cycles,
diet, and exercise. Our bodies play an important role in our interpretation of
the world.
Psychological factors. The second category of factors that influence interpreta-
re a

tion is psychological or mental. For example, education and knowledge affect how
we see the world around us. An individual who never went beyond the seventh
grade sees a much different world than an individual who has completed law school.
A trained botanist sees a forest far differently than does a first-grader.
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12 CHAPTER ONE

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Past experiences also affect how we interpret perceptions. Someone who grew
up happily on a farm may view rural environments very differently than someone
who grew up in New York City. A victim of robbery may be more fearful of a

Ed
darkened street than someone who has never experienced a crime. An individual
who grew up in a loving, stable family may have a more positive view of raising
children than a person who grew up in a cold, unstable family.
Assumptions about people and the world in general influence interpretations
also. A belief that people are basically good and honest, or basically untrustworthy

DF
and self-serving, will affect how we view the actions of others.
Finally, moods will influence how we interpret the things we see and experi-
ence. When we are feeling successful and competent, we see a very different world
than when we are feeling sad, lonely, and depressed.
Cultural factors. A person's cultural background can affect and influence his

rP
or her interpretation of the world. A later chapter will be devoted to intercultural
communication and the role culture plays in how we communicate with those
who are different from us. For now, we'll just briefly mention some cultural factors
that influence perception.
Every culture has its own worldview, language, customs, rituals, artifacts, tra-
s te
ditions, and habits. These factors not only affect how people perceive and interact
with one another within a given culture, but also they influence how they interact
with people of different cultures.
Culture can shape and determine how an individual sees the world. Ameri-
cans interpret direct eye contact as a sign of confidence, honesty, and politeness,
Ma

whereas Japanese interpret the same direct eye contact as rude and confronta-
tional. People from Middle Eastern countries often converse within a few inches
of each other’s face, whereas Americans would find such closeness a violation of
personal space. For Americans, the “okay” sign made with the thumb and the fore-
finger is a sign that everything is fine, but in many cultures it is an obscene gesture.
Position in space. The final factor that influences perception is position in
in

space. Where we are determines how we see things. For instance, if you sit at the
back of a classroom, you will perceive a very different environment than if you sit
in the front row, right under the nose of the lecturer. The same holds true for adult
te d

interaction with children. You will perceive children differently if you kneel down
to their eye level rather than stand over them. You even pay higher prices for
better viewing positions. Think of the last concert, sporting event, or resort you
attended or visited. The closer seats or the rooms with a view generally cost more.

Perception Checking
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Because so many factors influence perception, what can we do to create more

effective communication? Perception checking is a method for inviting feedback
on our interpretations. Perception checking involves three steps:
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The Art of Communication 13

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1. An observation of a particular behavior.
2. Two possible interpretations of that behavior.
3. A request for clarification about how to interpret that behavior.

Ed
Many times people observe and interpret the behavior, and that’s the end of it.
Often their interpretations can be easily and readily corrected with a simple per-
ception check. Here are two examples of how perception checking works:

DF
“I noticed you haven't been in class for the past two weeks.
(observed behavior) | wasn’t sure whether you've been sick (first
interpretation) or were dropping the class. (second interpretation)
What's up?” (request for clarification)
“You walked right past me without saying hello. (observed behavior)

rP
It makes me curious if you're mad at me (first interpretation) or
just in a hurry. (second interpretation) How are you feeling?”
(request for clarification)

Often, perception checking is more to the point. You may not want to use all three
s te
steps:

“| see you rolling your eyes at me. (observed behavior) What's the
matter?” (invitation for clarification)
“Are you certain you want to go to the movies? (request for
Ma

clarification) You don’t act like you're too enthusiastic.” (observed

behavior)

Perception checking can be a simple technique for clarifying communication

behavior in a way that is not threatening or confrontational. It simply asks for
clarification.
in

PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATION
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Certain generally accepted truths or principles of communication are important

to consider when communicating with others. These principles hold true for all
people in every culture. By understanding these principles, you will experience
greater communication effectiveness.

Communication Is Constant
re a

You cannot not communicate. In other words, you are always communicating.
Too often we think that if we are not talking, we are not communicating. You may
not be communicating verbally, but your nonverbal communication is constantly
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14 CHAPTER ONE

i to
displaying signs and cues that reflect what you are thinking and feeling internally.
Your posture, gestures, facial expressions, clothing, use of time, use of a cellular
device, and even the car you drive are just a few of the nonverbal messages that

Ed
others perceive and interpret.
Even when you are speaking, your tone of voice, rate of speech, pitch, volume,
pauses or lack of pauses, and vocal fillers such as “ah” and “um” are some of the
nonverbal behaviors that can convey what you're thinking and feeling beneath the
level of language. You're always communicating.

DF
Communication Is Transactional
Communication can be viewed as a transaction in which the meanings of mes-
sages are negotiated between people. Unlike the earlier linear and interactional
models, which view communication as primarily sending and receiving intact and

rP
unchanging messages, the transactional model considers to a greater extent the
complexities of the individuals involved, the environment, and the influence the
communicators have on one another.
At a deeper level, the transactional nature of communication encourages us
to regard others and ourselves in a much more complex way. We can no longer
s te
view the receiver of our messages as a receptacle in which we deposit our thoughts
and feelings with little or no message distortion. The transactional nature of com-
munication creates a more other-centered awareness and sensitivity to others.
No longer can we be limited to our earlier preoccupation with getting our mes-
sage across. Instead, we shift our focus from self to other to participate equally in
Ma

communication exchanges or transactions in which the receiver is regarded with

greater sensitivity and respect.

Communication Is a Process
The Greek philosopher Heraclitus said that you never step twice into the same
river. What he meant was that a river is never exactly the same as it continually
in

twists and turns, constantly changing in depth and speed, as it flows in its journey
from the snowcapped mountains to the sea hundreds of miles away.
Communication is a process like a river. It is continuous and always changing.
te d

You can begin to understand and appreciate communication only when you view
the individual words, sentences, and gestures of communication as a part of an
ongoing process. One sentence or gesture may hold very little meaning in and of
itself. But viewed from a larger, more dynamic process perspective, the sentence
or gesture takes on a different meaning. To understand the process of communi-
re a

cation, we need to consider how our words and actions influence and affect the
recipient of our message.
We, the creators of these messages, are also in process. How we perceive the
world and communicate with others when we first get up in the morning can be
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The Art of Communication 15

i to
vastly different from how we perceive and communicate during the late hours
of evening. From moment to moment, like a river, we twist and turn, constantly
changing the depth of our perceptions, thoughts, and feelings as we travel from

Ed
morning to evening. From year to year, decade to decade, we change dramatically
in our interests, beliefs, fears, and desires. What spoke to our ears and hearts in our
youth may not ring true in our middle and later years. We are constantly changing.

Communication Is Irreversible
» «

DF
“Forget I said that” “I'm sorry I did that. Let’s pretend it never happened” We
have all issued statements like these in an attempt to erase or diminish the
impact of an angry word or action. Remember the email you accidentally sent
and wish you could take back? Even though the other person agreed to forget
or dismiss the statement or behavior, the memory of a careless word or deed

rP
can last a lifetime. I'm sure you can recall a stinging criticism or hurtful act you
experienced during childhood. The memory of the criticism or act can linger
and haunt you many years later.
Likewise, uplifting, positive, and healing words and deeds can also be car-
ried in the hearts and minds of others forever. I remember my father waking
s te
me before sunrise and taking me to the local café in our farming community
when I was four years old. He would carry me sleepy eyed to the counter where
he would plop me down on a stool and announce to the other farmers, “This is
my boy!” Many a predawn breakfast at the Coyote Cafe began with his proud
announcement and the other farmers’ chiding chorus of “We know, Mike. We
Ma

know...” More than five decades have passed since those predawn breakfasts,
but I'll never forget my dad’s pride and love as he carried me into that café and
proudly announced, “This is my boy”
Your every word and deed can leave an indelible imprint on the minds and
hearts of others. Be conscious of your choices as you create messages to others.
in

Communication Is Learned
Research suggests that peoples of all cultures interpret crying and laughing sim-
ilarly. But more often than not, our communication patterns and behaviors are
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learned. The language we acquire, the extent of our vocabulary, the way we speak,
our gestures, eye contact, our touching, and how we dress are just a few of the
many examples of learned communication behavior.
Communication is also learned in a cultural context that is so pervasive and
extensive that we are often unaware of it. We mistakenly assume that “our” way
of communicating and expressing is the “right” way and all the other cultures are
re a

wrong. This notion of ethnocentrism is explored in a later chapter, but for now, we
need only appreciate the fact that most people view their way of communicating
as the “right” way.
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16 CHAPTER ONE

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The principle that communication is learned suggests also that communication
can be unlearned and new ways of communicating acquired. This is most excit-
ing because then we can replace our ineffective and unhealthy ways of speaking,

Ed
listening, and behaving with more effective and healthy ways. Because we did not
learn to communicate in effective and healthy ways does not mean we are con-
demned to this fate for the rest of our lives.

Communication Is Creative

DF
The last principle of communication is that it is creative. This creativity is much
broader than the creativity associated with art, music, and poetry. It is the cre-
ativity expressed in your daily communication, in the unique and special ways
you communicate: When you choose to be silent. The way you listen. The times
you choose to speak. The words you select. The combinations of facial expres-

rP
sions, gestures, movements, and postures you choose to express your thoughts
and feelings. The images on your Facebook page. The texts you send. The clothes
you wear. The car you drive. The room you decorate. The home you live in. These
are just some of the ways you create communication in your life.
Your communication and the impact it has on others does not just happen. You
s te
make it happen. You decide whether or not to return an email. You decide whether
or not to respond to a lunch invitation. You decide whether to respond in kindness
or in anger to a criticism leveled your way. You create by choosing one behavior and
not another. You are always creating something in your communication life.
Ma

Do You ENLARGE OR DIMINISH OTHERS?

I believe that we enlarge or diminish others with our communication. We heal or
hurt others with our words. People go away from our interactions feeling a little
better or a little worse than before.
You are free to create the words and behaviors that will ultimately enlarge or
in

diminish the recipient of your message. No one is writing your script or coaching
your movements and gestures. You are ultimately the scriptwriter, the dialogue
coach, the director, and the speaker who will deliver the lines. You are given a great
te d

deal of creative latitude for how you create your messages during your life. What will
you create? Will you enlarge or diminish others with your communication?
Before we move on to the next chapter that will explore the words you choose
to use when you express your thoughts and feelings to others, we will conclude
this chapter by looking at the words you tell yourself. This self-talk or internal
dialogue you constantly engage in, whether youre aware of it or not, determines
re a

to a great extent the words and behaviors you select when you interact with others.
How you see yourself and how you talk to yourself play a pivotal role in how
you communicate with others as you practice the Art of Communication.
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 THE EXPEDITION TO CAPE HATTERAS

August 26–30, 1861.

The first naval achievement of the war which was attended with
any important result was the successful attack of the fleet under
Commodore Stringham, accompanied by General B. F. Butler, and
his land forces, upon Forts Hatteras and Clark, at Hatteras Inlet,
North Carolina.
 ATLANTIC COAST FROM FORTRESS
MONROE TO FORT MACON.

The whole length of the Atlantic coast from Chesapeake Bay to

Charleston has a peculiar character. A long line of low, sandy
beaches, of variable width and elevation, rise above the surface of the
ocean, broken at occasional intervals by a passage, ordinarily of
shallow depth of water, communicating from the open sea with the
lagoons inside. These bodies of water, by the indentations of the
main land and the mouths of the rivers, expand into large bays, of
which Pamlico and Albemarle Sounds are the principal. These two
form capacious highways of safe and easy communication along the
coast, and through the Dismal Swamp Canal connect with the
Chesapeake Bay, on the north, at Norfolk, Va.
At the south-western extremity of the long, narrow island or
beach, the outer angle of which has received the name of Cape
Hatteras, and which gives its name to the inlet, the rebels had
erected two strong fortifications known as Forts Hatteras and Clark.
Captain Samuel Barron, late of the United States navy, was here in
command of the naval forces, while Colonel William F. Martin, of the
Seventh North Carolina Volunteers, and Major W. S. G. Andrews,
commanded the garrisons.
Hatteras Inlet was one of the principal passages through which the
vessels of the Confederacy made their way, in defiance of the
blockade, and which it was desirable to command with the Federal
forces and fleet. An expedition was accordingly planned, and the
preparations were far advanced when General Wool reached Fortress
Monroe. All things having been made ready, on the 26th of August,
the fleet, under Commodore S. H. Stringham, left Hampton Roads
for its destination. It consisted of the flag-ship Minnesota, Captain G.
A. Van Brune, having in company the United States steamers
Wabash, Captain Samuel Mercer; Monticello, Commander John P.
Gillis; Pawnee, Commander S. C. Rowan; Harriet Lane, Captain John
Faunce; United States chartered steamers Adelaide, Commander
Henry S. Stellwagen; George Peabody, Lieutenant R. B. Lowry; and
tug Fanny, Lieutenant Pierce Crosby, all of the United States navy.
The transports Adelaide and George Peabody, towing schooners with
surf-boats on them, and the Monticello and Pawnee surf-boats only.
General Butler embarked his land forces on the two transports
Adelaide and George Peabody, having with him five hundred of the
Twentieth New York regiment, Colonel Weber; two hundred and
twenty of the New York Ninth regiment, Colonel Hawkins; one
hundred of the Union Coast Guard, Captain Nixon; and sixty of the
United States Second Artillery, Lieutenant Larned.
The expedition left Fortress Monroe on Monday, the 26th, at one
o’clock, P. M., and the last vessel had arrived at Hatteras Inlet by four
o’clock on Tuesday afternoon. Preparations for landing troops were
made the same evening, and at daylight the next morning
dispositions were made for an attack upon the forts by the fleet, and
the landing of the troops.
 CAPTURE OF FORTS HATTERAS AND
CLARK.

At four o’clock on Wednesday morning, all hands were called, and

by five, the whole fleet was in a state of the greatest activity with
preparations for the conflict. The Monticello, the Pawnee, and the
Harriet Lane were sent to cover and assist generally in landing the
troops, and they took up a position about two miles and a half north
of the forts. The Cumberland was taken in tow by the Wabash. The
iron and flat boats were meanwhile filling with troops from the
steamers, and one hundred marines who had been taken from the
war vessels to increase the land forces. The Wabash went up to the
battery first, drawing the Cumberland after her. The Minnesota
followed, and as they drew near the point, the two batteries and the
barracks of the rebels were plainly visible. In the sound, beyond the
narrow neck of land, several vessels—three steamers, some
schooners under sail, and a brig laying at anchor under the guns of
the forts—were clearly seen.
Colonel Max Weber, of the Twentieth New York, was appointed to
command the land expedition, and about ten o’clock the boats left
the transports with the first detachments of the storming forces.
They consisted of forty-five men of the New York Twentieth, Captain
Larner and Lieutenant Loder; forty-five marines from the
Minnesota; sixty-eight men, New York Ninth regiment, Captain
Jardine; one hundred and two men of Twentieth New York; twenty-
eight men Union Coast Guard, Captain Nixon; and twenty marines,
making a total of three hundred and eighteen men.
A heavy surf was breaking on the beach at the time, and the
landing was dangerous. The landing was handsomely covered by the
Monticello and Harriet Lane. Compelled to wade through the water
to the shore from the boats, the men were wet by the surf, and were
obliged to march with their ammunition in no better condition than
themselves.
The challenge from the Wabash, at a few minutes before ten
o’clock, was soon responded to from Fort Clark, the smaller of the
two, and for several hours the firing was maintained on both sides
with great spirit. The shot from the forts fell short of the vessels, two
or three only striking the Monticello, but without doing any damage.
After getting the range of the forts from the various vessels of the
fleet, the shells that were hurled into the enemy’s strongholds were
directed with great precision, and almost uniformly reached the
points at which they were aimed.
Three hours of cannonading from fifty-seven heavy guns produced
a marked effect on the smaller fort, and by half-past one o’clock it
became evident that the enemy were becoming discouraged, their
firing having been almost abandoned. At this time, the flags of both
forts were hauled down, the troops already landed were seen
hurrying with their colors towards Fort Clark, and boats laden with
men were trying to escape in the sound. General Butler telegraphed
from the Harriet Lane a request for the fleet to cease firing, and the
proper signal was made, but apparently not fully understood. About
thirty of the Federal troops were by this time in and around Fort
Clark, and had already raised the Union flag. They were fired upon
by the Pawnee and Monticello, under the impression that it was a
ruse, and several shells burst in their immediate vicinity. The two
vessels were signaled to return, when the latter reported that the
inner battery was still in the hands of the enemy; but on again
reconnoitering, reported that it was an error.
But the victory was not yet won. The Monticello entered the inlet,
and when within six hundred yards of the lower battery, was fired
upon, and the real state of affairs became apparent. The gunboat
responded, and for fifteen minutes a fire was kept up, which seemed
likely to sink the vessel. All hands were called to quarters, and the
Federal vessels prepared to resume the attack, the troops having in
the mean time withdrawn from Fort Clark to a safer location.
Darkness was gathering thickly around, and the weather became
threatening. The order to “cease firing” was reluctantly given, and
the fleet withdrew, the Monticello, Pawnee and Lane remaining as
near the shore as possible, in order to protect the landed troops,
while the larger vessels anchored in the offing.
Early the next morning, all hands were again called. The smaller
vessels had been driven ashore during the night by the gale, and the
little band of troops were left to protect themselves, as best they
might. The smaller steamers were sent in shore to be in readiness to
cover the land forces, and to aid in any attempt that might be made
to land the remainder. At about eight o’clock, the Wabash and
Susquehanna proceeded to take up a position—this time at anchor.
Twenty minutes later, the Susquehanna opened fire, followed
immediately by the Wabash, and soon the Minnesota found an
anchorage ground, and the action commenced in earnest. An hour
later, the Cumberland took position near, and did good execution, as
did also the Harriet Lane, with her rifled guns.
Thus for an hour a rapid fire had been kept up, but without
eliciting any reply from the fort, or without any flag having been
shown. Thirty minutes later, their batteries replied, having been
mostly aimed at the Cumberland, and the fight continued for half an
hour, without intermission, when a white flag was shown from the
large fort. Again the order to cease firing was given, the sailors flew
to the rigging, and from ship to ship rang the cheers of victory.
General Butler sent Lieutenant Crosby ashore to inquire the meaning
of the white flag. He soon returned, bringing Mr. Weigel, with a
communication from Commodore Barron, offering to surrender,
with all the arms and ammunition, the officers to go out with side
arms, and the men to retire without arms. General Butler demanded
a full capitulation as prisoners of war, which was subsequently
complied with.
In three-quarters of an hour Lieutenant Crosby returned with
Commodore Barron, Major Andrews and Colonel Martin. With these
officers General Butler went aboard the flag-ship Minnesota, to make
the agreement with Commodore Stringham, on the part of the navy.
The articles were signed, and the forts surrendered and occupied by
the Union forces. While the terms were under consideration, the
Adelaide and Harriet Lane both got aground, and occasioned some
fear lest the enemy, taking advantage of this circumstance, might
renew the contest. But happily their fears were not realized. In
reaching the Minnesota, Commodore Barron was obliged to pass
under the guns of the Wabash, the vessel which he had himself
commanded a few months before, and which he had just been
endeavoring to destroy from his batteries.
The result of this expedition was the capture of seven hundred and
fifteen men, including the officers, one thousand stand of arms,
seventy-five kegs of powder, five stand of colors, thirty-one pieces of
cannon, including a ten-inch columbiad, a brig loaded with cotton, a
sloop loaded with provisions and stores, two light-boats, one
hundred and fifty bags of coffee and smaller stores.
The prisoners were transferred to the Minnesota, and taken to
New York. Their acknowledged loss was forty-nine killed and fifty-
one wounded. On the Federal side, not a single life was lost, and only
two or three wounded.
 WESTERN VIRGINIA.

A series of active events in Western Virginia now claim our

attention.
Governor Wise, on hearing of the death of General Garnett, and
the defeat and dispersion of his army, commenced a retreat up the
Kanawha, cautiously followed by General Cox. He intended to make
a stand at Gauley’s Bridge, at the junction of Gauley and Kanawha
rivers, and had erected defences for that purpose; but in
consequence of the demoralization and desertion of his men, and
learning that General Rosecranz had dispatched a large force to
intercept him, he fled without fighting, on the 28th of July,
destroying the bridge to cut off his pursuers. He left behind him a
thousand muskets, and a quantity of powder, which were seized by
General Cox. Early in the month of August, General Floyd was
reinforced by fresh troops from the eastern section of the State, while
Jackson was also advancing with a new army to attack the position of
Rosecranz at the Cheat Mountain Pass, and General Loring, another
rebel commander, was marching towards Huttonsville to act in
conjunction with Jackson’s forces.
 SURPRISE AT CROSS LANES.

On the morning of the 26th of August, the Seventh Ohio regiment,

Colonel Tyler, attached to General Cox’s brigade, had just encamped
at a position in the mountains called Cross Lanes, near
Summersville, about twenty-four miles from Gauley Bridge, and
eighteen from Twenty-mile Creek, where the main body of General
Cox’s forces were.
While at breakfast they were surrounded and attacked in front and
on both flanks simultaneously, by a rebel force of three thousand
infantry, four hundred cavalry, and ten guns. Colonel Tyler’s men
were immediately formed for battle, and fought bravely, though in an
almost hopeless position. The enemy proving too powerful, the
Colonel dispatched an orderly to the baggage train, which was
coming up, but three miles distant, and turned it back towards
General Cox’s camp, where it arrived in safety. The regiment met the
advancing foe with desperate valor, and finally succeeded in cutting
their way through the superior force by whom they were
encompassed, Lieutenant-Colonel Creighton capturing the enemy’s
colors and two prisoners in their progress. The ranks were much
broken, and companies B, C and I suffered severely. The line was
soon formed again, and prepared for a renewal of the attack, but they
were permitted to make good their retreat without further
molestation. Captains Dyer, Shurtleff and Sterling, Adjutant De
Forrest, Lieutenant Narrent, and Sergeant-Major King were killed.
The total loss is reported at fifteen killed, forty wounded, and thirty
prisoners. The loss of the enemy is not known, but could not have
been less.
 BATTLE OF CARNIFEX FERRY.

September 10, 1861.

More than a month had now elapsed since General Rosecranz had
been entrusted with the Federal command in Western Virginia, and
the commanders of the hostile forces had been intently watching the
movements of the opposing armies, anxious for an opportunity to
strike a decisive blow.
From his headquarters at Clarksburg, General Rosecranz moved
forward to resume active operations, and at two principal points the
enemy prepared to give him battle. The popular impression was that
he intended to attack General Lee, at Cheat Mountain Gap, his
nearest and most accessible opponent, then held in check by General
Reynolds. Floyd had been permitted to cross the mountains at
Summersville, and was known to be then in the Kanawha region,
some eighty or a hundred miles distant, where it was the intention of
the Federal commander to seek him. It was not until Monday, the
9th of September, that the General reached Birch river, where he
concentrated his force, drawn from various encampments, and which
had marched in detached bodies to the rendezvous appointed. After
leaving the valley of the Big Birch the route lay through a
mountainous and densely wooded country, infested with guerrillas,
who gave them much annoyance; and as no reliable guide
accompanied the army, Rosecranz was obliged to rely chiefly upon
the inhabitants for information of the geographical and
topographical features of the country. The position of Floyd’s forces
was also unknown to him, and it was not until he had reached Cross
Lanes, eight miles from Summersville, that he received reliable
information that the enemy was strongly posted somewhere in the
range of hills that line either side of the Gauley river, immediately
facing that village. Floyd was known to be advised of the approach of
the Federal army, as his scouts and skirmishers had been
encountered frequently on the previous day, and it was the plan of
Rosecranz to carefully reconnoitre the position of the enemy before
advancing any considerable force within range of his guns; but the
eager and importunate requests of various officers, as well as the
impetuosity of the men, urged him forward.
Colonel McCook was first sent with a squadron of Chicago cavalry
to Carnifex ferry, by a road which led through ravines to the Gauley
river. In an attempt to destroy a boat found here he was fired upon
by the enemy, who were out of range of the carbines of the cavalry.
To overcome this opposition, he dispatched a man asking that ten
infantry should be sent to his aid. By some mistake the whole of
Colonel Lytle’s Tenth Ohio, an Irish regiment, came hurrying down,
eager for a fight, and opened fire on the woods on the opposite side
that speedily banished the enemy. Colonel Lytle’s regiment
continued in the advance, acting as skirmishers, and shortly drove in
a detachment of the rebels from an exposed camp on the left, of the
road. This road was very narrow, and shut in to the very wagon
tracks with the jungle of underbrush.
General Rosecranz, who was still ignorant of the precise position
of the enemy, or of the nature of his entrenchments, now sent orders
to General Benham that Lytle should proceed down this road to
make a reconnoissance, to be supported, if necessary, by the
remainder of Benham’s brigade. Lytle was still a mile in advance of
the rest of the brigade, pushing cautiously forward, with companies
A, B, C and E, as skirmishers. They suddenly found themselves in
front of some kind of fortification, and the enemy discovered them at
the same time. At first there was sharp and scattered firing, when
suddenly a terrific crash of musketry was followed by a storm of
bullets. The enemy had opened along his whole front. The remainder
of the Tenth was hurried forward to support the advance, and
General Benham sent orders for the Thirteenth, Colonel Smith, and
the Twelfth, Colonel Lowe, to come forward. The Federal troops
stood their ground with the greatest heroism, in the face of a heavy
battery. The firing on either side was not effective; and though the
Tenth suffered severely, the loss was not great.
 The Thirteenth, Colonel Smith, came in on the left, a little in the
rear of the Tenth, and deploying towards Floyd’s right, opened in
fine style. In the thickest of the firing, Colonel Lytle dashed forward
in front of the enemy’s works, leading several companies, and as they
left the cover of the woods, he received a severe wound. The ball
which disabled him also wounded his horse, who dashed his rider to
the ground, and in his death agony plunged over the parapet into the
enemy’s works. Colonel Lytle was carried to a house near by, and lay
in great pain, within hearing of the contest he was unable to share.
The Tenth, discouraged and embarrassed by the loss of their leader,
became somewhat scattered in the woods, but held their position and
kept up a steady fire.
Meantime, Colonel Lowe came up with the Twelfth, and was led by
Adjutant-General Hartsuff into the woods near the spot where the
Tenth first received the enemy’s fire. He was leading up his regiment,
waving his sword to cheer on his men, when he was struck in the
forehead by a musket ball, and fell heavily from his horse. He died
bravely, a soldier’s death, in front of the foe, and in the presence of
his men.
The reconnoissance that was designed, had now grown into a
severe and general engagement. But the unknown position of the
enemy, and the necessity of calling up other regiments to support the
advance, had led to a premature struggle. McMullen’s howitzer
battery, and Captain Snyder’s battery were brought forward as
speedily as possible, and rendered efficient service. General
Rosecranz dispatched Adjutant-General Hartsuff to order up Colonel
McCook’s brigade, who rushed forward in a state of wild enthusiasm
when they were informed that they would have the honor of
storming the batteries. Meantime the General, who had been making
a careful survey of the whole field, found that the work would be too
hazardous, and cost too many valuable lives, if it were then
attempted, and countermanded the order. It was now too dark to
distinguish the foe, and it became absolutely necessary to withdraw
the troops.
The men had marched seventeen miles and a half, and many of
them were exhausted with scouting and skirmishing all day over the
hills. They retired slowly, galled with disappointment, and
bivouacked, wearied and supperless, within musket range of the
rebel front. Sentinels were posted to prevent any attempt of the
enemy to surprise them, and guard against the retreat of Floyd if
possible. But total ignorance of the country, and the intense darkness
of the night, made it impossible to secure all the avenues of retreat.
General Rosecranz himself was up all night long, taking care of his
position with jealous and anxious solicitude; but notwithstanding,
the foe slipped from his grasp.
The troops expected to storm the position and take it by sunrise,
but before that time it was discovered vacant. Floyd began the
evacuation as soon as he ascertained that Rosecranz did not intend
to storm him, and by three o’clock the next morning the enemy put
the deep and turbulent Gauley, and some miles of rugged road,
between himself and the disgusted Federal army—sinking the flats
and destroying the trestle bridge by which he had secured his retreat.
The Union troops immediately took possession of Floyd’s camp, in
which he had left his own personal baggage, that of his officers, and
their parade stores, the baggage and blankets of private soldiers,
large numbers of muskets, squirrel guns, powder, lead, cartridges,
forage, large quantities of commissary stores, and some horses and
wagons.
He took nothing with him, in fact, excepting his guns, part of his
tents, and a small supply of rations. It was also ascertained that he
threw at least a portion of his cannon into the Gauley.
The loss of Rosecranz’s army in the engagement was 16 killed, and
102 wounded. That of the enemy was probably small, as they were
well protected from the Federal fire. Twelve rebel prisoners were
taken, and 25 of Colonel Tyler’s Seventh Ohio, mostly wounded, who
had been captured at Cross Lanes on the 26th of August, were
released.
 BATTLE OF CHEAT MOUNTAIN PASS.

On the 12th of September, General Reynolds, commanding the

Federal brigade on Cheat Mountain, was attacked by General Lee of
the Secession army, with a force computed at 9,000 men. The Cheat
Mountain Pass lies between the valley of the South branch of the
Potomac river and those of Elk and Gauley rivers, tributaries of the
Great Kanawha.
The first position held by General Reynolds was at the foot of the
mountain, but subsequently two fortifications had been erected on
the summit of two adjacent spurs, seven miles apart by a bridle path,
which were called Cheat Summit and Elk Water. General Reynolds’s
headquarters was at Elk Water, while Colonel Kimball of the
Fourteenth Indiana, held a subordinate command at Cheat Summit.
The enemy was well informed of the position and strength of these
defences, but had no desire to attack General Reynolds in either of
his strongholds. Their leader had hopes, however, of escaping the
vigilance of the Federal commanders by making a detour and
marching on beyond, and was engaged in this enterprise when he
met with unexpected reverses.
The two Federal posts were in constant communication by a
telegraphic line, and pickets guarded every avenue of approach.
On the 12th, the enemy, five thousand strong, with eight pieces of
artillery, under command of General R. E. Lee, advanced on this
position by the Huntersville Pike. Our advanced pickets—portions of
the Fifteenth Indiana and Sixth Ohio—gradually fell back to our
main picket station; two companies of the Seventeenth Indiana,
under Colonel Hascall, checking the enemy’s advance at the Point
Mountain Turnpike, and then falling back on the regiment which
occupied a very advanced position on our right front, and which was
now ordered in. The enemy threw into the woods on our left front
three regiments, who made their way to the right and rear of Cheat
Mountain, took a position on the road leading to Huttonville, broke
the telegraph wire, and cut off our communication with Colonel
Kimball’s Fourteenth Indiana Cavalry on Cheat Summit.
At the same time an equal force of the enemy advanced by the
Staunton Pike on the front of Cheat Mountain, and threw two
regiments to the right and rear of the mountain, thus uniting with his
other column. They advanced towards the pass, in order to get to the
rear of Elkwater, when three companies of the Thirteenth Indiana,
and one from the Fourteenth, met them. The encounter resulted in
the rout and retreat of the enemy.
A large portion of the rebel troops were now closing in on Cheat
Mountain, when detachments of the Fourteenth Indiana, and
Twenty-fourth and Twenty-fifth Ohio, numbering in all about three
hundred, held them in check. Affairs rested in this condition till
dark. Determined to force a communication between the detached
portions of his command, General Reynolds ordered the Thirteenth
Indiana, under Colonel Sullivan, to cut their way, if necessary, by the
mail road, and the greater part of the Third Ohio and Second
Virginia, under Colonels Manon and Moss, respectively, to do the
same by the path; the two commands starting at three o’clock, A. M.
on the 13th, the former from Cheat Mountain Pass, and the latter
from Elk Water, so as to fall upon the enemy simultaneously, if
possible. Early on the 13th, the small force of about three hundred
from the summit, engaged the enemy with such effect, that
notwithstanding his great superiority in numbers, he retired in great
disorder, leaving large quantities of clothing and equipments on the
ground. The relieving forces failing to encounter the enemy, marched
to the summit, secured the provision train, and reopened the
communication. While these events were proceeding on the
mountain, General Lee advanced on Elk Water, apparently for a final
attack. A rifled Parrot gun from Loomis’ battery was run to the front
about three-quarters of a mile, and after a few shots, which told with
fine effect on their ranks, they retreated to a place beyond its range.
On the 14th, the enemy was again in position in front of Elk Water,
but were repulsed by the gallant Fifteenth Indiana, who held their
ground and fired with the most telling effect. The enemy also made
an effort to reach the pass, but they were again repulsed, and
withdrew to a point some ten miles distant. On the 15th, the rebels
appeared again in much stronger force than before, and attempted a
flank movement by the left, but they were driven back and compelled
to retire from the field by the vigilant and heroic garrison on the
summit.
One hundred of the enemy were killed and wounded, and about
twenty were taken prisoners. The Federal forces lost nine killed, and
about sixty prisoners. Lieutenant Junod, of the Fourteenth Indiana,
was among the killed, and Captain James Bense, and Lieutenants
Gillman and Shaffer, of the Ohio Sixth, and Lieutenant Merrill, of the
Engineers wounded.
One of the most important incidents of this engagement was the
death of Colonel John A. Washington, of the rebel army, aid-de-
camp to General Lee.
 ENGAGEMENT AT CHAPMANSVILLE.

A brilliant affair took place at Chapmansville, Logan county,

Virginia, on the 25th of September, when a body of the enemy under
Colonel Davis, numbering about five hundred, was defeated and
driven from behind their breastworks by five hundred and fifty men
of the Thirty-fourth Ohio, under Colonel Piatt.
The want of men in Western Virginia had induced the Government
to call this regiment into the field before its ranks were full, and they
had been on duty but one week when the affair at Chapmansville
took place. With only six hours notice they marched from Cincinnati,
and on the 19th of September arrived at “Camp Enyard,” on the
Kanawha, occupied by Colonel Enyard with three hundred of the
First Kentucky and two hundred of the Home Guards of Virginia.
Three days subsequently they learned that the enemy were in force
fifty miles distant, and marched, in company with Colonel Enyard’s
command to Peytona, where they separated, Colonel Piatt
proceeding to Boone Court-house. A march of about sixteen miles
the next day brought them in contact with the advance cavalry guard
of the enemy, who were quickly driven in. The force was immediately
made ready for battle, and proceeded on for two hours, constantly
skirmishing with the retreating foe. Though unable to ascertain the
position or force of their opposers, they yet marched bravely, with
Colonel Piatt in advance, until the dim outline of a breastwork
became visible through the dense underbrush, situated on the slope
of a hill between two mountain ridges on the right and a small ravine
on the left. The brush had been cut down on the right and a force of
the enemy, comprising about one hundred men, were stationed there
to rake the advancing troops, and their fire was poured in
incessantly. The Federals returned the fire and advanced fearlessly,
in four columns, with company A, Captain Rathbone, deployed to the
right, directly up the side of the mountain, for the purpose of
outflanking the enemy on the left; company C, Captain Miller,
dispatched for a similar purpose to the left; company I, Captain
Anderson, marching up the ravine, and the centre moving directly up
the road. When within about twenty yards of the breastworks they
were suddenly fired upon from all quarters. The order from Colonel
Piatt to storm the entrenchments was responded to with hearty
cheers, and the men dashed on, regardless of the storm of bullets
that tore up the earth around them.
Captain Anderson was the first to mount the breastworks, his men
following steadily and with unflinching courage. Captain Miller on
the left, and Captain Rathbone on the right, were impeded by
obstructions, but quickly overcoming or dashing through them,
joined in the charge. A few minutes sufficed to reach the inside and
break the ranks of the enemy, who fled to the mountains. They left
twenty-nine dead behind and had fifty wounded, among them
Colonel Davis, of North Carolina, who afterwards died. The Federal
loss was four killed and eight wounded.
Colonel Piatt marched into Chapmansville, the former
headquarters of the enemy, encamped for the night, and then
returned to Camp Enyard, almost without provisions, and forced to
wade through swollen streams and surmount rugged mountains.
 RECONNOISSANCE AT GREEN BRIER,
WESTERN VIRGINIA.

October 3, 1861.

General Reynolds, commander of the Federal forces on Cheat

Mountain Summit, who had so successfully resisted the attempt of
the enemy to flank his position on the 12th of September, having
learned that General Jackson had a fortified camp on the Green Brier
river, at a point where the Staunton turnpike ascends the Alleghany
mountains, about twelve miles distant, determined on a
reconnoissance in force, and if possible a surprise of the enemy’s
encampment. On the night of October 2, at twelve o’clock, he started
from his encampment, with the Twenty-fourth, Twenty-fifth and
Thirty-second Ohio, and the Seventh, Ninth, Thirteenth, Fourteenth,
Fifteenth and Seventeenth Indiana regiments, with Howe’s, Loomis’
and Daum’s batteries, thirteen pieces, and a small force of cavalry, in
all about five thousand men.
About daylight they came in contact with the enemy’s outposts, at
the first Green Brier bridge, which resulted in their being driven
within the entrenchments with considerable loss by the Twenty-
fourth Ohio and Seventh Indiana.
The rebel camp was located on a steep elevation, known as Buffalo
Hill, their entrenchments rising one above another along its terraced
sides. Howe’s and Loomis’ batteries were soon put in position, and
were effective in silencing a number of the enemy’s pieces, which had
opened on the advancing Federal columns. The infantry were
impatient for the order to advance to the assault, while for thirty-five
minutes every gun of the assaulting batteries were actively engaged.
 One after another of the rebel pieces were dismounted, until only
one remained, which replied with spirit, while the lower
entrenchments were almost wholly evacuated by their defenders.
Rockets were thrown up from the enemy’s camp at this time, which
the General supposed was a signal for reinforcements from another
encampment known to exist a few miles distant. It was not long
before the surmise was verified. Down the mountains in the rear of
the camp came a column of men, estimated at two thousand,
bringing with them several pieces of artillery of a superior character.
They were received with loud cheers by their hitherto faltering
comrades. The fresh pieces were soon mounted on the upper works,
and took part in the engagement.

SIEGE OF LEXINGTON, MO., SEPT. 12–20, 1861.

In the mean time the infantry Colonels were clamorous for

permission to storm the upper works, but the General opposed this
as unnecessarily involving a great sacrifice of life, which would not be
justified for the possession of an unimportant position. A flank
movement was permitted, however, to gain a more accurate
knowledge of the enemy’s entrenchments and force, in which most of
the regiments participated. The men were brought under a cross-fire
of shell and canister, and the General discovered the works could not