3K Chemistry Section.

3K:ST JOHN’S EMARALD HILL HIGH SCHOOL 2022
CHEMISTRY SECTION
Chemistry is the study of how matter behaves, and of how one kind of
substance can be changed into another.
13. STATES OF MATTER

13.1Solids, liquids and gases
 Matter is any material that has mass and occupies space.
 So the properties of matter are two.
 1. They have mass
 2.occupy space(they have volume)
Matter exist in three different forms or physical states
The three states of matter are
(a) Solid
(b) Liquid
(c) Gas
Temperature and /or pressure can change the state of matter.
The three states of matter show differences in the way they respond to
changes in temperature and pressure.
All the three states show an increase in volume (an expansion) when
temperature increases, and a decrease in volume (contraction) when the
temperature is decreased.
However the effects for increasing or decreasing temperature are much
bigger for a gas than for either a solid or liquid.
NB Matter expands when heated but particles don’t. They increase
distance between particles during expansion.
The volume of the gas can also be reduced by increasing pressure at
constant temperature.
Gases are easy to squash- they are easily compressed. Liquids are
slightly compressed.
MR HENRY KANYOTO: ST JOHN’S EMARALD HILL HIGH SCHOOL HARARE. Page 1

Solids cannot be compressed, its volume is unaffected by changing the
pressure.
Differences in the properties of the three states of matter
Table 1.1
Physical Volume Density Shape Fluidity
state
Solid Has a fixed high Has a Does not
volume definite flow
shape
Liquid Has a fixed Moderate No definite Generally
volume high shape-takes flows easily
the shape of
the container
Gas No fixed low No definite Flows easily
volume- shape-takes
expands to the shape of
fill container the container
Structure solid, liquid and gas in terms of particle separation,

arrangement and types of motion.
Solid
Particles in solid
1. Are packed close together in orderly arrangement (regular
arrangement)
2. Have little empty space between them.
3. Can vibrate but cannot move freely about their position(particles
vibrate about their fixed positions)
Liquid

Particles in liquid
1. Are packed closely but not orderly arranged(irregularly)
2. Have little empty space between them but more in solid.
3. Are not held fixed but free to move throughout liquid(particles slide
over each other)
Gas
Particles in gas
1. Arranged totally irregularly.
2. Are far apart and in random arrangement
3. Are free to move anywhere in the container(able to move
randomly)
Changes in states of matter; melting; boiling; evaporation; freezing and
condensation
Melting Evaporation/vaporisation
LIQUID
SOLID GAS
Freezing/solidification condensation/liquefaction
Sublimation.
Is the change of state from solid to gas when heat is increased or
change of state from gas to solid when heat decrease. For example
Iodine changes from solid to gas (When Iodine is heat it sublimes
changes to form a purple vapour. Another example carbon dioxide (dry
ice) does not melt when heated directly at normal pressures, instead
turns directly into a gas.
NB. The direct conversion from gas into solid can also be called reverse
sublimation or deposition.

Evaporation, boiling
Evaporation is the change of state from liquid to gas. It takes place over
a range of temperatures.
Boiling is the change of state from liquid to gas, but it takes place at a
specific temperature
Compare boiling and evaporation
Boiling Evaporation
Occurs at constant temperatures Occurs at any temperature
Occurs throughout the liquid Occurs at the surface of the liquid
only
Caused by heating Maybe caused by wind or heating
Affected by atmospheric pressure Not largely affected by atmospheric
pressure but mainly by humidity,
surface area and temperature of
the surrounding
The boiling point of pure water is 100 0C and the boiling point of ethanol
is 780C.Therefore ethanol is more volatile than water.
A more volatile liquid is one which evaporates easily and has relatively
low boiling point.
The reverse of evaporation is condensation. This is brought about by
cooling. However, gas state is the one most affected by changes in
pressure. It is therefore possible, at normal temperature to condense a
gas into liquid by increasing its pressure, without cooling
The boiling point can change if the surrounding pressure changes (if the
surrounding pressure falls the boiling point falls). The boiling point (b.p)
of water at standard atmospheric pressure is 100 0C. On a high mountain
it is lower than 1000C. If the surrounding pressure increases the b.p
increases. In a pressure cooker the b.p of water is raised to around
1200C and food cooks more quickly at this temperature.

Melting and Freezing

Melting is the change of state from solid to liquid. For a pure substance it
takes place at a specific temperature. The temperature at which a pure
substance turns to liquid is called the melting point (m.p). E.g. the
melting and freezing point of pure water is 0 0C.
Freezing is the change of state from liquid to solid. This is the reverse of
melting it takes place sharply at the same temperature.
Effects of temperature and pressure on the volume of a gas.
When temperature increases, the kinetic energy of particles increases
and the particles move further apart. This will increase the volume of the
gas (but not volume of the particles). When pressure increase, the
particles move closer together decreasing the volume of the gas.
14. ATOMS, ELEMENTS AND COMPOUNDS

14.1Elements, compound and mixtures
Elements
Element is a substance that cannot be broken down into simpler
substances by chemical or physical means.
Classifying elements
Classifying by state, some elements are solid, some are liquids, and
some are gases.
Classifying by metals and non metals, most elements are metals, semi
metals (metalloids- having the properties of metals and non metals), and
some are non metals.
Classifying by periodicity- from left to right elements change from metal
to non-metal.
Composition of elements
Elements are made of atoms
Atom is the smallest unit of an element, having property of an element.

Molecule is a group of two or more atoms chemically joined together e.g.
Chlorine has two atoms (CL 2).
Compounds
Compound is a substance containing two or more elements chemically
joined together. e.g. magnesium oxide, copper sulphate.
Composition of compounds
Ions and molecules make up compounds.
Ions are atoms having electrical charge.
Mixtures
Mixture contains two or more substances not chemically joined together.
e.g. sea water is made up of water and salt (NaCL).
e.g. Oxygen in air varies

Comparing compounds and mixtures
mixture compound
Composition Composition is Composition is fixed.
variable. The The elements combine
substance can be in definite proportions
present in any
proportions by mass
definition Containing two or Consists of two or
more substances not more elements
chemically combined chemically combined
together
formation Making a mixture is a Formation of
physical process which compounds involves a
is not accompanied by chemical change
heat which is accompanied
by heat or energy
change.
separation Can be separated by Cannot be separated
physical means into constituent
element by physical
means
properties The properties of a Compounds have

mixture a similar to different properties

those of the from those of their
components components
Solvent, solute, solution and concentration

Solvent is a substance that dissolves a solute.
Solute is a substance that is dissolved in a solvent
Solution is a mixture composed of one or more solutes dissolved in a
solvent.
Concentration is the number of moles per unit volume. Or concentration
is the mass of solute that dissolves in a given volume of solution.
Paper Chromatography
Chromatography is a method that is used to separate two or more
dissolved solids in solution (separating and identifying mixtures). There
are several types of chromatography, but they all follow the basic
principles. Paper chromatography is the simplest form to set up and is
very useful if we want to analyse the substances present in a solution. It
can tell us whether the solution becomes contaminated.
Uses of chromatography
1. Separates and identify mixtures of coloured substances such as
dyes.
2. Separate substances in urine, drugs and blood for medical uses.
3. To find out whether athletes have been using banned drugs.
4. To check for purity of substances

Simple paper chromatography

A drop of concentrated solution is usually placed on a pencil line near
the bottom edge of a strip of chromatography paper. The paper is then
dipped in the solvent. The level of the solvent must start below the
sample.
Stage 1
The solution is spotted and allowed to dry. The original spot is identified
as A. The solvent moves up the paper by capillary action.
Stage 2
A
The solvent moves up the paper, taking different components along at
different rates
Stage 3
The separation of the mixture is now complete. The different

components string out along the paper like runners in a race.
The sample is separated as it moves up the paper.

Identifying mixtures of coloured substance by paper
chromatography
In the diagram below Fig 2.2, drop sample of dye is placed on the pencil
line. The result shows that: The sample dye is made of three colours.
Glass container
Separated colours
Original dye Pencil line
A B C
Solvent Comparison dyes
Two comparison dyes (A and C) are of one of the compositions of the

original dye as the spots are the same colour and distance. One
comparison dye (B) is not part of the sample.
Many solvents are used in chromatography. Water and organic solvents
(carbon- containing solvents). Such as ethanol, ethanoic acid solution
and propane are common. Organic solvents are useful because they
dissolve many substances that are insoluble in water. When organic
solvent is used, the process is carried out in a tank with a lid to stop the
solvent evaporating.
NB The substances separate according to their solubility in the solvent.
As the solvent moves up the paper, the substances are carried with it
and begin to separate. The substance that is most soluble moves fastest
up the paper. An insoluble substance will remain at the origin. The run is
stopped just before the solvent front reaches the top of the paper.

Rf value (Retention factor)

Rf value is used to identify unknown dye in the diagram at the very top
(used to identify the substance)
The distance moved by a particular spot is measured and related to the
position of the solvent front.
𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒎𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒚 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆
𝑹𝑭 =
𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒎𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒚 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒏𝒕
Originally, paper chromatography was used to separate solutions of

coloured substances (dyes and pigments) since they could be seen as
they move up the paper. However, the usefulness of chromatography
has been greatly increased by the use of locating agents. This means
that the method can also be used for separating substances that are not
coloured. The paper is treated with locating agent after the
chromatography is run. The agent reacts with the samples to produce
coloured spots.
If a sample is pure, it should only give one spot when run in several
solvents. The identity of a sample can also be checked by comparing its
Rf value to that of sample we know to be pure.
NB Checking purity of a substance is also done using melting and
boiling point. Pure substance have fixed m.p and b.p. Impure
substances have no fixed m.p and b.p e.g. pure water boils at 100 0C but
with salt it boils at 1020C.
14.2. Atomic structure and periodic table.

Structure of an atom
An atom contains protons, neutrons and electrons.
Protons have positive charge while neutrons have a neutral charge but
same mass as protons.
Electrons have a negative charge.

Protons and neutrons are located in the nucleus at the centre of an
atom.
Electrons move around the nucleus in an orbit called shells
e- Electrons in shells
e-
Nucleus (protons and
neutrons)
Electronic configuration
Electronic configuration is the arrangement of electrons in shells
Electronic structure
Electronic configuration is the arrangement of electrons in energy levels
(electron shells).
Electrons are placed in orbits. The first shell contains 2 electrons. The
second shell and so and so has a maximum of 8 electrons.
8 electrons (3 rd)
8 electrons (2 nd)
2 electrons (1st)

Noble gas configuration or arrangement

Noble gas arrangement is whereby the outer shell has full electrons for
example 8 electrons for Neon, Krypton, Radon and 2 for Helium.
Electronic configuration examples
1. Sodium {2; 8; 1}
2. Magnesium {2; 8; 2}
3. Calcium {2; 8; 8; 2}
Where the numbers e.g. {2; 8; 1} are representing the numbers of
electrons in different shells. First, second, third in that order.
Particle symbol Relative mass charge

proton .p 1 Positive(+1)
neutron .n 1 Neutral (0)
electron .e- 1 Negative(-1)
1840
Proton number or atomic number is the number of protons in the nucleus

of an atom.
Nucleon number or mass number is the total number of protons and
neutrons in the nucleus of an atom.
Nucleon number=Protons + Neutrons
The proton number (mass number)
The proton number identifies an element.
No two elements have atoms with the same number of protons in their
nuclei.
The proton number is also equal to the number of electrons in an
uncharged (neutral atom)
𝑏
𝑎𝑋

X is representing an element, b is representing the nucleon number and
a is representing the proton number
24
12 𝑀𝑔 The element is magnesium. The nucleon number is 24 and the
proton number is 12. It has 12 electrons.
Neutrons=Nucleon number-Proton number=24-12=12
Since the proton number is equal to the number of electrons for an
uncharged atom. The proton number also determines the arrangement
of elements in the periodic table.
The basis of the periodic table
e.g Hydrogen 11 𝐻 proton number=1, electron=1
Arrangement of electrons in shells
Key X is representing an electron

Sodium 23
11 𝑁𝑎 proton number=11, electrons=11, nucleon number=23,
neutrons=23-11=12
Electronic configuration={2; 8;1}

NB You must be able to draw the electronic configuration of the
first 20 elements on the periodic table.
Since sodium has 1 electron in the outer orbital, it is placed in group one
on the periodic table.
Outer electrons are also called valence electrons
Magnesium.
Electronic configuration is {2; 8; 2}. Since it has 2 electrons in the outer
orbital, it is placed in group 2.
Relation of the valence electrons with the periodic table.
Elements in the same horizontal roe: Period
Elements in the same vertical column: Group.
Group 1 has 1 valancy, Group 2 has 2 valancy, and Group 3 has 3
valancey and so on.
Group 0 has full valency which makes it having stable electronic
configuration or noble gas electronic configuration.
Down the group the shells increase
The number of occupied electron shells is equal to the period number
e.g Hydrogen and Helium are in period 1, because they then number of
occupied electron shells is one.
Lithium (2;1) is in period 2.
Sodium (2;8;1) is in period 3. Etc

Hydrogen Heliu
1 m-2
Lithium Beryllium Boron Carb Nitrogen Oxyg Fluori Neo

3 4 5 on 7 en ne n
6 8 9 10
sodium Magnesi Alumini Silico Phosphor Sulph Chlori Argo
11 um um n us ur ne n
12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Potassi Calcium
um 20
19
Group VIII
This group consists of noble gases, they are unreactive monatomic
gases, with full outer outer shell, e.g. 2;8.
14.3. Ions and ionic bonding
Ions
An ion is formed when an atom gain or lose electrons
When an atom gains electrons, it becomes negatively charged.

When an atom loses electrons, it becomes positively charged.
Ionic bonding (Group I and Group VII)
Ionic bonding is the transfer of electrons from one atom to another to
achieve a noble gas configuration, forming ions.
Ionic bonds are formed between metallic and non-metallic atoms only.
Metals lose electrons to form positive ions (cations).
Non metals gain electrons to form negative ions (anions)

The formation of ions is resulted from the transfer of electrons from one
atom to another atom(s), which the ions produced are of the opposite
charges, and unlike charges attract, causing them to be held together
with strong force. E.g. formation of sodium chloride (NaCL). Sodium in
Group 1 and Chlorine in Group 7.
Electron transfer
Na
CL
Sodium atom, Na Chlorine atom (2;8;7)

(2;8;1)
+ -
Na CL
Sodium ion, Na+(2;8) Chloride ion, CL -(2;8;8)

Sodium atom loses an electron by transferring the electron to chlorine
atom, making both stable. The loss of electron forms cation, Na+, and
the gain of electron forms anion, CL -. The opposite charges acquired by
both ions attract each other, forming strong ionic bond of NaCL

.
NB The numbers of electrons of a sodium ion (charged) are
different from the numbers of electrons of sodium atom (not
charged)
Structure of ionic compound (NaCL)
Ionic substances appear as giant lattice structures which the ions are
held together by electrostatic force between oppositely charged ions.
Structure of sodium Chloride NaCL.
Key Chlorine atom sodium atom.

Properties

1. Ionic compound are hard crystalline solids with flat sides and
regular shapes because the ions are arranged in straight rows in
strong ionic bonds.
2. Ionic compounds have very high melting points and boiling points
3. The strong forces holding ionic compounds prevent them to
evaporate easily, hence ionic compounds have no smell.
4. Solid ionic compounds do not conduct electricity but they do when
they are aqueous or molten. This is because in liquid/aqueous
state the ions which conduct electricity are free to move. In solids,
these ions are fixed in place.
5. Ionic compounds are soluble in water but insoluble in organic
compounds. This is because the ions attract water molecules
which disrupt the crystal structure, causing them to separate and
go into solution. Vice versa is when in organic solvent.
Simple molecules and covalent bonds
Covalent bonding
Covalent bonding is the sharing a pair of electrons to gain electronic
configuration of noble gas (inert gas), usually for molecules.
Covalent bonds occur between non metallic atoms only.
Covalent bonds of hydrogen (H2), Chlorine (CL 2), Water (H2O),
Methane (CH4), Ammonia (NH3) and Hydrochloric acid (HCL),
Oxygen (O2) and Carbon dioxide (CO 2).
Dot and cross diagrams for covalent bonds with single bonds.

NB Complete the structures of the remaining compounds
Property Ionic Covalent

Conduction of Conduct current when Do not conduct current
electricity molten or in solution
Volatility Not volatile has strong More volatile
forces which hold
atoms together
Solubility Soluble in water but Not soluble in water,
insoluble in organic bonds not broken by
compound water
Melting point High Low
(Strong forces of Weak forces of
attraction (between all attraction
ions of opposite
charge).
Boiling point High Low
Strong forces of Weak covalent bonds
attraction (little attraction
between molecules)
15.STOICHIOMETRY
15.1.Formulae
Stoichiometry is the study of quantitative aspects of chemical reactions.
Name of simple compounds
1. Magnesium oxide (MgO)

2. Magnesium sulphate (MgSO4)
3. Calcium carbonate (CaCO 3)
Formula of compounds
Each compound is represented by a formula which gives the proportions
of the different elements in the compound by mass. The formula of many
compounds can be found by use of the list of ions in Table 4.1 below.
List of common ions
Table 15.1
Positive ions Negative ions
Sodium Na+ Chloride CL -
Potassium K+ Bromide Br-
Silver Ag + Iodide I -
Lead Pb2+ Hydroxide OH-
Magnesium Mg 2+ Nitrate 𝑁𝑂3−
Calcium Ca2+ Nitrite 𝑁𝑂2−
Zinc Zn2+ Hydrogen carbonate 𝐻𝐶𝑂3−
Barium Ba2+ Sulphate 𝑆𝑂42−
Iron (II) Fe 2+ Sulphite 𝑆𝑂32−
Iron (III) Fe 3+ Carbonate 𝐶𝑂32−
Aluminium AL 3+ Oxide O2-
Ammonium 𝑁𝐻4+ Sulphide S2-
Hydrogen H+ Phosphate 𝑃𝑂43−
Copper Cu2+
In forming the compounds the number of ions is such that the number of
positive charges equals the number of negative charges.
For example sodium chloride is made up of Na+ and CL- ions.
Since a sodium ion has a single positive charge and a chloride ion has a
single negative charge, the formula of sodium chloride is NaCL.
Sodium sulphate is made up of Na+ and 𝑆𝑂42− ions. Twice as many
sodium as sulphate ions are necessary in order to have equal numbers
of positive and negative charges. The formula of sodium sulphate is
Na2SO4
Compound Ions present formula

Magnesium chloride Mg2+ CL- MgCL2
Sodium carbonate Na+ 𝐶𝑂32− Na2CO3
Iron (III) carbonate Fe3+ 𝐶𝑂32− Fe2(CO3)3
All of the compounds above are composed of ions. However, many

compounds are not ionized. The formula of some of these compounds
are shown in table 4.2
Table 15.2: Formula of some common compounds.
compound formula compound formula
water H2O Sulphur SO2
dioxide
Carbon dioxide CO2 Sulphur SO3
trioxide
Carbon CO Ammonia NH3
monoxide
Nitrogen NO Hydrogen HCL
monoxide chloride
Nitrogen NO2 Methane CH4
dioxide
Formula of compounds from model or diagrammatic representation

O O C O
H H Water Carbon dioxide
H C H
H Methane gas

Molecular formulae of a compound is the number and type of
different atoms in one molecule.
Word equations
1. Magnesium + Oxygen Magnesium oxide.
2. Copper + Sulphate Copper sulphate
3. Sodium + carbonate sodium carbonate
4. Sodium hydroxide + hydrochloric acid sodium chloride +
water.
An equation consists of two parts: The reactants on the left hand side
and the products on the right hand side.
Balancing equations
During a chemical reaction, atoms cannot be created or destroyed.
There must be the same number of atoms before and after the reaction.
Only the proportions of the reacting substances and products can be
altered to balance the equation- not the formulae
e.g. calcium hydroxide + hydrochloric acid calcium chloride + water
Ca (OH)2 + HCL CaCL 2 + H2O
To balance the equation we need to multiply HCL by 2 and H2O by 2
again.
The equation becomes
Ca (OH)2 + 2HCL CaCL 2 + 2H2O
Equations including state symbols

Ca (OH)2 (aq) + 2HCL ( aq) CaCL 2 (aq) + 2H2O (L)
State symbols
(a) For solid – (s)
(b) For liquid – (L)
(c) For gas – (g)
(d) For a solution with water as a solvent – (aq)

2Mg (s) + O2 (g) 2MgO (s)

NB Oxygen is a gas it exist as a diatomic (all gases chlorine (CL2),
Nitrogen (N2), Bromine (Br 2) and all group seven elements.
15.2. Relative masses of atoms and molecules

Relative molecular mass, M r is the sum of the relative atomic masses.
Relative formula mass, Mr, will be used for ionic compounds.
1. Calculate the Relative Molecular masses for the following, CO2,
H2O, SO2.
2. Calculate the Relative formula masses of the following, NaCL,
MgSO4,
Solutions
1.Relative Molecular mass of CO 2
Mr (CO2)=12+(2x16)=44
Mr(H2O)=(1x2)+(16x2)=34
Mr(SO2)=32+(16x2)=64
2.Relative formula mass, Mr of NaCL
Mr (NaCL)=23+37.5=60.5
Stoichiometric reacting masses.

Example
If 0.24g of magnesium react with 0.16g of water to produce 0.40g of
magnesium oxide, how much magnesium oxide (MgO) will be produced
by burning 12g of magnesium?
We have
0.24g Mg producing 0.40g MgO

0.40
So 1g Mg produces g MgO
0.24
=1.67g MgO
So 12g Mg produces 12x1.67g Mg
=20g
Concentration is the number of solute that dissolved in a given volume of

a solution. It is measured in g/dm 3
QUESTION
5.3 g of calcium carbonate was dissolved in 250cm 3 of water; calculate
the concentration in g/dm3
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
5.3
=
0.250
=21.2g/dm3
NB 1dm3=1000cm3
Volumetric pipettes, flasks and balances are used to prepare
solutions of known concentration.
16. CHEMICAL ENERGETICS

Exothermic reaction.
(Neutralisation and combustion are examples of exothermic reaction)
Exothermic reaction is a reaction which transfers thermal energy to the
surroundings leading to an increase in the temperature of the
surroundings.
In endothermic reaction bonds are formed.

Reactants products +heat.
Endothermic reaction
(Dissolving ammonium nitrate and cracking are examples of
endothermic reactions)
Endothermic reaction transfers thermal energy from the surroundings
leading to a decrease in the temperature of the surrounding.
Endothermic reaction graph

When heat is absorbed from the surrounding of reactants, the solution
becomes cooler and later the temperature goes to room temperature.
Temp
Room Temp
Time
Exothermic reaction graph
When heat is given out, the solution becomes warm and later the
temperature goes back to room temperature.
Temp
Room temp
Time.
Activation energy
Activation energy is the minimum energy needed to start a reaction. It is
the energy needed to break the reactant bonds before new bonds are
formed.
Exothermic and Endothermic reaction graphs

Exothermic reaction
In exothermic reaction, enough energy is given out in the reaction of
particles to provide activation energy therefore less energy is needed to
form products.
NB reactants have more energy than product.
Reactants products +energy
Reactants to products (∆H=-nkJ, Where n is the amount of heat
released)

Endothermic
In endothermic reaction, more energy is needed to form products and
heat must be continually added to fulfil energy requirement.
Reactants + heat products .
Reactants to products (∆H=+nkJ, Where n is the amount of heat
absorbed)

NB Exothermic reactions have lower activation energy than

endothermic reactions.
17. CHEMICAL REACTIONS

17.1. Physical and Chemical change
Physical and chemical change
Substances can mix in a variety of ways, and they can also react
chemically with each other. In a reaction one substance can be
transformed (changed) into another
Physical change
A physical change is a change in which no new substance is formed.
The substances involved do not change their identity. They can easily be
returned to their original form by some physical process such as cooling
or evaporation e.g. a mixture of sugar and water; we can get sugar back
by evaporation.
Chemical change

A chemical change is a change in which a new substance is formed.
Usually the process is not easily reversed. Energy is given out (heat
energy is involved) . e.g. burning magnesium in air to form magnesium
oxide.
Difference between physical and chemical change
Physical change Chemical change
No new substance is formed A new substance is formed
No heat is involved Heat is involved
Easy to separate by physical Difficult to separate by physical
means means
e.g. mixture of sugar and water e.g. Burning magnesium in air to
produce magnesium oxide
17.2. Rate of reaction.

Rate (speed) of reaction
The rate of a reaction is a measure of how fast the reaction takes place.
Finding suitable measurable changes
Having selected a suitable reaction it is necessary to find a change that
can be observed during the reaction. An estimate of rate of the reaction
can be obtained from the time taken for the measurable change to take
place. Suitable change includes.
1. Colour
2. Formation of precipitate
3. Change in mass (e.g. gas evolved causing a loss of mass)
4. Volume of gas evolved
5. Time taken for a given mass of reagent to disappear.
6. P.H
7. Temperature
Reaction which produces a gas
Some of the easiest reactions to study in the laboratory are those in
which a gas is evolved. The reaction can be followed by measuring the
volume of gas evolved over a period of time using the apparatus below

Studying the reaction between dilute hydrochloric acid and lump of

calcium carbonate
Hydrochloric acid + calcium carbonate calcium chloride + + water
carbon dioxide.
2HCL (aq) + CaCO3 (s) CaCL 2 (aq) + H2O (L) + CO2 (g)
Results
Volume of carbon
Dioxide in cm3 A B
Fig 7.2 time (s)
Fig 7.2 shows typical graph obtained for the reaction between dilute
hydrochloric acid and calcium carbonate.
The graph A shows the graph for a similar experiment using same
quantities of calcium and hydrochloric acid but with conditions changed
so that the reaction is slightly faster.

The reaction is complete when the graph becomes horizontal. i.e. there
is no further increase in volume of carbon dioxide.
Effects of concentration, particle size, catalyst and temperature on

the rate of reaction.
Concentration
The more concentrated the reactants, the greater will be the rate of
reaction. This is because increasing the concentration of the reactants
increases the number of collisions between particles and, therefore,
increases the rate of reaction.
Particle size
When one of the reactants is a solid, the reaction must take place on the
surface of the solid. By breaking up the solid into smaller pieces, the
surface area for collisions is increased, giving a greater area for
collisions to take place and so causing an increase in the rate of
reaction.
Catalyst
A catalyst is a substance which alters the rate of a reaction but remains
chemically unchanged at the end of the reaction. Catalysts usually
speed up reactions. A catalyst which slows down a reaction is called a
negative catalyst or inhibitor. Catalyst speeds up reactions by providing
an alternative pathway for the reaction i.e. one that has lower activation
energy. More collisions will, therefore, have enough energy for the new
pathway.

NB Catalyst lowers the activation energy.
Increasing energy Energy path for usual reaction

Energy path for a catalysed reaction
Energy of reactants
Energy of products
Temperature
An increase in temperature produces an increase in the reaction. A rise
of 100C approximately doubles the rate of reaction. When a mixture of
substance is heated, the particles move faster. This has two effects.
Since the particles are moving faster they travel a greater distance in a
given time and so will be involved in more collisions. Also, because the
particles are moving a larger proportion of the collision will exceed the
activation energy and so the rate of reaction increases.
17.3. Redox
Redox reaction is a reaction involving simultaneous oxidation and
reduction.
Oxidation
Oxidation is the gain of oxygen
Reduction
Reduction is the loss of oxygen
Oxidising agent
An oxidising agent is the substance which oxidises another substance
during redox reaction
Reducing agent

A reducing agent is a substance which reduces another substance
during a redox reaction.
Examples of redox reactions.
(a)Copper (II) Oxide + Carbon Copper + carbon
dioxide
2CuO + C 2Cu + CO 2
Copper has been reduced; therefore copper is an oxidising agent.
Carbon has been oxidised, therefore carbon is a reducing agent.
(b).Iron (II) + Copper Sulphate Copper + Iron (II) Sulphate
Fe + CuSO4 Cu + FeSO4
Iron has been oxidised, therefore Iron is a reducing agent.
Copper has been reduced, therefore Copper is an oxidising agent.
(c).Iron (III) Oxide + Carbon monoxide Iron + Carbon dioxide
Fe2O3 (s) + 3CO (g) 2Fe (L) + 3CO2 (g)
Iron (III) has been reduced; therefore Iron (III) is an oxidising agent.
Carbon monoxide has been oxidised, therefore carbon monoxide is a
reducing agent.
Test for Oxygen.
Oxygen relights a glowing splint
18. ACID, BASES AND SALTS

18.1. Characteristic properties of acids and salts.
The PH of acids and alkalis
The PH is a numerical measure of acidity and alkalinity of a solution. PH
scale ranges from 0 to 14. Acids have a PH values less than of 7. PH of
7 is for neutral solution. Alkalis have PH values greater than 7. Universal

indicator is used to measure the PH of a solution. Fig 8.1 shows the
colour for the indicator.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Strongly acidic weakly acidic weakly basic strongly basic
Neutral
Characteristics properties of acids

Aqueous solutions of acids contain H+ ions
Dilute hydrochloric acid (HCL), Dilute sulphuric acid (H2SO4) .Dilute acid
is a solution containing small amount of acid dissolved in water.
1. Acids have sour taste
2. Acids are hazardous ; acids are irritants (they cause skin to redden
and blister )

3. Acids change the colour of indicators; they turn blue litmus paper
to red.
4. Acids react with metals to produce salt and hydrogen gas.
5. Acids react with carbonates to produce salt, water and carbon
dioxide.
6. Acids react with bases to form salt and water.
7. Acids are corrosive.
Reactions of acids
Acids react with metals to produce salt and hydrogen gas.
Metal + Acid Salt + Hydrogen gas
Sodium + Hydrochloric acid Sodium Chloride + Hydrogen gas
2Na (s) + 2HCL 2Na CL (aq) + H2 (g)
Magnesium + sulphuric acid magnesium Sulphate + Hydrogen
gas
Mg (s) + H2SO4 (aq) MgSO4 (aq) + H2 (g)
Acids react with carbonates to produce salt, water and carbon
dioxide.
Acid + Metal Carbonate Salt + water + Carbon Dioxide
Magnesium Carbonate + Hydrochloric acid Magnesium Chloride +
Water + carbon dioxide
MgCO3 (s) + 2HCL (aq) MgCL 2 (aq) + H2O (L) + CO2 (g)
Acids react with bases to form salt and water (Neutralisation
reaction).
Acid + base Salt + Water
Copper Hydroxide + Sulphuric acid Copper Sulphate + Water
Cu (OH)2 (s) H2SO4 (aq) CuSO4 (aq) + 2H2O (L)

NB A Base is an oxide of a metal. Not all metal oxides (Bases) are
soluble in water. If an oxide of a metal (base) dissolves in water an
alkaline solution is formed. (An alkaline is a soluble base).
The importance of controlling the acidic in soils

Soil acidity is a potentially serious land degradation issue. When soil
becomes too acidic it can.
1. Decrease the availability of essential nutrients, such as
phosphorus and molybdenum, and increases the availability of
some elements to toxic levels , particularly Aluminium and
Manganese
2. Increase the impact of toxic elements
3. Decrease plant production and water use
4. Affect essential soil biological functions like nitrogen fixation
5. Make soil more vulnerable to soil structure decline and erosion.
6. Highly acid soils can inhibit the survival of useful bacteria, such as
the rhizobia that fix nitrogen for legumes.
BASES
Aqueous solution of alkalis contains OH- ions. Alkali maybe corrosive.
Bases are oxides or hydroxides of metals and alkalis are soluble bases.
Bases react with acids to form salt and water.
And they also react with ammonium salts.
Test for Ammonia
Ammonia turns damp red litmus paper blue.
Alkalis turn red litmus paper blue.
They turn universal indicator from pink to blue
Test for carbon dioxide
Bubble the gas in lime water. Lime water turns from colourless to a milky
colour.

Test for hydrogen gas

Use a lighted splint, hydrogen burns with a pop sound.
Preparation of salts
A salt is a compound formed from an acid by the replacement of the
hydrogen in the acid by a metal. Salts are ionic compounds. The salt
which is commonly used and essential for life is Sodium Chloride (NaCL)
Preparing soluble salts
Soluble salts can be made from their parent acid using any of the three
characteristic reactions of acid we have outlined.
Method of preparing a soluble salt.
Stage 1.
The acid is reacted with metal, a base, or a carbonate.
Stage 2
The excess solid is filtered out (filtration method)
Stage 3
The solution is carefully evaporated (evaporation)
Stage 4
The crystals are allowed to form (crystallisation)
Example 1
Preparing a salt by the action of acid on metal
Materials: powdered zinc, dilute sulphuric acid, 2 beakers, filter funnel,
filter paper, filter stand, burner, tripod, stirring rod
Method
1. Pour about 20 cm3 of dilute sulphuric acid into a beaker
2. Warm the acid slightly

3. Add zinc powder a little at a time, stirring until no more will
dissolve. The zinc is now in excess.
4. Filter off the excess zinc
5. Heat the filtrate until the solution is saturated
6. Cover the solution and leave it, to allow crystals to form.
Example 2
To prepare Copper (II) Sulphate crystals by action of an acid on a
base.
Materials : Copper (II) Oxide, dilute sulphuric acid, 2 beakers, tripod,
burner, stirring rod, filter funnel, filter paper, filter stand, spatula
Method
1. Pour about 20 cm3 of sulphuric acid into a beaker.
2. Add 3 or 4 spatula load of Copper (II) Oxide to the acid
3. Warm the mixture slightly, stirring all the time. If all the oxide
dissolves, the reaction is complete. Filter off the excess oxide.
Collect the filtrate in a clean beaker.
4. Heat the filtrate to evaporate water and obtain a saturated solution.
5. Cover the solution and leave it, to allow crystals to form.
Preparation of insoluble salt

Insoluble salts (Calcium Sulphate, Barium Sulphate, Lead Sulphate and
most Carbonates).Insoluble salt can be prepared by reacting compound
containing the wanted cation with another compound containing the
wanted anion.
Stages.
1. Add the two solutions together of the wanted cation and anion.
2. A precipitate is formed
3. Use a filter paper to filter off the precipitate
4. Put the precipitate in a filter paper again and wash the precipitate
with distilled water.
5. Squeeze the salt with a filter paper to dry the salt.

For example: When Calcium Carbonate and Sulphuric acid are added
together. The reaction quickly stops after a very short time. This is
caused by the fact that Calcium Sulphate is insoluble. It soon forms a
layer on the surface of the Calcium Carbonate, stopping any further
reaction.
19. THE PERIODIC TABLE

19.1.Arrangement of elements.
The periodic table is used to classify elements and to predict properties
of elements.
Period-horizontal row of elements in the periodic table
Group-vertical column of elements in periodic table number (I to O).
Electronic structure
Elements in same group has the same number of valence shell
electrons which the amount is the same for group number.
e.g. Group 2 elements with valency of 2 electrons. Properties of
elements changes down the group.
Periodic trends
Metals and non metals
metals Non-metals
On the left of the periodic table On the right of the periodic table
Have (Less than or equal to 4) Have greater than 4 valence
valence electrons electrons
NB From left to right, elements gradually change from metal to non-

metal. Element close to dividing line in periodic table in black part of the
note (in bold) are called metalloids have properties of metals and non-
metals.
The elements on the left hand side of the periodic table, one, two or
three electrons in the outer shells of their atoms.
This means that elements in Group I, Group II and Group III are metals.
The elements on the right hand side of the table have 4 or more
electrons in the outer shells of their atoms. The elements in Group IV, V,
VII and VIII are non-metals.
Group I properties
Group 1: Relatively soft metals
Name /Symbol Density (g/cm3) Melting point (oC)
Lithium, Li 0.53 180
Sodium, Na 0.97 98
Potassium, K 0.86 64
Group 1 Metals
1. These metals react with water to form alkaline solutions (The
reactivity with water increases down the group )
2. Soft, easily cut with scalpel
3. Low densities
4. Melting point decreases down the group
5. Density increases down the group
6. Reacts vigorously (may catch fire or explode with cold water )
7. They become more reactive down the group
8. They are flammable.
Flame test
A small quantity of the compound is taken and a couple of drops of
concentrated hydrochloric acid is added. A clean piece of platinum wire
is dipped into the mixture and put into a hot Bunsen burner flame.
Certain cations colour the Bunsen burner flame.
Cation Flame coluor
Lithium Li+ Red
Sodium Na+ Yellow
Potassium K+ Lilac

Group VII- Halogens

1. Density increases down the group
2. Reactivity decreases down the group.
The halogens, chloride, bromine and iodine are diatomic non-metals.
Have seven outer shell electrons. Each molecule in the element is
diatomic (contains two atoms, e.g.F2). Elements become darker and
solidify down the group.
Element Molecular State at room colour
formula temperature
and pressure
r.t.p
Chlorine CL2 Gas Pale yellow-
green
Bromine Br2 Liquid Reddish brown
iodine I2 solid Grey-black
Chlorine and bromine are toxic

Reactions of halogens
Halogens become less reactive down the group.
Displacement reaction
More reactive halogen displaces less reactive halogen. Chlorine
displaces bromine.
Chlorine + potassium bromide Potassium Chloride + Bromine
CL2 + 2KBr 2KCL + Br2
Chlorine displaces iodine

Chlorine + Potassium Iodide Potassium Chloride + iodine
CL2 + 2KI 2KCL + I2
Bromine displaces iodine
Bromine + Potassium Iodide Potassium Bromide + Iodine

Br2 + 2KI 2KBr + I2
The appearance of the halogens in aqueous solution

1. Chlorine is colourless
2. Bromine is orange
3. Iodine is brown.
Reaction of the halide ions with acidified aqueous silver nitrate to
form insoluble silver halides.
1. Silver chloride AgCL is white
2. Silver bromide AgCl, is cream
3. Silver iodide, AgI, is yellow.
IDENTIFICATION OF IONS
Aqueous cations
Ion Reaction with Reaction with
aqueous sodium aqueous ammonia
hydroxide
Ammonium𝑁𝐻4+ Ammonia gas
produced on warming
Calcium Ca2+ White precipitate is No precipitate, or very
formed of calcium slight/faint white
hydroxide, insoluble in precipitate
excess.
Copper (II) Cu2+ Light blue precipitate Light blue precipitate
of Copper (II) dissolves in excess to
hydroxide, insoluble in give a dark blue
excess, solution
Iron (II) Fe 2+ Dark green precipitate Green precipitate,
of iron (II) hydroxide insoluble in excess
insoluble in excess
Iron (III) Fe 3+ Red-brown precipitate Red-brown precipitate
of iron (III) hydroxide insoluble in excess
insoluble in excess
Zinc Zn2+ White precipitate of White precipitate,

zinc hydroxide soluble soluble in excess
in excess giving a giving a colourless
colourless solution solution
Chromium Cr 2+
Aluminium Al3+ A white precipitate A white precipitate
forms. forms.
The precipitate The precipitate is
dissolves insoluble
in excess NaOH to in excess NH3.
give a
Colourless solution.
20. METALS.
20.1. Properties and uses of metals
Metals and Non metals
Metals
1. Most metals are good conductors of heat and electricity
2. Can be beaten into sheets (malleable)
3. Can be pulled into wire (ductile)
4. Most metals are solids at room temperature and pressure (r.t.p)
except mercury is a liquid
5. They have high melting and boiling points
Non metals
1. Most are poor conductors of heat and electricity
2. Cannot be beaten into sheets ( not malleable)
3. Cannot be pulled into wire (not ductile)
4. Many non metals are liquids and gases at r.t.p
5. They have low melting and boiling points
Uses of metals

(a)Aluminium
1. Is used in the manufacture of aircraft because of its low density
2. Is used in the manufacture of overhead electrical cables because
of its low density and good electrical conductivity.
3. Is used in food containers because of its resistance to corrosion
(b)Copper is used in electrical wiring because of its good electrical
conductivity and ductility
20.2. Reactivity series

K, Na, Ca, Mg, Al,(Carbon), Zn, Fe, (H), Cu
Increasing reactivity
K-potassium, Na-Sodium, Mg- Magnesium, AL-Aluminium, Zn-Zinc, Fe-
Iron, H- Hydrogen, Cu- Copper.
Potassium, sodium, and calcium react with cold water
Metal + water metal hydroxide + hydrogen
Sodium + water sodium hydroxide + hydrogen
2Na (s) + 2H2O (L) 2NaOH (aq) + H2 (g)
Magnesium, Zinc and Iron react with steam
Metal + water metal oxide + hydrogen

Zinc + water zinc hydroxide + hydrogen
Zn (s) + 2H2O Zn (OH)2 (s) + H2 (g)
Iron does not react with water. Copper has no reaction with water and
steam.
Reactions of metals with dilute acids
K, Na, Ca, Mg, Zn and Fe reacts with dilute hydrochloric acid

Metal + acid metal chloride + hydrogen

Displacement reaction
Displacement reaction is the displacement of ions of metals from
compound of metals lower in the reactivity series by metals higher in the
reactivity series.
e.g. Magnesium displaces Copper (II) Chloride
Magnesium + Copper (II) chloride Magnesium chloride + copper
Displacement is due to Magnesium (Mg) atoms transfer electrons to
Copper ions (Cu2+) forming Cu atoms.
Mg (s) Mg 2+ (aq) + 2e -
Cu2+ (aq) + 2e- Cu (s)
NB A metal higher in the reactivity series displaces a less reactive metal
from solution.
Aluminium is unreactive because it forms an oxide layer
(Aluminium oxide Al2O3)
21. CHEMISTRY OF THE ENVIRONMENT.

21.1. Water.
Water
Water is the most available liquid on earth covering 70% of the planet
surface.
Chemical test for water
1. Water turns anhydrous copper (II) Sulphate from white to blue.
2. Water turns anhydrous cobalt (II) chloride from blue to pink.
Treatment of water
Stages in water treatment.
1. Sedimentation and filtration to remove insoluble solids
2. Use of carbon to remove tastes and odours
3. Chlorination to kill microbes
Water from rivers and lakes and from underground can contain
dissolved salts, solid particles and bacteria. The water purification
process is designed to remove the last two of these.
At its simplest, water treatment involves filtering the water to remove
solid particles and adding chlorine (chlorination) to kill bacteria which
could cause disease.
Distilled water is used in practical chemistry rather than tap water
because it contains fewer chemical impurities.
Desalination
In some parts of the world, sea water is made drinkable by desalination
(taking the salt out). This can be done by distillation or by forcing the
water through special membranes using high pressures (reverse
osmosis).
21.2. Air quality and Climate
Clean dry air is composed of 78% Nitrogen (N2), 21% oxygen (O2) and
the remainder as a mixture of noble gases and carbon dioxide (CO 2)
Sources of common air pollutants are:
1. Carbon monoxide from the complete combustion of carbon-
containing fuels
2. Carbon monoxide and particulates from the incomplete
combustion of carbon-containing fuels.
3. Methane from the decomposition of vegetation and waste gases
from digestion in animals.
4. Gases from the burning of plastics.
Adverse effects of air pollutants
1. Carbon monoxide.-toxic gas.
2. Carbon dioxide: higher levels of carbon dioxide leading to increased
global warming, which leads to climate change

3. Particulates: increased risk of respiratory problems and cancer.

4. Methane: higher levels of methane leading to increased global
warming, which leads to climate change.
5. Gases from burning plastics: toxic.
Strategies to reduce global warming
1. Increasing use of renewable energy.
2. Decreasing use of fossil fuels
3. Limiting deforestation
4. Reduction in livestock farming.
Hydrogen -Oxygen fuel cell
It uses hydrogen and oxygen to produce electricity, with water as the
only chemical product.
Research has found a much more efficient way of changing chemical
energy into electrical energy by using a fuel cell. A hydrogen fuel cell
can be used to power a car. Such a cell operates continuously, with no
need for recharging. The cell supplies energy as long as the reactants
are fed in to the electrodes. The overall reaction of the hydrogen-oxygen
fuel cell is
Hydrogen + oxygen water
Advantages and disadvantages of using hydrogen fuel cell in

comparison with gasoline/petrol
Advantages Disadvantages
Renewable if produced using solar Non-renewable if generated using
energy nuclear energy or energy from
fossil fuels
Lower flammability than gasoline Large fuel tank required
(petrol)
Virtually emission-free There are no filling stations, where
a car could be topped up with
hydrogen, at present
Zero emissions of carbon dioxide Engine redesign needed or a fuel

cell system
Non-toxic Currently expensive
22. ORGANIC CHEMISRTY

Fuels
Coal, natural gas and petroleum are fossil fuels that produce carbon
dioxide on complete combustion.
Methane (CH4) is the main constituent of a natural gas.
Petroleum
Petroleum is a mixture of hydrocarbons which can be separated into
various useful fractions through fractional distillation.
Fractional distillation
Petroleum is first passed through a furnace to be heated into vapour.
The vapour is then passed through fractionating column. Since
petroleum consists of hydrocarbons of different sizes, the fractions have
different boiling points and condense at different temperatures. The
vapour rises up the column where they will condense and be tapped off.
Higher parts of the column have lower temperatures while lower parts of
the column have higher temperatures. Since lighter fractions have lower
boiling points, they are tapped off at higher parts of the column. Heavier
fractions on the other hand, have higher boiling points and are tapped at
lower parts of the column.

NB: Each fraction contains a number of different hydrocarbons. The

individual single hydrocarbons can then be obtained by further
distillation.
Uses of fractions
Fraction uses
Petroleum gas (refinery gas) For bottled gas for heating and
cooking
Petrol (gasoline) Fuel for cars
Naphtha As feed stock for making chemicals
Diesel oil/gas oil For fuel in diesel engines
Bitumen For road surfaces, Roofing
Homologous series
A homologous series of organic compounds have similar chemical
properties as they share the same functional group. The chemical
formula of a series can be described with a general formula.
Alkanes (General formula CnH2n+2 Where n≥ 𝟏 )
These are saturated hydrocarbons whose molecules contain only single
covalent bonds
Naming organic compounds
The prefix of the name of an organic compound gives the number of
carbon atoms present in the compound.
Number of carbon atoms Prefix
1 Meth-
2 Eth-
3 Prop-
4 But-
The suffix of the name of an organic compound tells us which

homologous series the compound belongs to
Homologous series suffix
alkanes -ane
alkenes -ene
Examples of alkanes
1. Methane (CH4)
2. Ethane (C2H4)
3. Propane (C3H8)
4. Butane (C4H10)
Name methane ethane propane butane
n 1 2 3 4
Molecular CH4 C2H6 C3H8 C4H10
formula
Moving down the series, the molecular size of the alkanes increases.
Chemical properties of alkanes
Alkanes are generally unreactive as C-C and C-H bonds are not easily
broken. They can only undergo combustion and substitution reactions.
Alkanes can only react with halogens through substitution reaction. This
occurs in the presence of ultraviolet light. Hydrogen atoms are
substituted by halogen atoms in the reaction. The reaction produces a
mixture of halogen-containing compounds.
Complete combustion of hydrocarbons
Combustion occurs when an alkane combines with oxygen. The reaction
is exothermic and hence, alkanes are used as fuels and are burned for
energy.

If an alkane burns in excess oxygen, complete combustion occurs to
produce carbon dioxide and water only. However if the alkane burns
under oxygen-deficient conditions, soot (carbon) and carbon monoxide
are produced as well
Alkane + Oxygen water + carbon dioxide
(Complete combustion)
Alkenes (General formula C nH2n where n≥2)

These are unsaturated hydrocarbons whose molecules contain one
double covalent bond.
Name ethene propene butene
n 2 3 4
Molecular C2H4 C3H6 C4H8
formula
Alkenes are produced from the cracking reaction.

Cracking
Large hydrocarbons can be broken down into smaller molecules through
cracking. This process requires aluminium oxide or silicon dioxide as
catalyst. The mixture of large hydrocarbons is passed over the catalyst
at a high temperature of about 6000C.These molecules are then broken
down into a mixture of small alkanes and alkenes, and hydrogen is
sometimes produced as well. Small hydrocarbons molecules such as
ethane are required as starting materials for petrochemical industries.
Cracking is important as it converts large fractions ot petroleum, which
are of lower demand, into small hydrocarbons which are in high demand.
In addition, cracking provides the source of hydrogen for the production
of ammonia in the Haber process.
NB: Alkenes also undergo complete combustion when there is sufficient
oxygen to form carbon dioxide and water. They undergo incomplete
combustion to produce soot and carbon monoxide.

Alkenes are called unsaturated compounds due to the presence of C=C

bonds. These bonds allow for alkenes to undergo addition reactions,
which is a characteristic of alkenes.
Testing for the presence of unsaturated compounds:

Aqueous Bromine
Halogens can be added across the C=C bond at room temperature and
pressure to produce halogenoalkane. An example is the addition of
bromine to an alkene.
Ethene + bromine dibromoethane
C2H4(g) + Br2 (aq) C2H4Br2 (aq)
The addition of bromine is used in testing for the presence of
unsaturated compounds. Aqueous bromine is reddish-brown and
becomes colourless when an unsaturated compound is added.
Formation of poly (ethene)
Addition of polymerisation of monomer units
Alkene molecule can react with one another to form a large saturated
molecule through addition polymerisation. This process takes place at
high temperature and pressure in the presence of a catalyst.
𝑛𝐶2 𝐻4 (g) (C2H4) n (s)

A monomer is a repeating unit.
High pressure
Ethene poly (ethene)
Heat, catalyst

H H high pressure H H
n C=C C C
H H heat, catalyst H H n
Where n is a very large number.

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3K:ST JOHN’S EMARALD HILL HIGH SCHOOL 2022

13. STATES OF MATTER

MR HENRY KANYOTO: ST JOHN’S EMARALD HILL HIGH SCHOOL HARARE. Page 1

Structure solid, liquid and gas in terms of particle separation,

MR HENRY KANYOTO: ST JOHN’S EMARALD HILL HIGH SCHOOL HARARE. Page 2

MR HENRY KANYOTO: ST JOHN’S EMARALD HILL HIGH SCHOOL HARARE. Page 3

MR HENRY KANYOTO: ST JOHN’S EMARALD HILL HIGH SCHOOL HARARE. Page 4

Melting and Freezing

14. ATOMS, ELEMENTS AND COMPOUNDS

MR HENRY KANYOTO: ST JOHN’S EMARALD HILL HIGH SCHOOL HARARE. Page 5

e.g. Oxygen in air varies

MR HENRY KANYOTO: ST JOHN’S EMARALD HILL HIGH SCHOOL HARARE. Page 6

mixture a similar to different properties

Solvent, solute, solution and concentration

MR HENRY KANYOTO: ST JOHN’S EMARALD HILL HIGH SCHOOL HARARE. Page 7

Simple paper chromatography

The separation of the mixture is now complete. The different

MR HENRY KANYOTO: ST JOHN’S EMARALD HILL HIGH SCHOOL HARARE. Page 8

Solvent Comparison dyes

Two comparison dyes (A and C) are of one of the compositions of the

MR HENRY KANYOTO: ST JOHN’S EMARALD HILL HIGH SCHOOL HARARE. Page 9

Rf value (Retention factor)

Originally, paper chromatography was used to separate solutions of

14.2. Atomic structure and periodic table.

MR HENRY KANYOTO: ST JOHN’S EMARALD HILL HIGH SCHOOL HARARE. Page 10

MR HENRY KANYOTO: ST JOHN’S EMARALD HILL HIGH SCHOOL HARARE. Page 11

Noble gas configuration or arrangement

Particle symbol Relative mass charge

Proton number or atomic number is the number of protons in the nucleus

MR HENRY KANYOTO: ST JOHN’S EMARALD HILL HIGH SCHOOL HARARE. Page 12

Arrangement of electrons in shells

Key X is representing an electron

MR HENRY KANYOTO: ST JOHN’S EMARALD HILL HIGH SCHOOL HARARE. Page 13

MR HENRY KANYOTO: ST JOHN’S EMARALD HILL HIGH SCHOOL HARARE. Page 14

Lithium Beryllium Boron Carb Nitrogen Oxyg Fluori Neo

14.3. Ions and ionic bonding

When an atom gains electrons, it becomes negatively charged.

MR HENRY KANYOTO: ST JOHN’S EMARALD HILL HIGH SCHOOL HARARE. Page 15

Sodium atom, Na Chlorine atom (2;8;7)

Sodium ion, Na+(2;8) Chloride ion, CL -(2;8;8)

MR HENRY KANYOTO: ST JOHN’S EMARALD HILL HIGH SCHOOL HARARE. Page 16

Key Chlorine atom sodium atom.

MR HENRY KANYOTO: ST JOHN’S EMARALD HILL HIGH SCHOOL HARARE. Page 17

MR HENRY KANYOTO: ST JOHN’S EMARALD HILL HIGH SCHOOL HARARE. Page 18

NB Complete the structures of the remaining compounds

Property Ionic Covalent

MR HENRY KANYOTO: ST JOHN’S EMARALD HILL HIGH SCHOOL HARARE. Page 19

Compound Ions present formula

All of the compounds above are composed of ions. However, many

Formula of compounds from model or diagrammatic representation

MR HENRY KANYOTO: ST JOHN’S EMARALD HILL HIGH SCHOOL HARARE. Page 21

Equations including state symbols

MR HENRY KANYOTO: ST JOHN’S EMARALD HILL HIGH SCHOOL HARARE. Page 22

2Mg (s) + O2 (g) 2MgO (s)

15.2. Relative masses of atoms and molecules

Stoichiometric reacting masses.

MR HENRY KANYOTO: ST JOHN’S EMARALD HILL HIGH SCHOOL HARARE. Page 23

Concentration is the number of solute that dissolved in a given volume of