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5129 Physics Section 3K
5129 Physics Section 3K
All physical quantities consist of a numerical magnitude and a unit. e.g. 20Kg (20 is a
numerical magnitude and kg is a unit).
The three basic quantities commonly used in physics are: length, mass and time.
Length
The Standard international unit (S.I.Unit) of length is the metre (m). Other units are (cm, km,
mm etc)
Many length measurements are made with rulers; the correct way to read one is shown in fig
below. The reading is 510mm or 50.1cm. Your eye must be right over the mark on the scale
or the thickness of the ruler causes parallax errors.
40 cm 50cm
1m=100cm
1cm=10mm
1m=1000mm
1km=1000m
The S.I unit of volume is the cubic metre (m3), for most purposes cubic metre (cm3) is used
because m3 is very large. (other units cm3, mm3, Litres, ml, etc).
Volume(V)=Length(L)xWidth(W)xHeigth(H)
6cm
5cm
4cm
V=LxWxH
V=6cmx4cmx5cm=120cm3
We measure the length, width and height using rulers. Then we calculate the volume using
the formula.
The volume of a liquid is obtained by pouring the liquid into a measuring cylinder. When
taking a reading, the measuring cylinder must be upright and it must be on a flat surface and
your eye must be level with the bottom of the curved liquid surface, ie, the meniscus.
Measuring cylinder
NB.For mercury the meniscus is curved oppositely to that of other liquids and the top is read.
The volume of liquids is expressed in Litres (L); millilitres (ml). 1 litre= 1 000 cm3 and
1ml=1cm3.
Time
The S.I unit of time is the second (s), other units are, minutes, hours, days, weeks etc.
A stopwatch is adequate for finding the period in seconds of a pendulum, but to measure the
speed of sound, a clock that can time in millisecond is needed. To measure very short time
intervals, a digital clock that can be triggered to start and stop by an electronic signal from a
microphone, photo gate or mechanical switch is useful. Tickertape timers or data loggers are
often used to record short time intervals in motion experiments.
Time measuring devices rely on some kind of constantly repeating oscillations. In traditional
clocks and watches, a small wheel (the balance wheel) oscillates to and fro; in digital clocks
and watches the oscillations are produced by a tiny quartz crystal.
In this investigation you have to make time measurements using a stop watch or clock.
Method
Vernier calliperWhere smaller and accurate measurements are required, a vernier calliper is
used. The vernier callipers has two parts: the fixed linear scale and the movable vernier scale.
It has two pairs of jaws that are used to grip objects while measuring. It is used to measure;
the internal and external diameter of a cylinder using the internal and external jaws
respectively; very small length, for examples in wires; it is also used to measure very small
depth.
Inside jaws Main scale
Vernier scale
Outside jaws.
1 234567 8
VERNIER SCALE
COMBINED SCIENCE NOTES (5129) CAMBRIDGE SYLLABUS 2022
0mm 5 20
15
2.KINEMATICS
Acceleration
Speed-time graphs
Worked Example
v (m/s)
10
0 5 7 11 t (s)
Speed-time graph.
In Figure below (a), the gradient is not constant but is gradually increasing with time. This
shows that the acceleration is increasing with time.
v (m/s)
t(s)
v (m/s)
t(s)
Fig 2.6 (b): Acceleration is decreasing with time.
(a)Use data in fig 2.1 to calculate the change in speed 1.0s and 4.0s
SOLUTION
3.DYNAMICS
Resultant Force
When several forces act on a body, the resultant (overall) force on the body can be found by
adding together forces which act in the same direction and subtracting forces which act in
opposite directions:
When the forces acting on a body are balanced (i.e. there is no resultant force), the body will
either remain at rest or continue to move in a straight line at a constant speed
Friction
Friction is a force that opposes the motion of an object caused by the contact (rubbing) of
two surfaces. It always acts in the opposite direction to the direction in which the object is
moving
• Air resistance (sometimes called drag) is a form of friction caused by a body moving
through the air
• Friction (including air resistance) results in energy loss due to the transfer of energy
from kinetic to internal (heat)
Frictional force
Friction is force which opposes motion between two contact surfaces. It can cause the
surfaces to heat up and eventually wear away.
Effects of friction
❖ It makes an object not to move if the pushing or pulling force is less than the frictional
force
Friction is independent of surface area contact. This means that if two bodies have equal
weight are placed on a rough surface such that the area in contact is different, they will still
experience the same frictional force
1 Use of rollers
4Add wheels
➢ Moving parts in machine have one surface rubbing against another. This friction
results in metal parts wearing way, which are often expensive to replace.
➢ Sometimes frictional force between two materials also generates a lot of heat, which
may cause machines to stop functioning properly.
➢ Noise pollution.
Unbalanced Force.
When an unbalanced (resultant) force acts on an object, it can affect its motion in a number
of ways:
A resultant force can cause an object to speed up, slow down or change direction
Acceleration
f=m×a
• The greater the force, the greater the acceleration (for a given mass)
• For a given force, the smaller the mass the greater the acceleration
Mass
W
g=
m
Gravitational field strength is equivalency to the acceleration due to gravity 9.8N/kg. NB take
note that the units are not the same. For acceleration due to gravity it’s 9.8 m/s2.
The size of this force depends on the gravitational field strength (often called gravity, g, for
short)
W=mxg
• You can rearrange this equation with the help of the formula triangle:
The value of g (the gravitational field strength) varies from planet to planet
On Earth:
Diagram showing the gravitational field strengths of the planets in our solar system
• The weight (and hence mass) of two objects can be compared using a balance
DENSITY
mass
Density =
volume
Method
Volume is measured using a measuring cylinder for liquids and irregular objects. The volume
of a regular object e.g. a cube we use a metre rule to find its dimensions and the use formula
to calculate the volume.
Measuring the volume of an irregular object and hence determine its density e.g. a
stone.
Method.
1. Read the initial volume of water about half filled in a measuring cylinder.
2. Insert a stone tied to a thin string in the water.
3. Read the new volume of water and stone
4. To get the volume of stone subtract the volume of water only from the volume of
water and stone.
To find the density of the irregular object, we divide the mass of the object we get from a
balance by the volume of the object.
• In the case of a liquid, the liquid must be placed in a container, the mass of which
should be measured both when it is empty and when it contains the liquid:
o The mass of the liquid will be the difference between the two values
• The width (and length) can be measured using a ruler or a pair of digital calipers
• To make the measurements accurate, several measurements should be taken between
different faces or points on the circumference, and an average taken
(Note: When measuring the width of a sphere or cylinder, divide the measurement by two to
find the radius)
Irregular shapes:
Placing an object in a full Eureka can will displace water equal to its volume
Once the mass and volume of the shape is known, its density can be calculated.
Moment of force.
The Moment of a Force is the product of the force and the perpendicular distance from
the pivot
Moments occur when forces cause objects to rotate about some pivot
• Moments have the units Newton centimetres (N cm) or Newton metres (N m),
depending on whether the distance is measured in metres or centimetres
F2 x d2 = F1 x d1 + F3 x d3
To prevent the shelf from collapsing, the support must provide an upward moment
equal to the downward moment of the vase
6.DEFORMATION
Change of Shape.
Stretching Materials
When forces are applied to materials, the size and shape of the material can change
The method below describes a typical procedure for carrying out an investigation into the
properties of a material
Method
The force on the spring can be found by multiplying the mass on the spring (in kg) by 10
N/kg (the gravitational field strength)
The extension of the spring can be found by subtracting the original position of the spring
from each of the subsequent positions
Finally, a graph of extension (on the y-axis) against force (on the x-axis) should be plotted
Hooke's Law
f=kx
(where k is the spring constant, which represents how stiff a spring is)
F
k=
x
Limit of proportionality is the point on a force-extension graph, when the extending force is
removed the material will go back to its original length.
Many other materials (such as metal wires) also obey Hooke’s law
Hooke’s law is associated with the initial linear (straight) part of a force-extension graph
Objects that obey Hooke’s law will return to their original length after being stretched
It will reach the elastic limit. (From limit of proportionality to elastic limit, the object will no
longer obey Hooke’s law
Beyond elastic limit, the object will not return to its original length
Some examples:
• Many processes involve several steps before energy ends up in its final form
For example:
• A fossil fuel power station takes chemical energy (the fuel) and uses it to produce
electrical energy, but the individual steps are:
Types of Energy
Energy Transfer
Energy Dissipation
• When energy is transferred from one form to another, not all of the energy will end
up in the desired form (or place)
• This lost energy often ends up being dissipated (spreading out into the environment),
usually in the form of heat, light or sound
KE & GPE
• The gravitational potential energy (GPE) of an object is the energy it has due to its
height in a gravitational field:
o If an object is lifted up it will gain GPE
o If it falls, it will lose GPE
• The GPE of an object is related to its mass (m), height (h) and the gravitational field
strength (g):
Kinetic Energy
• The kinetic energy (KE) of an object is the energy it has as a result of its speed
• It is related to the mass (m) and speed (v) of the object by the equation:
Energy Resources
Descriptions & Forms
• Energy resources are large banks of energy that can be transferred into a form that can
be used by society, such as electrical energy
• The table below gives a brief description of the main energy resources, along with the
form of energy contained in that resource
• All energy resources have advantages and disadvantages associated with them
• Most of our energy resources on the Earth come from the Sun:
o The Sun heats up the atmosphere, creating wind and producing waves
o Water evaporated by the Sun falls as rain, filling up reservoirs
o Plants grown using sunlight form the basis for fuels – both biofuels and fossil
fuels
• The Sun’s energy is produced by through the process of nuclear fusion in its core
o Nuclear fusion involves the collision (and bonding) of hydrogen nuclei to
form helium nuclei, releasing nuclear energy in the process
• Some forms of energy, however, do not come from the Sun
These include:
o Geothermal – this comes from heat produced in the Earth’s core
o Nuclear – this comes from elements which make up a small proportion of the
Earth’s crust
o Tidal – this comes (mainly) from the gravitational attraction of the moon
Work Done is the product of force and the distance moved in the direction of force.
• Whenever any work is done, energy gets transferred (mechanically) from one form to
another
• The amount of energy transferred (in joules) is equal to the work done (also in joules)
• Usually, if a force acts in the direction that an object is moving then the object will
gain energy
• If the force acts in the opposite direction to the movement then the object will lose
energy
• The amount of work that is done if related to the size of the force and the distance
moved by the object in the direction of the force:
W = F× d
The units of work are joules (J) (the same as the units of energy), but can also be given as
newton metres (Nm)
• Machines, such as car engines, transfer energy from one form to another every second
• The power of a machine is the rate at which the machine transfers energy
o The greater the rate at which energy is transferred, the greater the power
• Because work done is equal to energy transferred, the power is also equal to the rate
of doing work
Calculating Power
• Power is the amount of energy transferred (or work done) every second.
• Power, work and time are related by the following equation:
𝑊𝑂𝑅𝐾 𝐷𝑂𝑁𝐸
𝑃𝑂𝑊𝐸𝑅 =
𝑇𝐼𝑀𝐸 𝑇𝐴𝐾𝐸𝑁
The unit of power is the watt (W), which is the same as a joule per second (J/s)
Conduction
What is Conduction?
• When a substance is heated, the atoms start to move around (vibrate) more
Conduction: the atoms in a solid vibrate and bump into each other
• Metals are especially good at conducting heat as the delocalised electrons can collide
with the atoms, helping to transfer the vibrations through the material
Demonstrating Conduction
The above apparatus consists of 4 different metal strips of equal width and length
arrange around an insulated circle
Convection
What is Convection?
• Convection is the main way that heat travels through liquids and gases
(Convection cannot happen in solids)
• When a liquid (or gas) is heated:
o The molecules push each other apart, making the liquid/gas expand
o This makes the hot liquid/gas less dense than the surroundings
o The hot liquid/gas rises, and the cooler (surrounding) liquid/gas moves in to
take its place
o Eventually the hot liquid/gas cools, contracts and sinks back down again
o The resulting motion is called a convection current
Radiation
Radiation: Basics
• All hot objects give off thermal radiation: the hotter they are, the more they emit
• Thermal radiation is part of the electromagnetic spectrum – infrared
• Thermal radiation is the only way in which heat can travel through a vacuum
It is the way in which heat reaches us from the Sun
• The colour of an object affects how good it is at emitting and absorbing thermal
radiation:
• Black objects are very good at absorbing thermal radiation (think about black leather
seats in strong sunshine) but also very good at emitting it (when it goes dark those
seats cool down quickly)
• Shiny objects reflect thermal radiation and so absorb very little. They also emit very
little, though, and so take longer to cool down
An image of a hot object taken in both Infrared and visible light. The black surface
emits more thermal radiation (infrared) than the shiny surface
Demonstrating Radiation
A black and a shiny beaker can be used to demonstrate the effect of colour upon the
emission and absorption of thermal radiation
Conduction
Convection
Thermal Radiation
In many hot countries it is common for houses to produce hot water using solar panels
Explain the features of the solar panel that help it heat the water efficiently
Answer:
• The thermal radiation (infrared) is able to pass through the glass sheet
• The black metal backing sheet absorbs the thermal radiation (sunlight)
• Being metal (an excellent conductor) it then conducts it into the copper pipes
• The copper pipes (also metal) then conduct the heat into the water
• The insulated material reduces the conduction of heat through the back of the panel,
decreasing heat loss
9.TEMPERATURE
Measuring Temperature
• In order to build a thermometer based on one of these properties, you need to start by
measuring the property at some well-defined fixed points
• A fixed point is a temperature at which some easily identifiable change occurs, such
as the melting of ice (at 0 °c) or the boiling of pure water (at 100 °c)
Ice melts and water boils at well-defined temperatures (fixed points) which may be used to
calibrate thermometers
Measuring some property at two fixed points allows you to then work out the temperature
for other values of that property
Sensitivity, Range
o Sensitivity – if the thing you are measuring changes significantly when the
temperature changes, it makes it easier to detect small changes in temperature:
Your thermometer is more sensitive
o Range – What are the lowest and highest temperatures the thermometer can
measure? If a liquid-thermometer is too short, there may not be enough room
for the liquid to expand into
Liquid Thermometers
As the bulb is heated, the liquid expands and moves along the capillary tube
• The liquids used in liquid-in-glass thermometers are chosen for their thermal
expansion properties:
o They expand significantly, giving them greater sensitivity
o They have low freezing points and high boiling points, allowing them to be
used over a greater range of temperatures
• Sensitivity is another word for precision. Anything that makes it easier to detect small
changes in temperature increases the precision, or sensitivity of a liquid thermometer
• Some of the factors which increase sensitivity are:
o Using a thermometer with a smaller glass bulb, as a smaller bulb contains
less liquid and therefore, absorbs heat in a shorter time
Thermal Expansion
What is Thermal Expansion?
When a solid is heated, the molecules vibrate more, pushing each other apart
Note: When this happens, it is the space taken up by the molecules that increases. The
molecules themselves remain the same size.
• The thermal expansion of materials can have some useful applications, but also has
some undesirable consequences
• Applications:
o The expansion of a liquid in a thermometer can be used to measure
temperature
o A bimetallic strip, consisting of two metals that expand at different rates, can
be made to bend at a given temperature, forming a temperature-activated
switch
The bimetallic strip will bend upwards when heated, closing the circuit
Waves: Basics
• The frequency of a wave is the number of waves passing a point (or being created or
received) every second – it is helpful to think of it as being the waves per second
• The units of frequency are hertz (Hz)
Transverse Waves
• For a transverse wave, the points along the wave vibrate at 90 degrees to the direction
in which the wave is moving (the direction of energy transfer)
With a transverse wave, the vibrations are at 90 degrees to the direction of energy
transfer
Longitudinal Waves
• For a longitudinal wave, the points along the wave vibrate in the same direction that
the wave is moving in
With a longitudinal wave, the vibrations are parallel to the direction of energy transfer
12.LIGHT
Reflection of Light
Incidence & Reflection
Mirrors
• When an object is placed in front of a mirror, an image of that object can be seen in
the mirror
• The image:
o Is the same size as the object
o Is the same distance behind the mirror as the object is in front of it
o Is directly in line with the object
• Light from the object hits the mirror, reflecting from it (i=r)
• To an observer, the reflected ray appears to have come from the right-hand side of the
mirror
• The reflected ray can be traced back in this directions, forming a virtual ray
• This can be repeated for another ray travelling in a slightly different direction
• An image of the object will appear where these two virtual rays cross
• The type of image formed in the mirror is called a virtual image
• A virtual image is formed by the divergence of rays from the image, and cannot be
projected onto a piece of paper (because the rays don’t actually go through the image)
Refraction of Light
Refraction
• When light enters a glass block, it slows down, causing it to change direction
• When it leaves the block, it speeds up again, changing direction once more
• As the light enters the block it bends towards the normal line
(Remember: Enters Towards)
• When it leaves the block, it bends away from the normal line
(Remember: Leaves Away)
Investigating Refraction
• In your examination you might be asked to write a method explaining how you might
investigate the refraction of light through different shaped blocks
Diagram showing a ray box alongside three different shaped glass blocks
Method:
1. Place the glass block on a sheet of paper, and carefully draw around the block using a
pencil
2. Take a ray box and carefully aim the box so that a single ray of light passes through
the block
3. Using a pencil, mark some points along the path of the ray:
Before it reaches the block;
Where it hits the block;
Where it leaves the block;
After it has left the block
4. Now remove the block from the paper and, using a ruler and pencil, draw straight
lines connecting points: a and b; b and c; c and d. The resulting line will show the
path of the ray
5. Replace the block within its outline and repeat the above process for a ray striking the
block at a different angle
Snell's Law
Diagram showing the angle of incidence, i, and the angle of refraction, r, of a ray of light
entering a glass block
• Snell’s law gives the relationship between the angle of incidence i, and the angle of
refraction r:
• You can rearrange this equation with the help of the formula triangle:
• The refractive index is related to the speed of light in the material (which is less than
its speed in a vacuum):
• The refractive index is a number that is always bigger than 1 and is different for
different materials (n is about 1.5 for glass)
• When parallel rays of light (travelling parallel to the principal axis) pass through a
lens, they are brought to a focus at a point known as the principal focus
• The distance of the principal focus from the lens is called the focal length, and
depends on how curved the lens is
13.ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
Visible light is just one small part of a much bigger spectrum: The electromagnetic
spectrum
• Electromagnetic waves have a large number of uses. The main ones are summarised
in the table below
14.STATIC ELECTRICITY.
• When two charged objects are brought close together, there will be a force between
those objects
Measuring Charge
15.CURRENT ELECTRICITY
Electric Current
• When two oppositely charged conductors are connected together (by a length of
wire), charge will flow between the two conductors
• You can rearrange this equation with the help of the formula triangle:
Measuring Current
By definition, conventional current always goes from positive to negative (even though
electrons go the other way)
Electromotive Force
The EMF is the voltage supplied by a power supply: 12 V in the above case
• The EMF of a power supply (measured in volts, V) is the amount of energy (measured
in joules, J) supplied to each coulomb of charge passing through that power supply
Potential Difference
• The potential difference between two points in a circuit is the amount of energy
transferred by each unit of charge passing between those two points
• The unit of voltage, the volt (V), is the same as a joule per coulomb (J/C)
1 V = 1 J/C
Resistance
What is Resistance?
• Potential difference, current and resistance are related by the following equation:
Determining Resistance
• To find the resistance of a component, set up a circuit like the one shown below
• The power supply should be set to a low EMF (voltage) to avoid heating the
component – 1 or 2 volts is typically enough
• Measurements of the potential difference and current should then be taken from the
voltmeter and ammeter respectively
• Finally, these readings should be substituted into the following equation:
𝑃𝑂𝑇𝐸𝑁𝑇𝐼𝐴𝐿 𝐷𝐼𝐹𝐹𝐸𝑅𝐸𝑁𝐶𝐸
𝑅𝐸𝑆𝐼𝑆𝑇𝐴𝑁𝐶𝐸 =
𝐶𝑈𝑅𝑅𝐸𝑁𝑇
Series Circuits
• A series circuit consists of a string of two or more components, connected end to end:
• When several cells are connected together in series, their combined EMF is equal to
the sum of their individual EMFs
The total EMF of these cells is equal to the sum of their individual EMFs
• In a series circuit, the sum of potential differences across the components is equal to
the total EMF of the power supply
In a series circuit the components share the EMF of the power supply
Parallel Circuits
• Because the current splits up, the sum of currents in each branch will equal the current
from the power supply
In a parallel circuit, the current splits up, dividing between the various branches of the
circuit
• Note that the current does not always split equally – often there will be more current
in some branches than in others
• The current in each branch will only be identical if the components along each branch
are identical (or at least have the same resistance)
Resistors in Series.
Resistors in Series
When several components are connected in series, their combined resistance is equal to
the sum of their individual resistances
16.PRACTICAL ELECTRICITY
Electrical Energy
• As electricity passes around a circuit, energy is transferred from the power source to
the various components (which may then transfer energy to the surroundings)
o As charge passes through the power supply it is given energy
o As it passes through each component it loses some energy (transferring that
energy to the component)
The current transfers electrical energy from the power source and to the components
E=I×V×t
Electrical Power
• Power is the rate of energy transfer (the amount of energy transferred per second)
• The power of an electrical component (or appliance) is given by the equation:
P = I×V
• The unit of power is the watt (W), which is the same as a joule per second (J/s)
• Note that the above equation is related to the equation for energy – after all, power is
just energy per second, and so:
Hazards of Electricity
Fuses
• A fuse is a safety device designed to cut off the flow of electricity to an appliance if
the current becomes too large (due to a fault or a surge)
The circuit symbol for a fuse – take care not to confuse this with a resistor
• Fuses usually consist of a glass cylinder which contains a thin metal wire.
• If the current in the wire becomes too large:
o The wire heats up and melts
o This causes the wire to break, breaking the circuit and stopping the current
• The fuse should always have a current rating that is higher than the current needed by
the appliance, without being too high – always choose the next size up
Example:
Earthing
A diagram showing the three wires going to a mains powered appliance: live, neutral
and earth
• If this happens:
o The earth wire provides a low resistance path to the earth
o His causes a surge of current in the earth wire and hence also in the live
wire
o The high current through the fuse causes it to melt and break
o This cuts off the supply of electricity to the appliance, making it safe
(Note: the atom is around 100,000 times larger than the nucleus!)
Nucleus
Protons & Neutrons
• The atom shown in the above diagram can also be represented using an atomic
symbol:
Atomic symbols, like the one above, describe the constituents of nuclei
• The top number is called the nucleon number, A, and is equal to the total number of
particles (protons and neutrons) in the nucleus
• The lower number is called the proton number, Z, and is equal to the total number of
protons in the nucleus
(Note: Chemists refer to the nucleon number as the mass number, and the proton number as
the atomic number)
• When given an atomic symbol, you can figure out the total number of protons,
neutrons and electrons in the atom:
o Protons: The number of protons is equal to the proton number
o Electrons: Atoms are neutral, and so in a neutral atom the number of negative
electrons must be equal to the number of positive protons
21.RADIOACTIVITY
Is the random and spontaneous disintegration of unstable nucleus.
Random means they is no pattern of decay.
Spontaneous means decay is not affected by physical conditions eg temperature and pressure.
Detection of Radioactivity
Detecting Radiation
• When radiation passes close to an atom, it knocks out electrons, ionising the atom
• Radiation detectors work by detecting the presence of these ions or the chemical
changes that they produce
• Examples of radiation detectors include:
o Photographic film (often used in badges)
o Geiger-Muller (GM) tubes
o Ionisation chambers
o Scintillation counters
o Spark counters
Characteristics of Radiation
• Radiation consists of high energy particles (or waves) emitted from the nucleus of an
unstable atom
• Alpha (α) particles are high energy particles made up of 2 protons and 2
neutrons (the same as a helium nucleus).
They are usually emitted from nuclei that are too large
• Beta (β−) particles are high energy electrons emitted from the nucleus (even though
the nucleus does not normally contain any electrons)
They are usually emitted by nuclei that have too many neutrons
• Gamma (γ) rays are high energy electromagnetic waves
They are emitted by nuclei that need to lose some energy
• If these particles hit other atoms, they can knock out electrons, ionising the atom
When radiation passes close to atoms, it can knock out electrons, ionising the atom
The nature and properties of the different types of radiation are summarised in the table
below
• Note that when you go down the table, the range and penetration increase, but the
ionisation decreases
Diagram showing the penetrative abilities of alpha (α) particles, beta (β −) particles, and
gamma (γ) rays. Note how some of the gamma rays are able to penetrate the lead
Diagram showing an experiment to find the type of radiation being emitted by a source
Ionisation
Radioactive Decay
Radioactive Decay: Basics
• Some isotopes are unstable – usually because of their large size or because the
number of protons and neutrons within them are out of balance
• As a result, these isotopes will decay – emitting little chunks (radiation) in order to
reduce their size or bring them back into balance
• When an isotope emits radiation, the constitution of its nucleus (the number of
protons and neutron) changes
• As a result, the isotope will change into a different element
Alpha Emission
Beta Emission
A beta particle is emitted when a neutron turns into a proton, emitting an electron
• Note that the beta particle is given an atomic number of -1 in the above examples
This is because the atomic number is being used to measure charge in this case:
Protons, being positive particles, have positive atomic numbers
Electrons, being negative, have a negative number
Half-Life is the time taken for the number of atoms to decay to half of its original value.
Half-Life Basics
• As an isotope decays, the number of nuclei of that isotope that remain will decrease
• As a consequence of this, the activity of that isotope will also decrease over time
• The half-life of an isotope is the time taken for the activity of that isotope (or the
number of original nuclei) to drop to half of its initial value
• Every time one half-life passes, the activity (and the number of nuclei) will fall by
half
Graph showing the change in activity of an isotope over time and its radioactive half-life
• Different isotopes have different half-lives and half-lives can vary from a fraction of a
second to billions of years in length
• As mentioned above, every time one half-life passes the activity (and number of
nuclei remaining) halves
However, the activity (and number of nuclei) will never quite drop to zero
Measuring Half-Life
• If given some data showing how the activity (or number of nuclei) changes over time:
o Plot a graph of this data (with time on the x-axis)
o Add a smooth best fit curve (the curve should get closer to, but never quite
reach, the x-axis)
Use graphs like the one above to work out the half-life of an isotope
• IF you are given just two pieces of data (along with a time) – say the initial and final
activity of an isotope:
o Start by figuring out how many times you have to halve the initial activity to
get to the final activity
o This number will be the number of half-lives that have passed
o Divide the time by the number of half-lives to figure out the value of one half-
life
Example:
60/2 = 30
30/2 = 15
We had to halve 120 three times to get to 15, and so three half-lives have passed.
6 days/3 = 2 days
Safety Precautions
The Dangers
• When radiation passes close to atoms the radiation can knock out electrons, ionising
the atom
When radiation passes close to an atom it can knock electrons out of the atom, giving
the atom a charge
Safety
• The risks associated with handling radioactive sources can be minimised by following
a few simple procedures:
o Store the sources in lead-lined boxes and keep at a distance from people
o Minimise the amount of time you handle sources for and return them to their
boxes as soon as you have finished using them
o During use, keep yourself (and other people) as far from the sources as
feasible. When handling the sources do so at arm’s length, using a pair of
tongs
(Note: When using tongs, gloves and safety specs are usually unnecessary when handling
radioactive materials, unless there is a risk of the material leaking on to things)