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Implementing The Circular Economy For Sustainable Development 1St Edition Hans Wiesmeth Full Chapter PDF
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IMPLEMENTING THE CIRCULAR ECONOMY
FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
IMPLEMENTING
THE CIRCULAR
ECONOMY FOR
SUSTAINABLE
DEVELOPMENT
HANS WIESMETH
TU Dresden, Faculty of Economics, Dresden, Germany
Elsevier
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The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1GB, United Kingdom
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A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
ISBN: 978-0-12-821798-6
1
Introduction
The circular economy respects and sustain- 1.1.1 What distinguishes a circular
ably preserves the fundamental functions of economy?
the environment as supplier of natural
resources, as recipient of all types of waste, In a pure market economy, there are individ-
and as direct provider of utility. Since countries ual decisions on production and consumption,
differ in terms of natural resources, size, demo- which depend on the local situation. Interest-
graphic, climatic and economic conditions, ingly, under certain conditions, the “invisible
“the” circular economy is likely to vary from hand”, the famous metaphor of A. Smith, will
country to country – similar to the regular econ- lead individual decisions to an efficient, optimal
omy. In view of these differences, it is therefore result. One of the reasons for this optimality out-
advisable to speak of the implementation of “a” come is the personal interest of consumers and
circular economy. producers in combination with exclusivity:
What distinguishes a circular economy from a other agents can be excluded from the benefits
regular market economy? How do we imple- of consumption or production of these
ment a circular economy? And, of course, what commodities.
are appropriate instruments in this regard? Unfortunately, this result, which explains
These are just some of the questions, which are part of the success of market economies, does
asked in this book and to which an answer is not allow an immediate extension to environ-
given. mental commodities. These environmental com-
modities, such as reductions of all kinds of air,
soil, water and atmospheric pollutants, are cer-
1.1 Characterisation of the circular tainly beneficial for all people. However, if
economy someone reduces air pollution, for example,
then all other economic agents will also benefit
This section briefly characterises the circular from such an environmentally friendly action,
economy, the concept and its origins. The ques- exclusivity is no longer available, and people
tions raised above will be covered in the follow- will wait for others to take the first step towards
ing subsections. protecting the environment.
Implementing the Circular Economy for Sustainable Development 1 # 2021 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-821798-6.00001-6
2 1. Introduction
In addition, environmentally friendly waste prevention leads the waste hierarchy, fol-
designs, known as “designs for environment” lowed in its simplest form by reuse and
(DfE), need not be in the commercial interest recycling.
of producers. They, however, have the expertise Because there is usually limited knowledge
for such design changes. Reusing certain com- on the assimilative capacity of the environment
modities to extend their lifespan and thereby regarding waste, the priority goal should indeed
prevent waste can also reduce revenue and be waste prevention. Moreover, the more waste
profit for businesses. With regard to the imple- we generate, the more stays in the environment.
mentation of a circular economy, this means that Plastic waste everywhere and micro-plastics in
not all producers are likely to be enthusiastic the food chain are proof of this. Also the reuse
supporters. In general, mechanisms such as of commodities can prevent waste, and both
the Tragedy of the Commons and the Prisoners’ goals together help in addition to save natural
Dilemma influence relevant decisions of con- resources. Recycling of waste should be the final
sumers and producers, and information asym- step with recovery of resources and energy.
metries and a lack of information characterise Nevertheless, recycling reduces the amount of
all kinds of decisions in such an environmental waste to be landfilled and thus supports the
context. “Economy-guidance”, using the market assimilative capacity of the environment.
system for implementing a circular economy, The sustainable implementation of the waste
thus faces various challenges. hierarchy helps to save natural resources and to
For the implementation of a circular econ- maintain the assimilative capacity of the envi-
omy, it is therefore necessary to look at ronment to receive waste. This includes green-
“societal path dependencies”, such as a focus house gases that appear to exceed the amount
on profitable business activities. Of course, the atmosphere can absorb without rising global
implementing a circular economy does not temperatures. “Recycling” of greenhouse gases
mean at all that we should “dispose” of the mar- in carbon sinks such as forests plays a certain
ket economy. On the contrary, we should use the role, but the focus is more on prevention.
basic principles of a market economy such as The function of the environment as direct
decentralised decision-making whenever possi- provider of utility should not be forgotten. How-
ble. The shortcomings of the market mechanism ever, to prevent waste, save resources and
in the context of a circular economy must, how- reduce landfilling can also keep intact an envi-
ever, be taken into account. ronment that is less disturbed by excessive
This sounds simple: take the market mecha- and environmentally harmful mining or simi-
nism with some addendums or modifications, larly problematic landfilling.
apply it to environmental commodities that To sum up, the sustainable implementation of
are relevant to a circular economy, and that is the waste hierarchy is of great importance for
it. Unfortunately, there are a number of other achieving the objectives of a circular economy
issues, which need to be respected. in terms of the fundamental functions of the
environment. It is, of course, possible to support
circular economy activities through additional
1.1.2 How to implement a circular
measures: establishing smart cities, meeting
economy?
the Sustainable Development Goals, implement-
What is the best way to sustainably respect ing the European Green Deal and others. Such
and preserve the fundamental functions of the activities can also help to raise awareness of
environment? The book focuses on all aspects the need for a circular economy.
of waste management, on the implementation Here, too, implementing the waste hierarchy
of the waste hierarchy, more precisely. As usual, seems to be simple: most people want to get rid
1.1 Characterisation of the circular economy 3
of waste, they do not want to be bothered by it. challenge and produce results, which are not
Unfortunately, however, this attitude and its in line with a circular economy. Environmental
possible effects do not necessarily correspond technologies such as collection systems and
to the goals of the waste hierarchy. Disposing recycling technologies, as well as collection
of waste in a bin is not synonymous with the pre- and recycling targets, should be “economically
vention of waste in the sense of the waste hierar- reasonable”. This property depends not only
chy. However, quite a few people regard waste, on technological aspects, but also on the local sit-
which is collected, perhaps even recycled or dis- uation of an economy. Moreover, there are the
posed of as residual waste in landfills as avoided rebound effects, which can significantly weaken
or prevented waste. A societal path dependency the environmental impact of new technologies,
leads to this assessment, which is hardly com- and there are again societal path dependencies
patible with the objectives of a circular economy. that seem to motivate, for example, the expan-
Therefore, respecting and preserving the sion of recycling waste at the expense of waste
waste hierarchy in a sustainable way is not an prevention.
easy task. The following section highlights some Consequently, as neither economy-guidance
aspects of appropriate tools for implementing nor technology-guidance alone can sufficiently
the waste hierarchy and a circular economy. support the introduction of a circular economy,
a combination of policy tools seems necessary to
1.1.3 What are the appropriate guide relevant decisions in an appropriate way.
In shaping these policies, preference should be
instruments?
given to decentralised decision-making when-
In view of the above comments on the market ever possible. This enables the use of individual
system, additional mechanisms are required for knowledge and expertise, similar to a market
implementing a circular economy. Since a circu- economy. The technological framework must
lar economy with all its measures to implement thereby be respected and the policy should
the waste hierarchy appears to depend on incentivise DfEs or other pro-environmental
appropriate technologies and their further technologies. Again due to a lack of knowledge,
development, some guidance through technolo- the policy tools must be appropriately linked. If,
gies seems to be adequate. for example, producers are financially responsi-
According to the Ellen MacArthur Foun- ble for the collection and recycling of their prod-
dation, one of the roots of the circular economy ucts, then the incentives for a DfE increase with
concept is in industrial ecology, which “aims at high collection rates. In this sense, the motiva-
creating closed-loop processes in which waste tion of consumers to separate waste is linked
serves as an input, thus eliminating the notion to the motivation of producers for a DfE.
of an undesirable by-product”. With its systemic This holistic approach results in “Integrated
point of view, “designing production processes Environmental Policies” (IEP), characterised
in accordance with local ecological constraints by “constitutive elements” that relate the poli-
whilst looking at their global impact from the out- cies to important principles and features of the
set, … ”, industrial ecology could certainly pro- market mechanism. One of the principles, the
vide support for the implementation of a circular locality principle, seems natural and easy to
economy, could thus provide “technology- implement. However, the requirement of care-
guidance”. fully taking into account the local situation when
However, a more careful analysis shows that, designing an IEP, poses immediate challenges:
again due to information asymmetries and a lack how to respect this principle, this constitutive
of information, technology-guidance can element, in international contexts such as
4 1. Introduction
climate change mitigation or the reduction of The following subsection introduces the parts
pollution of rivers and seas with plastic waste? of the book and briefly presents some of the
Of course, the book presents examples of such aspects covered in the chapters.
IEPs for different types of waste. Due to different
information requirements it is, however, neces-
sary to draft different policies for the different
1.2.1 Part I: The circular economy –
waste streams, with the constitutive elements Concept and facts
providing guidance. The first part of the book introduces the con-
The book deals in detail with all these ques- cept of the circular economy, both from an aca-
tions and familiarises the reader with the con- demic and a practical point of view. Some
cept of the circular economy, in its relation to remarks on the relevance of societal path depen-
the technological environment, but with a clear dencies already point to challenges in the imple-
focus on the economic context. Moreover, the mentation of a circular economy at this stage.
reader will find the tools needed to design an Thereafter, we examine the perception of the
IEP, clues as how to establish the necessary links circular economy in the extensive literature.
between the policy tools and how to reduce the Business models, a sustainable development,
possibilities of vested interests interfering with environmental innovations, and regenerative
the objectives of the IEP. systems play a role in the literature. The percep-
The following section provides an outline of tion of the circular economy in a practical con-
the book and gives an overview on the topics text is of relevance because, as already
covered in relation to the general objective of indicated, practitioners had and continue to
implementing a circular economy. have an important influence on shaping the con-
cept. The Ellen MacArthur Foundation with its
mission “to accelerate the transition to a circular
1.2 The outline of the book economy” has to be mentioned in this context,
but also the Circular Economy Package of the
The book is structured into six parts, focusing European Union with its detailed recommenda-
on different aspects of the implementation of a tions for what needs to be done for the transition
circular economy. To strengthen the practical to a circular economy. As an example for a
context, various case studies provide further variety of other initiatives, the Russian
insights from practice. Here, too, the focus is TIARCENTER is presented as an independent
on the economic context: think tank and advisory firm, which offers
“strategic advice to corporations and govern-
• The refillable quota issue in Germany ment bodies on the sustainable development
(Section 7.3) principles implementation”.
• Sustainable use of the earth’s biodiversity The hierarchy of circular economy leaders
(Section 8.4) and followers is the topic of the next chapter.
• Promoting renewable energy sources in Reasons for a country to early adopt circular
Germany (Section 11.3) economy strategies have to be found in the local
• E-commerce and circular economy situation regarding abundance of natural
(Section 13.3) resources, perhaps also space for landfilling, or
• Emission standards for vehicles (Section 15.4) rather for hiding waste. Of importance is, how-
• Germany on the road to a circular economy ever, also the level of environmental awareness,
(Section 19.4) which is likely to depend on economic
1.2 The outline of the book 5
wellbeing. Germany and China are then por- the correct separation of waste, to give just one
trayed as circular economy leaders, while Russia example. Of course, these attitudes can signifi-
and Georgia seem to be, for different reasons, cantly support the development of a circular
late-movers regarding a circular economy. The economy and need to be cultivated.
United States (U.S.) should be seen as “a country The final chapter in this part refers to the allo-
in between”: there is potential, there are many cation problems in a circular economy, the con-
local initiatives, but a coherent strategy on the cept of a sustainable development and waste
federal level seems to be lacking. Strategic con- management from an economic point of view
siderations for the positioning of a country and introduces the waste hierarchy.
can, of course, also play a role.
The final chapter of this part examines vari-
ous environmental regulations in the context
1.2.3 Part III: The circular economy in a
of a circular economy with regard to achieving technological context
its objectives. The discussion of environmental This part examines the technological frame-
policies of the European Union (EU), Germany work of a circular economy. The first reference
and others points to shortcomings, which need is, of course, to industrial ecology, in particular
to be investigated in view of designing IEPs. its perception in theory and practice. In this
context, the markets for environmental tech-
nologies, especially the global markets, need to
1.2.2 Part II: Integrating the economy
be considered. Given the aspect of technology-
and the environment guidance, export promotions for specific technol-
The second part of the book deals comprehen- ogies, which are themselves related to societal
sively with the economic context of a circular path dependencies with regard to international
economy. The economic foundation introduces trade, can establish further technological path
environmental commodities, but also the very dependencies. The example of promoting
important concepts of a “perceived scarcity” of e-mobility in various countries could belong to
these commodities, and of a “perceived this category.
feedback” from environmentally friendly Information, rather its absence, and informa-
actions. It then introduces the basic structures tion asymmetries are considered in the next
of the market mechanism, with a view to other chapter. In particular the issue of the
allocation mechanisms, such as central “economic reasonableness” of certain technolo-
planning. gies and environmental standards requires
The important aspect of the allocation of envi- some attention. The important fact is that this
ronmental commodities is addressed next with a concept depends on the local situation, implying
focus on the mechanisms of the Tragedy of the also that a technology, which is reasonable in
Commons and the Prisoners’ Dilemma. These this sense in one country need not be economi-
two mechanisms have a decisive influence on cally reasonable in another one. However, the
many issues of relevance for implementing a cir- practical application of this concept depends
cular economy. on quite extensive cost-benefit analyses. The
Undoubtedly, behavioural economics, in par- chapter discusses also information asymmetries
ticular behavioural environmental economics, regarding a DfE and the consequences for imple-
has a lot to offer with respect to a transition to menting a circular economy.
a circular economy. Indeed, it seems necessary Rebound effects characterise the reaction of
to establish appropriate social norms, such as consumers on new environmentally friendly
6 1. Introduction
This first part of the book introduces in Chapter 2 the circular economy as the natural economic
system which respects the fundamental functions of the environment as supplier of natural
resources, receiver of waste, and as direct provider of utility. This leads then to a generic definition
of “the” circular economy, which leaves enough room for country-specific implementations of “a”
circular economy – taking into account local framework conditions.
Important roots of the concept, both in the more theoretic, economic, but also in the more practical,
applied context are investigated, pointing to roots in environmental economics on the one hand and
in more technical fields such as industrial ecology on the other. In each case the focus is on observance
of the waste hierarchy and sustainability with assigning technical and technological issues somewhat
different roles in the two approaches. A further remark refers, already at this stage, to societal path
dependencies, which may impede the implementation of a circular economy.
Chapter 3 considers different perceptions of a circular economy in literature and practice. The
review reveals some shifts in the understanding of the concept, in particular regarding the waste
hierarchy. Various contributions emphasise the role of appropriate business models for imple-
menting a circular economy. Potential business opportunities are propagated on a large scale with
the Circular Economy Package of the European Union, the European Green Deal or the mission of
the Ellen MacArthur Foundation. Other perceptions of a circular economy focus more on innova-
tive technologies or, more generally, on a sustainable development. The chapter then presents and
discusses some practical approaches: of the Ellen MacArthur Foundation, the European Union
with its Circular Economy Package, and the Russian TIARCENTER.
Chapter 4 addresses the fact that some countries adopt circular economy strategies earlier than
others. What are reasons for this observation, generating circular economy leaders and followers?
The investigation points to the substantial influence of availability of natural resources and land
for dumping waste, but soft factors such as environmental awareness, to some extent depending
on economic wealth, seem to play a role, too. Strategic behaviour regarding first-mover or late-
mover advantages are of relevance in addition. The detailed situation of various countries: Germany
and China as leaders, Russia and Georgia as followers, and the United States of America as a special
case are investigated in more detail.
The last chapter of Part I analyses various environmental regulations with a focus on implement-
ing a circular economy. The analysis shows that these regulations have deficiencies as their goals are
not really achieved. Individuals obviously react on these regulations and the available technologies
in not always completely predictable ways. Thus these case studies allow valuable insight into the
interaction of individuals with environmental regulations and environmental technologies.
10 Part I. The circular economy – Concept and facts
Summarising, this first part of the book lays the foundation for the further investigations. There is
a formal definition of the circular economy, there is a review of various perceptions, there is an inves-
tigation of leaders and followers, and there are experiences with attempts to implement a circular
economy. All these aspects need to be explored and exploited in the following parts and chapters,
before the issue of implementing a circular economy can be fully addressed in Part V.
C H A P T E R
2
The circular economy – Understanding
the concept
Understanding the circular economy means The more technical, practice-oriented percep-
understanding the perceptions of the concept. tions of the concept have roots in disciplines
The more theoretical, academic perception such as industrial ecology, focusing on material
has one of its strongest roots in the sub- and energy flows in industrial systems, and are
discipline of environmental economics, orien- thus deeply grounded in science, technology
tating therefore more on the behaviour of the and engineering. Environmental issues are
economic agents, consumers and producers, often related to technological activities: waste
in particular. The academic field of environ- and pollution are not accidents, but result from
mental economics emerged gradually in the inappropriate designs. The Ellen MacArthur
1960s, also as a response to the more and more Foundation, established in 2010 “to accelerate
noticeable discrepancies between the widely the transition to a circular economy”, refers to
accepted social desideratum of a lasting eco- waste and pollution “as consequences of deci-
nomic growth, and a troubling and increasing sions made at the design stage, where around
environmental degradation, visible in many 80% of environmental impacts are determined”.
parts of the world: in developing and industria- Thus it seems to be obvious that – according to
lised countries, in transition and emerging this view – further advances in science and tech-
economies, in market and centrally planned nology should play a major role in implement-
economies – regardless of the political system. ing a circular economy, which is based on the
Disturbing reports, such as “Limits to Growth” principles of “designing out waste and pollu-
by the Club of Rome (Meadows, Meadows, tion, keeping products and materials in use,
Randers, & Behrens, 1972), pointed in particu- and regenerating natural systems”.
lar to the “complex of problems troubling The growing concern with air, soil and water
men of all nations” (p. 9), likely constraining pollution, and persistent environmental degra-
future living conditions, if nothing is done to dation in general, has kept motivating scientists
address these problems. from all areas, including economists and
Implementing the Circular Economy for Sustainable Development 11 # 2021 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-821798-6.00002-8
12 2. The circular economy – Understanding the concept
engineers, to reconsider and preserve the funda- in the context of implementing a circular
mental role the environment has in the econo- economy.
mies of both the developed and the The following section, based on Pearce and
developing world. It is in this situation that Turner (1989), presents the relevant interactions
the concept of the circular economy emerged. between the economy and the environment,
The more or less simultaneous appearance thereby suggesting that a closed, circular struc-
of both theoretical and practical perceptions ture is the native structure of an economic sys-
reveals the highly interdisciplinary character tem, not the traditional open and linear
of the circular economy: economics, manage- structure. This leads, then, to the fundamental
ment, science, technology and engineering characteristics of “the” circular economy, pro-
play a crucial role, in particular regarding the viding the basic guidelines in this book for
implementation of a circular economy. implementing “a” circular economy.
Whereas scientists and engineers provide
insights and technologies, economists and
managers have the explicit task to design and 2.1 The academic concept of a circular
implement appropriate environmental poli- economy
cies, so-called “circular economy (CE) poli-
cies”, which motivate consumers and Pearce and Turner (1989) introduce and
producers to adequately support the goals of investigate the concept of the circular economy
a circular economy. It will turn out that the in their textbook, devoting a complete chapter
interaction between humans and technology to explaining “the fundamental ways in which
is not always without challenges for imple- consideration of environmental matters affect
menting a circular economy – pointing again our economic thinking” (p. 29). They discuss
to some discrepancies between the various per- the obvious interactions between the environ-
ceptions of a circular economy. ment and the economy: the environment as a
This chapter introduces first a generic aca- direct source of utility, as a supplier of natural
demic concept of the circular economy, and dis- resources for production, and as receiver of
cusses thereafter aspects of prominent practical waste, which could not be assimilated or
conceptualisations. Various publications, such recycled by nature itself. Andersen (2007) addi-
as Heshmati (2015) and Antikainen, Lazarevic, tionally emphasises the function of the environ-
and Sepp€ al€
a (2018), provide further detailed ment as a life-support system for the biosphere
remarks on the history of “circularity” in eco- as a separate fourth item.
nomics and especially in environmental eco- Ignoring these vital tasks of the environment
nomics. Ghisellini, Cialani, and Ulgiati (2016) with the possible consequences of a depletion of
present a survey on the origins of the circular natural resources and the further more or less
economy (see, in particular, Fig. 1, p. 13), uncontrolled landfilling of waste, leaves us with
whereas Murray, Skene, and Haynes (2017) turn the well-known paradigm of the linear economy
to the origins of the circular economy term itself (see Fig. 1.2 in Ellen MacArthur Foundation,
(see p. 371), and Hartley, van Santen, and 2017), which is, or rather was, based on the
Kirchherr (2020) review briefly some definitions. implicit assumption that the natural system,
On the other hand, Winans, Kendall, and Deng the environment, will continue to provide
(2017) consider the history of the more appropriate and necessary resources, and that
practice-oriented concepts of the circular it has the unlimited capacity to “digest” or
economy, and identify challenges and research assimilate all waste products – leading to the
gaps. The last section of this chapter points to air, water and soil pollution accompanying the
societal path dependencies and their role process of industrialisation in the developed
(see Figs. 2.3 and 2.4). These consequences, a specific conceptualisation. As these interdepen-
not indicated in Fig. 2.1, include the potential dencies may vary from region to region, this
negative feedback of excessive waste and exces- generic definition allows for many different
sive depletion of resources on production interpretations and just as many different pro-
and consumption possibilities – on economic posals for implementing a circular economy.
activities in general. Already at this point it is necessary to draw
Thus, according to Pearce and Turner (1989), the attention to increasingly interconnected
the academic concept of the circular economy economies: intensifying trade relations and
points to the inherently circular structure of an tourism tend to internationalise initially local
economic system. It is, therefore, from a formal, or regional environmental issues with immedi-
theoretical point of view, quite natural to adopt ate consequences for the degrees of freedom
the following generic concept of “the” circular regarding the choice of circular economy strate-
economy: gies. Moreover, there are the inherently global
issues such as climate change, which require a
Definition 2.1 In a generic sense, the circular
global approach in a circular economy context.
economy fully respects the interdependencies
As will be seen, these different perceptions
between the environment and the economy
regarding the concept and the implementation
and preserves the fundamental functions of
of a circular economy may and do create prob-
the environment in a sustainable way.
lems in a highly interconnected world.
In principle, implementing a circular econ- These aspects are critical for all practical mat-
omy in this generic sense means that economic ters and will be further discussed (see
activities should respect this particular struc- Chapter 17, for example). The following section
ture, these interdependencies with the environ- considers more technical, practice-oriented con-
ment. The dominant issues are sustainability cepts of the circular economy.
and all aspects of handling waste. Regarding
the latter, waste prevention should lead the
hierarchy, and by means of recovery and recy- 2.2 Practice-oriented concepts of a
cling, landfilling of waste should be reduced circular economy
to a minimum. Sustainability should refer to
saving and preserving resources, but also to The Ellen MacArthur Foundation points to
observing the assimilative capacity of the natu- various “schools of thought”, which have con-
ral environment. tributed “to refining and developing the circular
To accomplish these tasks is, however, any- economy concept”. Among them, following the
thing but simple: the interactions between the characterisation of the Ellen MacArthur Foun-
economy and the environment depend on the dation, are the “cradle to cradle” concept with
special situation in a particular country or region. its special design philosophy, perceiving
Abundance of certain natural resources or ample nature’s biological metabolism as a model for
availability of land for dumping waste on the one a technical metabolism, and the “Performance
hand, or a high environmental awareness on the Economy” with its closed loop approach to pro-
other, may lead to different perceptions regard- duction processes with the goals of product-life
ing sustainability and suitable features of the extension, long-life goods, reconditioning activ-
circular economy to be considered for implemen- ities, and waste prevention, and its focus on sell-
tation. It is therefore, as already indicated, advis- ing services, rather than products, in view of a
able to speak of the implementation of “a” sharing economy. “Biomimicry” is based on
circular economy in this case, referring to such nature’s best ideas, and imitates these ideas to
Systems thinking is also inherent in the concept Adam Smith (1723–1790), Thomas Malthus
of the circular economy (see Definition 2.1), and (1766–1834), David Ricardo (1772–1823) and
that all human activities should be considered John Stuart Mill (1806–1873) are among the
as part of the natural system is a decisive prominent philosophers and classical econo-
feature of a circular economy, too. Also mists, who considered economic growth a tem-
Hanumante, Shastri, and Hoadley (2019) porary phase due to the limits posed by the
recommend a “balanced approach for the adop- natural system. Karl Marx (1818–1883), with
tion of the circular economy”, and Schr€ oder, the background of the classical labour theory
Lemille, and Desmond (2020) address this gap of value, had similar pessimistic views on the
by relating the circular economy to human long-run economic development (see, for exam-
development. ple, Pearce & Turner, 1989, Ch. 1, or
So far these considerations of more technical, Shanahan, 2018).
practice-oriented approaches to a circular econ- This leaves us with some important ques-
omy. The next section addresses some general tions: will it, by means of a transition to a circular
aspects of implementing a circular economy – economy, be possible to overcome the con-
with a view on societal path dependencies, straints of the assimilative capacity of the envi-
which are of some relevance in this context. ronment? Will it be possible to get around and
These remarks will be reconsidered at a later compensate for the limited supply of exhaust-
stage (see Chapter 12). ible resources? After all, the predictions of the
classical economists and of Karl Marx did not
come true: a continuous stream of new scientific
2.3 Remarks on societal path knowledge, and technological and social inno-
dependencies vations helped to accommodate a growing
global population – at least in most regions
Adopting circular economy strategies or mov- and at least to some extent. Economic growth
ing towards a circular economy requires, accord- as a societal path dependency has not really
ing to general consent, systems thinking and the been challenged so far. But will it be possible
willingness to accept changes, fundamental to “convince” societies for the systems changes
changes perhaps. Societal path dependencies necessary for a circular economy – even if this
can stand in the way of necessary changes and implies less economic growth? Will it be possi-
may thus prevent or at least slow down the ble to overcome relevant societal path
implementation of a circular economy – not a dependencies?
particularly exciting perspective. After the publication of Pearce and Turner
A short remark in this context – further (1989), there was some scepticism, in particular
remarks will follow – refers to economic growth, regarding the sustainability goal. For example,
a globally accepted goal of economic policy, a Bennett (1991), in his review of the book points
societal path dependency so to say: the “limits to the “sustainability requirement”, which
to growth”, addressed by the Club of Rome, involves the maintenance of the currently avail-
posed by the exhaustible resources and the lim- able stock of natural capital – at least in princi-
ited assimilative capacity of the environment, fit ple. Any reductions to this stock “would need
into an interesting series of mostly pessimistic to be compensated for by additions to that stock
views on the prospects of long-term economic achieved by other projects …”, and “most econ-
growth, which were, equally interesting, most omists will see it as a prescription for the crea-
often related to environmental issues, in partic- tion of a poorer society, less able to afford
ular to the limited supply of agricultural land. environmental protection” (Bennett, 1991, p.
in principle, by Pearce and Turner (1989) is and Recycling, 155, 104634. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
thereby considered a reference point. resconrec.2019.104634.
Heshmati, A. (2015). A review of the circular economy and its
implementation. IZA Discussion Papers, (9611). Retrieved
from http://ftp.iza.org/dp9611.pdf.
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Andersen, M. S. (2007). An introductory note on the environ- economy—From review of theories and practices to
mental economics of the circular economy. Sustainability development of implementation tools. Sustainable
Science, 2, 133. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11625-006- Resource Management and the Circular Economy,
0013-6. 135, 190–201. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2017.
Antikainen, R., Lazarevic, D., & Sepp€al€a, J. (2018). Circular 10.034.
economy: Origins and future orientations. In Lifset, R., & Graedel, T. E. (2002). Industrial ecology: Goals and
H. Lehmann (Ed.), Earth and environmental science. Cham: definitions. In R. U. Ayres, & L. W. Ayres (Eds.), A handbook
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Ayres, R. U. (1998). Eco-thermodynamics: Economics and the https://doi.org/10.4337/9781843765479.00009.
second law. Ecological Economics, 26(2), 189–209. https:// Meadows, D. H., Meadows, D. L., Randers, J., & Behrens, W.
doi.org/10.1016/S0921-8009(97)00101-8. W., III (1972). The limits to growth: A report of the Club of
Bennett, J. W. (1991). Pearce, D. W., and R. K. Turner. Econom- Rome’s project on the predicament of mankind. A Potomac
ics of Natural Resources and the Environment. Baltimore Associates Book. Retrieved from http://www.
MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1990, 378 pp., $42.50, donellameadows.org/wp-content/userfiles/Limits-to-
$19.50 paper. American Journal of Agricultural Economics, Growth-digital-scan-version.pdf.
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Choudhary, C. (2012). Industrial ecology: Concepts, system omy: An interdisciplinary exploration of the concept and
view and approaches. International Journal of Engineering application in a global context. Journal of Business Ethics,
Research & Technology, 1(9) Retrieved from https:// 140, 369. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-015-2693-2.
www.ijert.org/research/industrial-ecology-concepts- Pearce, D. W., & Turner, R. K. (1989). Economics of natural
system-view-and-approaches-IJERTV1IS9396.pdf. resources and the environment. Johns Hopkins University
EU. (2015). Closing the loop—An EU action plan for the circular Press.
economy. Retrieved from https://eur-lex.europa.eu/ Schr€oder, P., Lemille, A., & Desmond, P. (2020). Making the
resource.html?uri¼cellar:8a8ef5e8-99a0-11e5-b3b7- circular economy work for human development.
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doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.09.007. Shanahan, M. (2018). Can economics assist the transition to a
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3
The circular economy in literature
and practice
The generic definition of the circular econ- The course of this review reveals some inter-
omy in Section 2.1 presents two major issues esting shifts in the understanding of a circular
of utmost importance for implementing a circu- economy (Fig. 3.1). This is due to the fact that
lar economy: sustainability and all aspects of most of these definitions give already some more
handling waste, in particular preventing waste or less concrete recommendations for a transition
and reducing landfilling. Sustainability means to a circular economy, thus allowing some insight
also saving and preserving resources, and pay- into the respective understanding of “the” circu-
ing attention to the assimilative capacity of the lar economy. The resulting deviations do play a
natural environment. Moreover, first evidence role in efforts to implement these concepts and
of societal path dependencies interfering with in indicators measuring the degree of implemen-
the implementation of a circular economy point tation, and are therefore of relevance for practical
to possible challenges, perhaps complications. considerations. The varying interpretations, in
How and to what extent do detailed percep- particular of the waste hierarchy and aspects
tions of the circular economy take these issues thereof, deserve special attention: they represent
into account? Regarding these aspects, this current and adopted practices of circular econ-
chapter focuses first on the literature in general, omy strategies with, in view of the goals of the
but also, not less importantly, on perceptions in circular economy, possibly significant deviations
more practical contexts. The literature has from the generic concept.
grown considerably since the publication of The review of practical usages of the concept of a
Pearce and Turner (1989), and this review circular economy refers to various institutions and
attempts to relate various categories of percep- organisations, which promote their view of a circu-
tions of “a” circular economy to the generic con- lar economy – regionally or even globally. Among
cept of “the” circular economy introduced in these institutions and organisations are the already
Pearce and Turner (1989), and substantiated in introduced Ellen MacArthur Foundation, a charity
Definition 2.1. in the UK, with the mission to accelerate the
Implementing the Circular Economy for Sustainable Development 19 # 2021 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-821798-6.00003-X
20 3. The circular economy in literature and practice
FIG. 3.1 Perceptions of a circular economy. Development of circular economy definitions over time. # From Kirchherr, J.,
Reike, D., & Hekkert, M. (2017). Conceptualising the circular economy: An analysis of 114 definitions. Resources, Conservation and Recy-
cling, 127, 221–232. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2017.09.005 226.
transition to a circular economy, but also the separate section. Thereafter, as already indi-
European Union (EU) with its circular economy cated, we turn in more detail to the applications
package, and, exemplarily, the TIARCENTER, an of the concept of a circular economy by the Ellen
independent think tank and advisory firm in MacArthur Foundation, the European Union,
Russia with the objective to promote circular and the TIARCENTER. Finally, conclusions
economy strategies in Russia, in particular in the from the literature review point to tasks neces-
area of waste management. Also for these applica- sary for implementing a circular economy.
tions it is necessary to investigate the understand-
ing of the core concept of the circular economy,
which is contained in these recommendations. 3.1 The perception of the circular
The following sections consider the funda- economy in the literature
mental concepts of sustainability and the waste
hierarchy in order to explore the economic back- A recent count of definitions of a circular econ-
ground of the multitude of different perceptions omy by Kirchherr, Reike, and Hekkert (2017)
and approaches regarding a circular economy. resulted in 114 different approaches to this con-
The next sections discuss “appearances” of the cept, published in peer-reviewed journals, in pol-
concept of a circular economy in the literature, icy papers and reports – Fig. 3.1 indicates the shift
including some practical applications. There of the focus regarding the waste hierarchy over
are also some links to related concepts such as time. Reike, Vermeulen, and Witjes (2018)
the “smart city” and the “green economy”. The found – by means of a Scopus search on the
economic background is briefly addressed in a term – an increase of 50% in academic
224): “A circular economy describes an economic sys- and a Design for Environment (DfE) in particu-
tem that is based on business models which lar, although it is not always straightforward to
replace the ‘end-of-life´ concept with reducing, understand them as viable business models,
alternatively reusing, recycling and recovering profitable under most circumstances and frame-
materials in production/distribution and con- work conditions. In this context, Antikainen,
sumption processes, thus operating at the micro Lazarevic, and Sepp€al€a (2018) argue that the
level (products, companies, consumers), meso “circular economy is expected to bring multiple
level (eco-industrial parks) and macro level benefits to the environment and the economy,
(city, region, nation and beyond), with the aim but only a few examples have demonstrated
to accomplish sustainable development, which the circular’s economy potential economic bene-
implies creating environmental quality, eco- fit for industrial actors” (see p. 115).
nomic prosperity and social equity, to the bene- Although there is no unique definition, smart
fit of current and future generations.” cities are often brought in relation to a sustain-
How and to what extent does this definition able development (Martin, Evans, & Karvonen,
correspond to the generic Definition 2.1 refer- 2018). As information and communication tech-
ring to the concept of an inherently circular nologies (ICT) in the context of the digital trans-
economy focusing on the fundamental functions formation are of importance both for a circular
of the environment? Obviously, with their con- economy and for a smart city, establishing smart
cept the authors address both the waste cities seems to be a profitable business model –
hierarchy and the issue of a sustainable not too far from implementing a circular econ-
development – also of relevance in Pearce and omy (see Section 13.1 for more details).
Turner (1989). They refer to the operations at Similarly, the “green economy” and “green
all levels of the economy, which is – in compar- growth” have gained momentum in recent
ison to Pearce and Turner (1989) – certainly a years – Merino-Saum, Clement, Wyss, and Baldi
more detailed picture of a circular economy (2020) found about a 140 definitions of these con-
pointing to the necessity of integrating all stake- cepts. They have “a multidimensional notion,
holders for the implementation: at the micro whose focus is on the potential trade-offs and syn-
level companies are focused on eco-innovation ergies between economic and environmental
because of a positive impact on their prestige dimensions (without ignoring social issues)”,
and associated reduction of costs, the meso level and are thus also close to sustainability.
refers to companies, which will benefit from the The United Nations Environment Pro-
cleaner natural environment, whereas the macro gramme (UNEP) defines the green economy
level is more oriented towards the development “as low carbon, resource efficient and socially
of eco-cities or eco-provinces. inclusive. In a green economy, growth in
Interestingly they, but also other authors employment and income are driven by public
introducing the concept of a circular economy, and private investment into such economic
relate their concept to appropriate business activities, infrastructure and assets that allow
models required for the implementation. There reduced carbon emissions and pollution,
are, in particular, various practical approaches enhanced energy and resource efficiency, and
to a circular economy, which support this view, prevention of the loss of biodiversity and ecosys-
among them the Ellen MacArthur Foundation tem services.”
and the EU with its action plan for the circular Similarly, in the context of its Circular Economy
economy. Business model are mentioned in Package, a greener economy means for the EU new
the context of increasing recycling activities, growth and job opportunities. “Eco-design, eco-
relying on Extended Producer Responsibility innovation, waste prevention and the reuse of
(EPR), on environmental innovations in general, raw materials can bring net savings for EU
Raw materials
Wa
and
Resource
Produ ction
s
efficiency
t
m a nage m
e pre v en t n t
Eco-innovation
i on
e
Cons
um p t ion
FIG. 3.2 Green growth and circular economy. Green growth based on eco-innovation, resource efficiency, waste preven-
tion and reuse of raw’ materials – the vision of the EU. # From EC – DG Environment. Green growth and circular economy.
Retrieved from https://ec.europa.eu/environment/green-growth/index_en.htm (Original work published 2019).
They then propose a “cohesive and inclusive of sustainable development. Circular economy
concept” of the circular economy: “The circular limits the throughput flow to a level that nature
economy is an economic system that represents tolerates and utilises ecosystem cycles in eco-
a change of paradigm in the way that human nomic cycles by respecting their natural repro-
society is interrelated with nature and aims to duction rates” (see p. 39).
prevent the depletion of resources, close energy Similar to the concept of Kirchherr et al. (2017),
and materials loops, and facilitate sustainable this definition, although more technically ori-
development through its implementation at ented, orientates on a sustainable
the micro (enterprises and consumers), meso development – in fact, the circular economy is
(economic agents integrated in symbiosis) and meant for sustainable development. The func-
macro (city, regions and governments) levels. tions of the environment, emphasised in Pearce
Attaining this circular model requires cyclical and Turner (1989) and Definition 2.1 are some-
and regenerative environmental innovations in what hidden behind the “linear nature-society-
the way society legislates, produces and nature material and energy throughput flow”.
consumes” (Prieto-Sandoval et al., 2018). It also remains somewhat unclear, what is
Again, a brief analysis of this concept shows meant by “maximising the service produced
the close relationship to Definition 2.1 and to from the linear nature-society-nature material
the concept of Pearce and Turner (1989). There and energy throughput flow”, because this can
is, however, beyond the reference to the opera- obviously have many dimensions: consumer
tions at all levels of the economy, a clear remark welfare, volume of any kind of products and ser-
on the relevance of environmental innovations, vices, quality of these products and services and,
addressing again the implementation of a circu- of course, environmental issues – just to name a
lar economy. Moreover, a change of paradigm is few. Observe that aspects of an implementation
mentioned as a prerequisite for the implementa- play some role in this definition, too.
tion of a circular economy. This is more general
than postulating appropriate business models,
but leaves still the open question, what this 3.1.4 Integration of economic activity
new paradigm should look like and how it
and environmental wellbeing
should be achieved? Again, this issue has to be
addressed more carefully at a later stage (see For Murray et al. (2017) the circular economy
Part II). “represents the most recent attempt to conceptu-
alise the integration of economic activity and
environmental wellbeing in a sustainable way”
(see p. 369). They argue that operationalisations
3.1.3 Sustainable development of the circular economy in business and policy
Korhonen et al. (2018) propose the following place “emphasis on the redesign of processes
slightly different definition: “Circular economy and cycling of materials”, thereby limiting its
is an economy constructed from societal ethical dimension, mainly through the absence
production-consumption systems that maxi- of the social dimension (see p. 369, 376).
mises the service produced from the linear Their “revised” definition of a circular econ-
nature-society-nature material and energy omy considers it “an economic model wherein
throughput flow. This is done by using cyclical planning, resourcing, procurement, production
materials flows, renewable energy sources and and reprocessing are designed and managed, as
cascading-type energy flows. Successful circular both process and output, to maximise ecosystem
economy contributes to all the three dimensions functioning and human well-being” (see p. 377).
been used and further developed in recent years threaten some of its key pillars, if, for example,
mostly by practitioners, i.e., policy makers, busi- it proposes a rethinking of ownership in favour
nesses, consultants, foundations and others of models where products are only leased to
(Korhonen et al., 2018, p. 37). Nevertheless, there consumers, who then become users of a service
are various publications elaborating on the links (see p. 17).
between a circular economy and economics in This is, indeed, one of the more difficult ques-
general, and environmental economics in tions regarding the implementation of a circular
particular. economy: the strict observance of the waste hier-
There is, for example, Andersen (2007), who archy, which is anything else than simple or
mainly refers to Pearce and Turner (1989) and straightforward.
provides an introduction to environmental eco- Milios (2018) identifies three policy options,
nomics, thereby indicating its potential to “lacking specific attention in the current policy
develop a circular economy. A circular economy landscape of the EU” for advancing to a circular
“will turn negative external effects into positive economy: policies for reuse, repair and
ones by connecting waste streams to possible manufacturing; public procurement for resource
beneficiaries” (see p. 137). For this it is necessary efficiency; strengthening secondary resource
to apply appropriate methods to account for markets. A mix of these policies is then recom-
external costs. Externality estimates for air pol- mended for an approach towards a circular
lution in various countries are given (see economy (see p. 868, 872). The background is
Table 1, p. 138). that the relevant EU policy landscape focuses
Shanahan (2018) asks the fundamental ques- on the promotion of the waste hierarchy. How-
tion, whether economics can assist the transition ever, according to Milios (2018), the “majority
to a circular economy, and highlights the impor- of product-related policies fail to incorporate
tant role economics can play in this context. It is any material resource efficiency clauses in a
thereby necessary to overcome market imperfec- meaningful way”. Consequently, these addi-
tions, such that “the price signals that are used in tional policies are expected to have “a significant
markets be an accurate reflection of the true potential for promoting higher resource effi-
costs and benefits of resource consumption ciency throughout the life cycle of a product”
and material production” (see p. 39), in view (see p. 874).
of externalities. Moreover, Shanahan (2018) Although Milios (2018), pointing to deficien-
points to the necessity of a “transformation in cies of current attempts to develop a circular
human thinking”, and the role institutions can economy, is recommending environmental pol-
play in this context (see p. 41f ). In summary, icies to support the development of a circular
according to this view “a combination of eco- economy, those policies need to be thoroughly
nomic instruments, institutions and ideological embedded into economics. After all, these poli-
change” is necessary for a transition to a circular cies are meant to change environmentally and
economy (see p. 43). economically relevant behaviour of consumers
Ghisellini, Cialani, and Ulgiati (2016) refer to and producers, an important aspect of
a distinction between a circular economy and economics.
“mainstream” neoclassical economics, with the Finally, Ermolaeva (2019) collects opinions of
latter failing “to provide analytical tools that experts on problems of modernising the waste
take into account the limited and exhaustible management sector in Russia. One of the
nature of natural resources” (see p. 16). The cir- experts, an eco-sociologist, attributes the prob-
cular economy “operates around the neoclassi- lem of waste to “the principle of capitalist pro-
cal economy framework” and seems to duction”, which “does not take into account
In addition, the energy required should be In view of Pearce and Turner (1989), the core
renewable (Ellen MacArthur Foundation, 2017, functions of the environment are indirectly
Fig. 2, p. 4). addressed, although there is a clear commitment
The systemic shift required for the implemen- to prevent waste through appropriately designed
tation of a circular economy should, again products. There is also a strong reference to the
according to the Foundation, replace the concept role of technologies (“industrial system”) and of
of a consumer with that of a user, implying a business models in developing a circular econ-
new contract between businesses and their cus- omy, and the Foundation provides many exam-
tomers based on product performance. Durable ples and case studies in support of the viability
products are leased or shared, and there are of such business models.
incentives in place to ensure the return and Nevertheless, the question remains, how to
thereafter the reuse of the products or its compo- implement such a circular economy associated
nents (Ellen MacArthur Foundation, 2013, p. 7). with a system change? The Foundation refers to
The circular economy is, thus, meant to business models such as EPR and DfE: how can
replace the existing model of a linear economy they become role models for economic systems?
(Ellen MacArthur Foundation, 2017, Fig. 1.2, p. This, as already mentioned in the context of other
12), which is characterised as a “throughput definitions of a circular economy, needs to be
economy”, a take, make and dispose economy investigated more carefully (see Part II). The
based on the use of fossil fuels. This linear econ- implicit recommendations that, for example, con-
omy has obviously been very successful for sumers will profit from “reduced ownership
many decades in terms of economic growth as cost” etc., depend, of course, on the concrete sit-
measured by GDP per capita. This is in contrast uation in a country or region, and can, probably,
to subsistence or rural economies that till today not be generalised in a straightforward way.
prevail in some parts of the world. The success As the transition to a circular economy
of the linear economy is, of course, a conse- requires specific strategies, the rather concrete
quence of the framework conditions determin- recommendations provided by the Foundation
ing economic systems in earlier times: “there with their focus on technologies and the indus-
was plenty to take and plenty of room to dis- trial system might not be appropriate for each
pose”. This situation seems to change in view country. In particular developing countries with
of global warming and other local and global their lower wages have different possibilities
environmental issues increasingly affecting cur- regarding the implementation of a circular econ-
rent economies on a large scale (Ellen omy. On the other hand, these cases prove that
MacArthur Foundation, 2017, p. 13). there are business opportunities associated with
According to the Foundation, economies will implementing a circular economy – they only
benefit, in particular, from substantial material need to be discovered and developed. The ques-
savings and the long-term resilience of the tion remains: can this process be accelerated?
economy. Companies can gain from reduced
costs and new business opportunities, for
example, in reverse cycle services (collection, 3.3.2 The circular economy package of
sorting, funding and financing new business
the European Union
models). Consumers will also profit from
reduced total ownership costs. The main differ- In its press release from 4 March 2019, the Euro-
ences between a linear and a circular economy pean Commission declares that all 54 actions
are discussed and illustrated in (Ellen under the Circular Economy Action Plan have
MacArthur Foundation, 2013, p. 22). now been delivered or are being implemented.
or prescriptions, the EU Strategy for Plastics in a model, enables economic growth via more effec-
Circular Economy, for example, and also the tive use of available resources, collaborative and
links to the energy and climate policy of the repeat consumption of manufactured goods,
EU require a critical analysis. Other sectors with waste recycling, and producing goods from
high environmental impact and potential for recycled resources. Transition to the principles
circularity such as information and commun- of a green economy will mean meeting the tar-
ication technologies, electronics, mobility, the gets set out in a series of government papers,
built environment, mining, furniture, food and in particular the presidential decree on national
drinks or textiles, are not yet included in the objectives and strategic challenges in the Rus-
action plan. sian Federation’s development up to 2024, with
Similar to the concept of the Ellen MacArthur regard to increasing efficiency in manufacturing
Foundation, also the concept of the EU is accom- and consumer waste management, reducing air
panied by detailed recommendations on what pollution, and introducing environmental regu-
needs to be done in view of a transition to a circu- lation systems based on the best available tech-
lar economy. Given the large differences among nologies (BAT)”.
the EU member states regarding the energy pol- The focus is undoubtedly again on potential
icies and aspects of the waste management poli- economic effects of a circular economy, probably
cies, this will pose a challenge. The question of importance for motivating Russia as a
thereby is whether the member states are ready “follower” to adopt certain features of a circular
to adopt a more homogeneous policy with economy. The original goals of a circular econ-
respect to a circular economy. If not, how can this omy as discussed in Pearce and Turner
transition be achieved in this case? (1989) – supporting the fundamental functions
These and other aspects related to the Circu- of the environment – vanish in the background.
lar Economy Package of the EU will be investi- Beyond recycling of waste, the waste hierarchy
gated more carefully in later chapters. does not play much of a role, and sustainability,
although a topic at the TIARCENTER, seems not
to be linked with a circular economy. Moreover,
3.3.3 The Russian TIARCENTER the strong reliance on presidential decrees,
The TIARCENTER, which will be presented which are, without any doubts, important,
here as an exemplary local initiative, presents might lead to disappointment. That’s at least
itself as an independent think tank and advisory the experience with this kind of command-
firm, which provides “strategic advice to corpo- and-control policies from other countries (see
rations and government bodies on the sustain- Section 14.1).
able development principles implementation”. Beyond that also the TIARCENTER provides
Its mission is to support the transformation of concrete guidelines for the transition to a circu-
the traditional linear economy into a circular lar economy focusing on Russia, where they can
model – with a focus on Russia, of course. The expect to meet a homogeneous audience.
current projects refer to, among others, energy Whether this audience is willing to receive the
efficiency, urban mobility, stakeholder engage- messages of the TIARCENTER remains to be
ment, and the circular economy, considered to seen. Interestingly, in addition to the link to a cir-
be an ongoing study to promote the principles cular economy, there is again a link to the green
of a circular economy. economy (see Section 3.1.1). The reference to the
TIARCENTER characterises the circular eco-system services of a green economy pro-
economy as follows: “The circular economy, vides a bridge to the concept of Pearce and
an alternative to the traditional linear economic Turner (1989).
4
Circular economy – A hierarchy
of leaders and followers
The following sections investigate the recep- There is yet another issue of interest in this
tion of the concept of a circular economy in dif- context: the possibility that countries are behav-
ferent countries. There are countries, which ing strategically. This implies that some coun-
adopted circular economy strategies rather tries could decide to act as “aggressive” CE
early, and there are many more, which are cur- leaders in certain areas, which are of importance
rently struggling with their more or less first for the development of a circular economy – mit-
efforts implementing features of a circular igation of climate change, for example. There
economy. could be various reasons for adopting such a
There is consequently a hierarchy of early strategy, among them expected returns from
adopters of circular economy strategies (CE developing, producing and selling innovative
leaders) and late-comers (CE followers), with a technologies to other countries, in particular to
few other countries somewhere in between. As CE followers. In these cases, CE leaders could
there are obvious differences among CE leaders profit from a first-mover advantage. On the
and CE followers, it is interesting to understand, other hand, a country might as well opt for the
why some countries prefer to turn towards a cir- status of a CE follower, with the possibility to
cular economy earlier than others. profit from the efforts of other countries, likely
Another interesting question in this context from the CE leaders in the area under consider-
is: to what extent can or do CE leaders motivate ation. It could as well be possible that a country
other countries for circular economy strategies? could profit just from waiting, from letting other
The organisations characterised in Section 3.3 countries go ahead, thereby “protecting” its own
and others can and do spread news about suc- industry. In such a case there could be a late-
cessful projects in various countries. Neverthe- mover or even last-mover advantage.
less, the special situations of the CE followers, This kind of strategic behaviour plays a role
requiring possibly different approaches, should in other societal constellations with countries
thereby be taken into account. pursuing a common goal, such as joining forces
Implementing the Circular Economy for Sustainable Development 33 # 2021 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-821798-6.00004-1
34 4. Circular economy – A hierarchy of leaders and followers
in a union or an alliance, or implementing a cir- them economic wealth given by the gross
cular economy. A formal analysis is possible, but regional product per capita. Weber and
will not be attempted for the cases considered Wiesmeth (2018) provide a formal approach
here. (Weber, Weber, & Wiesmeth, 2020) inves- for the role of awareness for mitigating climate
tigate strategic behaviour regarding contribu- change in various OECD countries.
tions to NATO in a formal context along these Thus, for a first approach environmental
lines. awareness could be related to economic wealth
Instead of looking for and investigating eco- in a country: in the sense of an Environmental
nomic reasons for strategic actions, characteris- Kuznets Curve (EKC), one could assume that a
tics of some CE Leaders and CE followers will higher gross domestic product (GDP) per capita
be considered. It seems quite obvious to first might eventually raise environmental aware-
take into account the availability of natural ness. There are some studies supporting this
resources. Abundant resources do not necessar- view, but also various others, which are, in most
ily provide strong signals to save resources cases, not directly against this view, but less sup-
through preventing waste and appropriate recy- portive (for issues to and related to the EKC see,
cling activities. Moreover, if a country has for example, Dinda, 2004; Grossman & Krueger,
enough space to landfill and thereby dump 1995; Huang, Lee, & Wu, 2008; Stern, 2004). This
and “hide” all kinds of waste, then again the is therefore only a first approach, which has to be
pressure for a serious waste management need investigated more carefully at a later stage.
not be very high. There are, thus, the following preliminary
The level of “environmental awareness” in a results: in order to categorise CE leaders and
country is another factor. This seems to be a CE followers, and in order to relate their deci-
rather complicated construct, which has some sions regarding a circular economy, the follow-
roots in behavioural economics (see Chapter 8) ing characteristics of a country should be taken
and which cannot be handled straightforwardly. into account:
In principle, it means that people are aware of
• Endowment with natural resources
environmental issues, of environmental pollu-
• Density of the population, respectively land
tion and degradation, locally and/or globally,
available for landfilling
and take therefore measures to protect the envi-
• Level of environmental awareness
ronment, or start thinking about and campaign-
• Motivation for strategic behaviour
ing for such measures. Thus, a high level of
environmental awareness in a country or region As mentioned, there is only a rough indicator
does not necessarily mean that everything is fine regarding the level of environmental awareness,
regarding the environment in this country, but namely the level of economic wealth given by
the situation may be on the verge to change. GDP per capita. The possibly strategic dimen-
How to get a general idea on the level of envi- sion of the decisions is not yet respected.
ronmental awareness in a country? Khakimova,
L€osch, Wende, Wiesmeth, and Okhrin (2019),
and L€ osch, Okhrin, and Wiesmeth (2019) inves- 4.1 Circular economy hierarchy: Leaders
tigate environmental awareness, respectively
awareness of climate change in Russian regions. In view of these remarks, this section addr-
They introduce environmental awareness as a esses exemplarily two countries, Germany and
latent, not directly observable variable, which China, which among various others (Austria,
expresses itself through various indicators, such Japan, the Netherlands, Sweden, the UK …)
as specific queries in search engines, and which are early adopters of strategies leading to a cir-
is dependent on certain causal variables, among cular economy. The analysis of these two
natural resources and to ensure environmen- and mitigation of climate change (see
tally safe disposal of waste” (Germany, 1994, Section 11.3).
Art. 1), obviously genuine tasks of the circular Regarding the relationship to Definition 2.1
economy in the sense of Pearce and Turner and to the principles of the circular economy
(1989). proposed by Pearce and Turner (1989), there is
The Circular Economy Act, superseding the a clear focus on waste management in general
Closed Substance Cycle Waste Management and on the waste hierarchy in particular, beyond
Act, entered into force in 2012, and is meant to all activities related to the mitigation of climate
tighten the regulations of the preceding legal change. At first glance, sustainability seems to
acts. In particular, the waste hierarchy is now play a smaller role, but there is also the
extended and ranks waste management mea- German National Sustainable Development
sures as follows: prevention; preparation for Strategy of 2016, which is linked with the
recycling; recycling, other types of recovery, circular economy strategies.
particularly use for energy recovery; disposal. The situation regarding the goals and the
This Act thus has the purpose “to promote circu- implementation of further features of a circular
lar economy in order to conserve natural economy in Germany will be investigated in var-
resources and to ensure the protection of human ious contexts in later chapters. The next subsec-
health and the environment in the generation tion turns to China, a country, which has started
and management of waste” (Germany, 2012, rather early with the adoption of principles of a
Section 1). circular economy.
With this Act Germany finally arrived also
formally in the sphere of the circular economy,
4.1.2 China’s eco-industrial development
after having adopted its main principles already
some 25 years earlier. Again, the driving forces There is the following situation with natural
were the presumably high environmental resources in China: on the one hand, endow-
awareness, but especially the already visible or ment with natural resources in some areas is
at least expected negative impacts of too much low and not all resources are developed, thus
waste, threatening the vital functions of the preventing the “resource curse” in the context
environment in a densely populated country of eco-efficiency, in contrast to the situation in
with further consequences for the economic sys- other areas (Wang & Chen, 2020). On the other
tem. In addition, the lack of vital natural hand, according to Song, Zhu, Wang, and
resources inspired a multitude of recycling Wang (2019) it is one of the top priorities of
activities and a desire to be a leader regarding the Chinese government’s oversight “to address
this kind of activities. According to the German the conflicts between economic growth and
Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature resource consumption and between economic
Conservation and Nuclear Safety (BMU) development and ecological damage”.
“high-end recycling”, recycling of batteries from Thus, the reasons that brought Germany onto
e-vehicles, for example, reduces the dependence the path towards a circular economy, are to
on import of precious resources, but could also some extent also of relevance for China: a
raise the competitiveness of German companies. decades-long rapid economic growth in the
There is thus without any doubt a strategic course of China’s transformation from a cen-
component in the German approach towards a trally planned to a more market-based economy
circular economy. This becomes even more has led to serious depletions of natural
apparent, when we investigate the German resources, such as deforestation, water short-
activities in the context of renewable energies ages and loss of biodiversity, and to increasing
development, in particular in the major urban plans” and “waste prevention programmes” with
agglomeration areas, and the consequences of public participation in Germany (Germany, 2012,
the depletion of natural resources, aggravated Sections 31–33), but they appear in the later sec-
by the further increasing urbanisation resulting tions of the Act and play therefore a less dominant
in a rather high and still increasing density of role. However, as will be seen later, legal regula-
population in vast regions in China. In addition tions alone are not always sufficient for a success-
to that, high levels of soil, water and air pollu- ful implementation of a circular economy, neither
tion in combination with rising economic wel- in Germany, nor in China (see Chapter 5).
fare raise environmental awareness, thus Thus it seems that the early emergence of the
supporting a pressure for changes. circular economy in quite a few of the early
adopting countries is substantially linked to
the painful experience of wasting scarce
4.1.3 Circular economy leaders:
resources and overly polluting the environment.
A critical view
This results in quite a natural classification into
In summary, the countries, which adopted “leaders” and “followers” with respect to adopt-
the circular economy early on – independent ing the circular economy. The two countries use
of their economic and/or political system, typi- their positions as CE leaders also in a strategic
cally experienced or expected negative effects of sense: they export environmental technologies
a too high burden of waste on their economies, to support their economic development.
in addition to a threatening depletion of their For a more or less global implementation of the
exhaustible resources. The concrete level of a circular economy, it is important that other coun-
“too high burden” seems to depend, however, tries follow the example of the leaders. For obvi-
on the level of economic wealth, thus support- ous reasons, this is of particular interest in the
ing, to some extent, the view that environmental context of reducing greenhouse gas emissions,
awareness, triggering pressures for changes in where this leader-follower situation can already
environmental policies, is related to economic be observed. Germany, for example, has been piv-
well-being. otal in the foundation of the International
Moreover, there are differences between Ger- Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA), which also
many and China regarding their paths towards a provides information on renewable energy tech-
circular economy. For example, when the Ger- nologies and innovations worldwide, and pro-
man Circular Economy Act defines: “Circular motes “the further development of technologies
economy within this Act shall be the prevention to generate electricity from renewable sources”,
and recovery of waste” (Germany, 2012, according to the Renewable Sources Act of Ger-
Section 3(19)), whereas the Chinese Circular many (see Germany, 2017, Section 1), also with
Economy Promotion Law declares: “The promo- the goal of exporting these technologies.
tion of circular economy is an important strategy Establishing a serious leader-follower rela-
for the national economic and social develop- tionship in this context of the circular economy
ment, … ” (China, 2008, Art. 3), then the signif- is not straightforward. With a share of approxi-
icance of the circular economy in the much more mately 2% of the global greenhouse gas emis-
centrally organised Chinese economy becomes sions, Germany is too small to substantially
obvious. This extends to the measures taken mitigate climate change. It can, however,
and, in particular, to the management of the sys- develop and provide appropriate technologies
tems, with “goal-responsibility systems” and and try to motivate other countries to
many planning requirements on all levels of follow suit.
the government in China (China, 2008, Art. 6–9). In order to have a somewhat contrasting pic-
Of course, there are also “waste management ture, the situation and in particular the
analyse this situation, also the factors hindering from the World Bank) is trailing both China
respectively fostering the development of a cir- and Russia. The density of population is with
cular economy. A particular reason for the still 65 people per square km also rather low – how-
quite low level of circular economy activities ever, a large part of the country is covered by
in Russia seems to be the insufficient involve- high mountains and therefore uninhabitable.
ment of the government so far. Waste recovery There are not many natural resources,
and recycling standards are substantially lower although hydro power stations provide
than in the countries of the EU. Moreover, the “green energy”, at least in summer. Regarding
financial situation of companies handling and the economy, Georgia is still on the way to
processing waste is often not satisfactory. This transform its economy from part of a centrally
points again to still insufficient and incom- planned economy with quite specific economic
pletely implemented or controlled environmen- tasks within the Soviet Union to a diversified
tal regulations (Ermolaeva, 2019, p. 71f; economic system based on the principles of a
Plastinina et al., 2019, p. 13f). free market economy in the context of the asso-
Thus according to understandable reasons, ciation with the EU.
Russia is still at the beginning of introducing There are various issues with dump sites,
principles of a circular economy, mainly in which take away valuable land and threaten to
waste management, which is one of the more pollute the ground water. Moreover, air
urgent environmental issues. It should therefore pollution in Tbilisi is severe and people gradually
be considered a “follower”, and the “leaders” start to complain about it. The natural beauty of
should try to support the activities of the fol- the country is for sure one of its economic assets,
lowers in view of Boulding’s conception of which has to be preserved as one of the vital func-
planet earth as a spaceship (Boulding, 1966). In tions of the environment. The development in
fact, this is already happening: in addition to a recent years regarding deforestation and air pollu-
variety of other activities, the International tion in particular, but also waste management,
Finance Corporation (IFC), an organisation of should provide enough incentives for a change.
the World Bank Group, in partnership with Support for a change is now coming through the
the Free State of Saxony in Germany, the Neth- association of the country with the EU.
erlands, and Sweden, investigated the waste- Consequently, the legal background of cur-
recycling sector in Russia, offering recommen- rent and future activities of Georgia in the envi-
dations for improvement (see Korobova et al., ronmental arena in general and in waste
2014; Larionov & Ecorem, 2012). management in particular is and will remain
Other aspects regarding the development of dominated by the “Association Agreement
a circular economy in Russia will be considered between the European Union and Georgia”,
in various contexts in later chapters. The next which was signed in June 2014, and which
subsection turns to Georgia, a transition coun- entered into force on July 1, 2016. This agree-
try, which has also started with the adoption ment refers to tending to environmental issues
of principles of a circular economy – for reasons in a manifold of ways, including waste manage-
different from those of Russia, however. ment (EU, 2014, Ch. 3), and many measures have
to be implemented by 2020 or 2021. Thus, the
4.2.2 Georgia’s association with the directives of the EU in all areas of waste manage-
ment are and will be of relevance for Georgia,
European Union too. And being an important topic in the EU, this
In terms of economic development, Georgia will also extend to the implementation of a circu-
with a GDP per capita of 11,400 USD (PPP, lar economy, which, so far, is not directly visible
current international USD; data for 2018 taken in the legal regulations of the country.
environmental issues. It could help the country motivate other countries to prepare and develop
to differentiate itself from neighbouring coun- paths towards a circular economy. There is first
tries with potentially positive effects for further of all the offer to support the followers by shar-
economic and social development. ing their experiences. In an economic context,
this implies a reduction of costs of the circular
economy strategies for the followers. These
4.2.3 Circular economy followers: experiences could also include scientific find-
ings on the health risks associated with environ-
A critical view
mental pollutions and degradations, thereby
These brief remarks on the situation in Russia raising voices in those countries for turning
and Georgia in combination with the preceding towards a circular economy. All this is already
remarks on the situation in Germany and China happening, not only in Russia and Georgia,
show that certain characteristics of the countries but in many countries all over the world. Espe-
seem to further or delay the development of a cially the Ellen MacArthur Foundation works
circular economy and the adoption of adequate with all kind of stakeholders in various coun-
strategies. For the case of Russia: abundance in tries to “accelerate the transition to a circular
natural resources, and sufficiently many and economy”.
appropriate spaces for dumping waste of all Expectations and promises on economic
kinds are certainly among them. In addition to effects, employment opportunities associated
that a still comparatively low level of economic with an implementation of a circular economy
wealth can play a role: a low value of GDP per play a role in promoting circular economy
capita might affect environmental awareness, strategies – by governments, but also by chari-
giving priority to economic issues without pay- ties and other NGOs (see Section 3.3). The
ing too much attention to the continuing degra- important issue is, whether these promises can
dation of the environment, although the be fulfilled. The problem thereby is less that
situation starts to change. these opportunities do not exist. The problem
For the case of Georgia: there is, beyond the is, rather, how to modify the existing economy
natural beauty of the country, neither abun- such that producers and consumers grasp these
dance of natural resources, nor abundant space opportunities offered by the prospect of a circu-
for landfilling. Obviously, a low level of envi- lar economy. And one must not forget that not
ronmental awareness, probably also due to a all countries can offer conditions amenable to
low value of GDP per capita, has kept the coun- certain business models in a circular economy.
try till recently from major efforts to reduce envi- These issues refer to the implementation of a
ronmental pollution. The association with the circular economy and need to be reconsidered
EU might change this situation. in Part V.
These observations point again to the ques- Why should leaders provide support to other
tion raised earlier: how can the leaders motivate followers? Trade relations with export of envi-
these countries, the followers, for circular econ- ronmental technologies to followers, perhaps
omy strategies? An additional question is at preferred terms, could be one of the reasons,
closely related to this one: what is the interest which also helps to accelerate the adoption of
of the leaders to convince the followers to adopt a circular economy strategy (see Section 10.2).
their example? Especially this second question Another reason could be the intrinsic nature of
will have to be reconsidered in the context of the environmental commodities: for the case of
implementing a circular economy. global warming, for example, it is necessary that
The examples of Russia and Georgia point to many countries, including the fast growing
possible strategies of the leaders to convince and emerging economies, participate in efforts to
Al oír aquella palabra, la muchacha, como herida del rayo, dejó caer
los brazos y permaneció inmóvil, mirando a Mario con los ojos
apagados.
LOS EXÁMENES
Martes 4.—Henos aquí ya en los exámenes. Por las calles al
rededor de la escuela no se oye hablar de otra cosa a chicos,
padres y madres, hasta las ayas: exámenes, calificaciones, temas,
suspenso, mediano, bueno, notable, sobresaliente; todos repiten las
mismas palabras. Ayer mañana tocó el examen de composición, hoy
el de aritmética. Era conmovedor ver a todos los padres
conduciendo a sus hijos a la escuela, dándoles los últimos consejos
por la calle, y a muchas madres que los llevaban hasta las bancas
para mirar si había tinta en el tintero, probar si la pluma escribía
bien, y se volvían todavía desde la puerta para decir: “¡Ánimo!
¡Valor! ¡Cuidado!”. Nuestro maestro examinador era Coato, aquél de
las barbazas negras que ruge como un león y que jamás castiga. Se
veían caras de muchachos, blancas como el papel. Cuando el
maestro rompió el sobre del oficio del Ayuntamiento mandando el
problema que debía servir de tema para el examen, no se oía ni una
mosca. Dictó el problema en alta voz, mirando ya a uno, ya a otro,
con miradas severas; pero se comprendía que si hubiera podido
dictar al mismo tiempo la solución para que todos hubiesen sido
aprobados, lo habría hecho de buena gana. Después de una hora
de trabajo, muchos empezaron a desesperarse, porque el problema
era difícil. Uno lloraba. Crosi se daba golpes en la cabeza. Y
muchos no tienen culpa de no saber; ¡pobres chicos!, pues no han
tenido mucho tiempo para estudiar, y los han descuidado los padres.
¡Pero había una providencia! Había que ver el trabajo que se daba
Deroso para ayudar a todos, para hacer pasar de mano en mano
una cifra y una operación, sin que lo descubriesen, interesado por
unos y por otros, como si fuese nuestro propio maestro. También
Garrón, que está fuerte en aritmética, ayudaba al que podía, hasta a
Nobis, que, encontrándose apurado, se había vuelto cortés. Estardo
estuvo más de una hora inmóvil, sin pestañear, sobre el problema,
con los puños en las sienes y los codos en la banca, y después hizo
todo en cinco minutos. El maestro daba vueltas por entre los bancos
diciendo: “¡Calma! ¡Calma! No hay que precipitarse”. Y cuando veía
a alguno descorazonado, para darle ánimos y hacerle reír, abría la
boca, imitando al león, como si fuese a tragárselos. Hacia las once,
mirando a través de las persianas, vi muchos padres impacientes
que se paseaban; entre otros, el de Precusa, con su blusa azul, que
había dado una escapada de la fragua y que traía la cara negra.
También distinguí a la madre de Crosi, la verdulera; la de Nelle,
vestida de negro y que no se podía estar quieta. Poco antes de las
doce llegó mi padre y alzó los ojos a la ventana donde yo caía:
¡pobre padre mío! A las doce en punto todos habíamos concluido.
Era de ver la salida. Todos venían al encuentro de nosotros,
preguntándonos, hojeando los cuadernos, confrontando los trabajos:
“¡Cuántas operaciones! ¿Cuál es el total? ¿Y la substracción? ¿Y la
respuesta? ¿Y la coma de los decimales?”. Los profesores iban y
venían llamados de cien partes. Mi padre me arrancó de las manos
el borrador, miró y dijo: “¡Está bien!”. A nuestro lado estaba el
herrero Precusa, que también miraba el trabajo de su hijo, algo
inquieto, y que no acababa de comprenderlo. Se volvió a mi padre y
le preguntó: “¿Quiere usted hacerme el favor de decirme la cifra
total?”. Mi padre se la dijo: miró la de su chico, y era la misma.
“¡Bravo, pequeñín!”, exclamó en un rapto de alegría; él y mi padre
se miraron un momento, sonrientes, como dos buenos amigos. Mi
padre le alargó la mano, él se la apretó, y se separaron diciendo:
“Ahora al ejercicio oral; ya se ha pasado el escrito”. “Eso es, al
ejercicio oral”. A poco oímos una voz de falsete que nos hizo volver
la cabeza. Era el herrero Precusa que se alejaba cantando.
EL ÚLTIMO EXAMEN
Viernes 7.—Esta mañana se verificó el examen oral. A las ocho
estábamos todos en clase; a las ocho y cuarto empezaron a
llamarnos de cuatro en cuatro para ir al salón de actos, donde,
detrás de una gran mesa cubierta con tapete verde, estaban
sentados el director y cuatro profesores, uno de ellos el nuestro. Yo
fuí de los primeros. ¡Pobre maestro! ¡Cómo me he penetrado hoy de
que nos quiere de veras! Mientras nos preguntaban los demás, él no
nos quitaba la vista de encima; se turbaba cuando dudábamos, se
serenaba cuando respondíamos bien: no perdía sílaba y no cesaba
de hacernos señas con las manos y la cabeza para decirnos: “¡Bien,
no, fíjate, valor, más despacio, ánimo!”. Nos habría apuntado letra
por letra si en su mano estuviese hacerlo. Si en su sitio hubiesen
estado sentados, uno después del otro, todos los padres de los
alumnos, no habrían hecho más. De buena gana, le hubiese gritado
“gracias” diez veces delante de todos durante el examen. Y cuando
los otros profesores me dijeron: “Está bien; ve con Dios”, vi que le
brillaban los ojos de alegría. Volví a la clase a esperar a mi padre.
Todavía estaban allí casi todos. Me senté al lado de Garrón. No
estaba ni pizca alegre. Yo pensaba que era la última hora que
íbamos a pasar juntos. Aún no le había dicho que no seguiría con él
en la cuarta clase al año siguiente, porque tenía que salir de Turín
con mi familia. Él no sabía palabra. Estaba allí acurrucado como
siempre, pues apenas cabía entre el banco y la banca, con su
cabezota inclinada sobre una fotografía de su padre, en la cual
estaba pintando adornos alrededor del retrato, y en el que aparece
vestido de maquinista un hombre alto y grueso, con cuello de toro y
aspecto serio y honrado como el hijo; y mientras estaba allí con la
cabeza baja, reparé que se le veía por entre la camisa entreabierta
la cruz al cuello que le regaló la madre de Nelle cuando supo que
protegía a su hijo. Pero era preciso que yo le anunciase que me iba,
y le dije: “Garrón, este otoño mi padre se marcha de Turín para
siempre”. Me preguntó si yo también me marchaba; le respondí que
sí. “¿No seguirás entonces el cuarto año con nosotros?”. “No”. Y al
punto se quedó suspenso unos instantes, y luego continuó
dibujando. Después me preguntó sin levantar la cabeza: “¿Te
acordarás de tus compañeros de tercer año?”. “Sí, de todos; pero de
ti... mucho más: ¿quién se puede olvidar de ti?”. Se me quedó
mirando fijo y serio, con una mirada que decía mil cosas, y no dijo
nada. Solamente me alargó la mano izquierda por debajo del banco,
fingiendo que seguía dibujando con la derecha. Yo le cogí aquella
mano fuerte y leal, y se la estreché entre las mías. En aquel instante
entró de prisa el maestro, encarnado como la grana, y balbuceó en
voz baja y rápida y en tono alegre: “Bravo; hasta ahora todo va bien;
que sigan así los que faltan; bravo, muchachos, valor; estoy muy
contento!”. Y para mostrar su alegría y animarnos, al salir corriendo
hizo como que tropezaba y se agarró a la pared como para no
caer... ¡Él!, a quien no habíamos visto reír en todo el año, procuraba
distraernos y hacernos reír. La cosa nos pareció tan rara, que, en
lugar de reír, todos se quedaron asombrados; todos sonrieron, pero
ninguno se rió. Y bien; yo no sé por qué, me produjo pena y ternura
a un tiempo aquel acto de alegría de chiquillo. Aquel momento de
locura alegre era todo su premio, el premio de nueve meses de
bondad, de paciencia y hasta de disgustos. ¡Para aquel resultado
satisfactorio había venido tantas veces enfermo a dar clase nuestro
pobre maestro! ¡Aquello, y no más que aquello, nos pedía a
nosotros en cambio de tanto afecto y de tantos cuidados! Y ahora
me parece que lo veré siempre en aquella postura de chicuelo
revoltoso, cuando me acuerde de él por espacio de muchos años. Y
si cuando sea hombre vive todavía, y nos encontramos, se lo diré, le
recordaré aquel acto que tan hondo me tocó en el corazón, y besaré
sus venerables canas.
¡ADIÓS!
Lunes 10.—Pasada la hora de la queda, nos volvimos todos a reunir
por última vez en la escuela para saber el resultado de los
exámenes y recoger las certificaciones. La calle rebosaba de
padres, que también habían invadido el salón de actos, y muchos
hasta se metieron en las aulas, empujándose, alrededor de la mesa
del profesor. En mi clase ocupaban a lo largo de las paredes todo el
espacio libre entre éstas y los bancos. Estaban el padre de Garrón,
la madre de Deroso, el herrero Precusa, Coreta, la señora Nelle, la
verdulera, el padre del albañilito, el de Estardo, y otros que nunca
había visto yo. Por todas partes se percibían rumores como si
estuviésemos en medio de la plaza. Entró el maestro, e
inmediatamente reinó profundo silencio. Tenía en la mano la lista, y
comenzó a leer muy rápido, por orden alfabético: “Fulano, aprobado;
Zutano, notable; el otro, bueno; el de más allá, mediano; el
albañilito, aprobado; Crosi, aprobado; Deroso, sobresaliente, con el
primer premio”. Todos los padres que le conocían, exclamaban:
“¡Bravo, Deroso, bravo!”, y él, instintivamente, movió su linda
cabecita, sacudiendo sus hermosos cabellos rubios como un león, y
sonriendo con su aire desenvuelto y bello, miró a su madre, que le
saludó con la mano, Garrón, Garofi, el calabrés, bueno; después,
tres o cuatro seguidos suspensos, y uno se echó a llorar porque su
padre, que estaba en la puerta, le amenazaba. Pero el maestro, que
lo advirtió, se dirigió al padre y le dijo: “Dispense usted; no, señor;
no siempre es toda la culpa del alumno; entra por mucho, en
ocasiones, la desgracia, y éste es un caso”. Luego siguió leyendo:
“Nelle, bueno”. Su madre le envió un beso con el abanico. Estardo
era aprobado con notable; pero al escuchar tan bella calificación, ni
siquiera se estremeció, ni se movió, ni levantó los codos de la
banca, ni movió los puños de las sienes. El último fué Votino, que
venía elegantemente vestido y muy bien peinado; aprobado.
Terminada la lista, el maestro se levantó y dijo: “Ésta es la última vez
que nos encontramos reunidos. Hemos estado juntos un año, y
ahora nos separamos como buenos amigos, ¿no es cierto? Siento
separarme de vosotros, queridos hijos...”. Se interrumpió un poco, y
continuó: “Si alguna vez me ha faltado la paciencia; si alguna vez,
sin querer, he sido injusto o demasiado severo, perdonadme”. “¡No,
no!—exclamaron a una, muchos padres y muchos escolares—. ¡No,
señor profesor; nunca jamás!”. “Dispensadme—repitió el maestro—y
no dejéis de quererme. El año venidero no estaréis ya conmigo,
pero os veré de vez en cuando y permaneceréis de todas maneras
en mi corazón. ¡Hasta la vista, pues, muchachos!”. Dicho lo cual
adelantó hacia nosotros, y todos le extendían la mano,
empinándose, subiéndose en los bancos, cogiéndole por los
faldones, reteniéndole por los brazos. Muchos le abrazaron y hasta
lo besaron, y gritaron cincuenta voces: “¡Hasta la vista, señor
profesor! ¡Gracias, señor maestro; que se acuerde usted de
nosotros...!”. Cuando salí parecía extraordinariamente conmovido.
Abandonamos la calle en pelotón. De las otras aulas también salían
otros. Era una confusión indescriptible de saludos a maestros y a
profesoras, y de despedidas mutuas entre alumnos. La maestra de
la pluma encarnada tenía cuatro o cinco niñas encima, y lo menos
veinte alrededor, que no la dejaban respirar. A la monjita le habían
destrozado el sombrero a fuerza de abrazos, y la tenían convertida
en un jardín, pues por entre los botones del traje le colocaron una
docena de ramitos de flores, y hasta en los bolsillos. Muchos
festejaban a Roberto, que precisamente en aquel día había tirado
las muletas. Por todos lados se escuchaba: “¡Hasta el año que
viene! ¡Hasta el veinte de octubre! ¡Hasta la vista por Todos los
Santos...!”. ¡Ah! ¡Cómo se olvidan en aquel momento los sinsabores
y disgustos pasados! Votino, que siempre tuvo tantos celos de
Deroso, fué el primero en buscarlo con los brazos abiertos. Yo di el
último estrecho abrazo al albañilito, precisamente en el instante en
que ponía por última vez el hocico de liebre... ¡Pobre chico! Saludé a
Precusa, a Garofi, que me dijo había ganado un premio en la
posterior rifa, y que me regaló un prensapapeles de mayólica, roto
por una esquina, y a derecha e izquierda distribuí apretones de
manos. Fué digno de ver cómo Nelle se abrazó a Garrón, que no
había medio de que se desprendiese de él, y todos rodearon a
Garrón, gritando: “¡Adiós, Garrón; hasta la vista”, y Garrón por acá,
Garrón por allá; uno le toca, otro le tira de un brazo a aquel bendito
muchacho. Su padre estaba allí, admirado, contento y conmovido. A
Garrón fué el último a quien abracé ya en la calle, y tuve que sofocar
un sollozo contra su pecho; él me besó en la frente. Después corrí
hacia mi padre y mi madre, que me esperaban. Mi padre me
preguntó si me había despedido de todos. Respondí
afirmativamente. “Si hay alguno con el cual no te hayas portado bien
en cualquiera ocasión, ve a buscarle y a pedirle que te perdone.
¿Hay alguien?”. “Nadie, ninguno”, contesté. “Bueno; entonces,
vamos”. Y añadió mi padre con voz conmovida, mirando por ultima
vez a la escuela: “¡Adiós!”. Y repitió mi madre: “¡Adiós!”.