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INTRODUCTION TO MODERN DYNAMICS
Introduction to Modern Dynamics
Chaos, Networks, Space and Time
Second Edition
David D. Nolte
Purdue University
1
3
Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, OX2 6DP,
United Kingdom
Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford.
It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship,
and education by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of
Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries
© David D. Nolte 2019
The moral rights of the author have been asserted
First Edition published in 2015
Second Edition published in 2019
Impression: 1
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in
a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the
prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted
by law, by licence or under terms agreed with the appropriate reprographics
rights organization. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the
above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the
address above
You must not circulate this work in any other form
and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer
Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press
198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016, United States of America
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
Data available
Library of Congress Control Number: 2019945041
ISBN 978–0–19–884462–4 (hbk.)
ISBN 978–0–19–884463–1 (pbk.)
DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780198844624.001.0001
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Links to third party websites are provided by Oxford in good faith and
for information only. Oxford disclaims any responsibility for the materials
contained in any third party website referenced in this work.
Preface to the Second Edition
Introduction to Modern Dynamics: Chaos, Networks, Space and Time (2015) is part
of an emerging effort in physics education to update the undergraduate physics
curriculum. Conventional junior-level mechanics courses have overlooked many
modern dynamics topics that physics majors will use in their careers: nonlinearity,
chaos, network theory, econophysics, game theory, neural nets, geodesic geometry,
among others. These are the topics at the forefront of physics that drive
high-tech businesses and start-ups where more than half of physicists are
employed. The first edition of Introduction to Modern Dynamics contributed
to this effort by introducing these topics in a coherent program that emphasized
common geometric properties across a wide range of dynamical systems.
The second edition of Introduction to Modern Dynamics continues that trend
by expanding chapters to including additional material and topics. It rearranges
several of the introductory chapters for improved logical flow and expands them
to add new subject matter. The second edition also has additional homework
problems.
New or expanded topics in the second edition include
• Lagrangian applications
• Lagrange’s undetermined multipliers
• Action-angle variables and conserved quantities
• The virial theorem
• Non-autonomous flows
• A new chapter on Hamiltonian chaos
• Rational resonances
• Synchronization of chaos
• Diffusion and epidemics on networks
• Replicator dynamics
• Game theory
• An extensively expanded chapter on economic dynamics
The goal of the second edition of Introduction to Modern Dynamics is to

strengthen the sections on conventional topics (which students need for the GRE
physics subject test), making it an ideal textbook for broader adoption at the junior
vi Preface to the Second Edition
level, while continuing the program of updating topics and approaches that are
relevant for the roles that physicists will play in the twenty-first century.
The historical development of modern dynamics is described in Galileo
Unbound: A Path Across Life,the Universe and Everything, by D. D. Nolte, published
by Oxford University Press (2018).
Preface: The Best Parts of Physics
The best parts of physics are the last topics that our students ever see. These
are the exciting new frontiers of nonlinear and complex systems that are at
the forefront of university research and are the basis of many of our high-
tech businesses. Topics such as traffic on the World Wide Web, the spread of
epidemics through globally mobile populations, or the synchronization of global
economies are governed by universal principles just as profound as Newton’s
Laws. Nonetheless, the conventional university physics curriculum reserves most
of these topics for advanced graduate study. Two justifications are given for this
situation: first, that the mathematical tools needed to understand these topics are
beyond the skill set of undergraduate students, and second, that these are specialty
topics with no common theme and little overlap.
Introduction to Modern Dynamics: Chaos, Networks, Space and Time dispels these
myths. The structure of this book combines the three main topics of modern
dynamics—chaos theory, dynamics on complex networks and the geometry of
dynamical spaces—into a coherent framework. By taking a geometric view of
physics, concentrating on the time evolution of physical systems as trajectories
through abstract spaces, these topics share a common and simple mathematical
language with which any student can gain a unified physical intuition. Given the
growing importance of complex dynamical systems in many areas of science and
technology, this text provides students with an up-to-date foundation for their
future careers.
While pursuing this aim, Introduction to Modern Dynamics embeds the topics
of modern dynamics—chaos, synchronization, network theory, neural networks,
evolutionary change, econophysics, and relativity—within the context of tradi-
tional approaches to physics founded on the stationarity principles of variational
calculus and Lagrangian and Hamiltonian physics. As the physics student explores
the wide range of modern dynamics in this text, the fundamental tools that are
needed for a physicist’s career in quantitative science are provided, including
topics the student needs to know for the Graduate Record Examination (GRE).
The goal of this textbook is to modernize the teaching of junior-level dynamics,
responsive to a changing employment landscape, while retaining the core tradi-
tions and common language of dynamics texts.
viii Preface: The Best Parts of Physics
A unifying concept: geometry and dynamics

Instructors or students may wonder how an introductory textbook can contain
topics, under the same book cover, on econophysics and evolution as well as the
physics of black holes. However, it is not the physics of black holes that matters,
rather it is the description of general dynamical spaces that is important and the
understanding that can be gained of the geometric aspects of trajectories governed
by the properties of these spaces. All changing systems, whether in biology or
economics or computer science or photons in orbit around a black hole, are
understood as trajectories in abstract dynamical spaces.
Newton takes a back seat in this text. He will always be at the heart of dynamics,
but the modern emphasis has shifted away from F = ma to a newer perspective
where Newton’s Laws are special cases of broader concepts. There are economic
forces and forces of natural selection that are just as real as the force of gravity
on point particles. For that matter, even the force of gravity recedes into the
background as force-free motion in curved space-time takes the fore.
Unlike Newton, Hamilton and Lagrange retain their positions here. The vari-
ational principle and the minimization of dynamical quantities are core concepts
in dynamics. Minimization of the action integral provides trajectories in real
space, and minimization of metric distances provides trajectories—geodesics—
in dynamical spaces. Conservation laws arise naturally from Lagrangians, and
energy conservation enables simplifications using Hamiltonian dynamics. Space
and geometry are almost synonymous in this context. Defining the space of a
dynamical system takes first importance, and the geometry of the dynamical space
then determines the set of all trajectories that can exist in it.
A common tool: dynamical flows and the

ODE solver
A mathematical flow is a set of first-order differential equations that are solved
using as many initial values as there are variables, which defines the dimensionality
of the dynamical space. Mathematical flows are one of the foundation stones that
appears continually throughout this textbook. Nearly all of the subjects explored
here—from evolving viruses to orbital dynamics—can be captured as a flow.
Therefore, a common tool used throughout this text is the numerical solution
of the ordinary differential equation (ODE). Computers can be both a boon and
a bane to the modern physics student. On the one hand, the easy availability of
ODE solvers makes even the most obscure equations easy to simulate numerically,
enabling any student to plot a phase plane portrait that contains all manner of
behavior. On the other hand, physical insight and analytical understanding of
complex behavior tend to suffer from the computer-game nature of simulators.
Therefore, this textbook places a strong emphasis on analysis, and on behavior
Preface: The Best Parts of Physics ix
under limiting conditions, with the goal to reduce a problem to a few simple
principles, while making use of computer simulations to capture both the whole
picture as well as the details of system behavior.
Traditional junior-level physics: how to use

this book
All the traditional topics of junior-level physics are here. From the simplest
description of the harmonic oscillator, through Lagrangian and Hamiltonian
physics, to rigid body motion and orbital dynamics—the core topics of advanced
undergraduate physics are retained and are interspersed throughout this textbook.
What’s simple in complex systems?

The traditional topics of mechanics are integrated into the broader view of modern
dynamics that draws from the theory of complex systems. The range of subject
matter encompassed by complex systems is immense, and a comprehensive
coverage of this topic is outside the scope of this book. However, there is still
a surprisingly wide range of complex behavior that can be captured using the
simple concept that the geometry of a dynamic space dictates the set of all
possible trajectories in that space. Therefore, simple analysis of the associated
flows provides many intuitive insights into the origins of complex behavior. The
special topics covered in this textbook are:
• Chaos theory (Chapter 4)
Much of nonlinear dynamics can be understood through linearization of the

flow equations (equations of motion) around special fixed points. Visualizing the
dynamics of multi-parameter systems within multidimensional spaces is made
simpler by concepts such as the Poincaré section, strange attractors that have fractal
geometry, and iterative maps.
• Synchronization (Chapter 6)
The nonlinear synchronization of two or more oscillators is a starting point for

understanding more complex systems. As the whole can be greater than the sum
of the parts, global properties often emerge from local interactions among the
parts. Synchronization of oscillators is surprisingly common and robust, leading
to frequency-entrainment, phase-locking, and fractional resonance that allow small
perturbations to control large networks of interacting systems.
x Preface: The Best Parts of Physics
• Network theory (Chapter 7)
Everywhere we look today, we see networks. The ones we interact with daily
are social networks and related networks on the World Wide Web. In this
chapter, individual nodes are joined into networks of various geometries, such as
small-world networks and scale-free networks. The diffusion of disease across these
networks is explored, and the synchronization of Poincaré phase oscillators can
induce a Kuramoto transition to complete synchronicity.
• Evolutionary dynamics (Chapter 8)
Some of the earliest explorations of nonlinear dynamics came from studies of pop-
ulation dynamics. In a modern context, populations are governed by evolutionary
pressures and by genetics. Topics such as viral mutation and spread, as well as the
evolution of species within a fitness landscape, are understood as simple balances
within quasispecies equations.
• Neural networks (Chapter 9)
Perhaps the most complex of all networks is the brain. This chapter starts with the
single neuron, which is a limit-cycle oscillator that can show interesting bistability
and bifurcations. When neurons are placed into simple neural networks, such as
perceptrons or feedforward networks, they can do simple tasks after training by error
back-propagation. The complexity of the tasks increases with the complexity of
the networks, and recurrent networks, like the Hopfield neural net, can perform
associated memory operations that challenge even the human mind.
• Econophysics (Chapter 10)
A most baffling complex system that influences our daily activities, as well as
the trajectory of our careers, is the economy in the large and the small. The
dynamics of microeconomics determines what and why we buy, while the dynamics
of macroeconomics drives entire nations up and down economic swings. These
forces can be (partially) understood in terms of nonlinear dynamics and flows
in economic spaces. Business cycles and the diffusion of prices on the stock market
are no less understandable than evolutionary dynamics (Chapter 8) or network
dynamics (Chapter 7), and indeed draw closely from those topics.
• Geodesic motion (Chapter 11)
This chapter is the bridge between the preceding chapters on complex systems
and the succeeding chapters on relativity theory (both special and general). This
is where the geometry of space is first fully defined in terms of a metric tensor, and
where trajectories through a dynamical space are discovered to be paths of force-
Preface: The Best Parts of Physics xi
free motion. The geodesic equation (a geodesic flow) supersedes Newton’s Second
Law as the fundamental equation of motion that can be used to define the path of
masses through potential landscapes and the path of light through space-time.
• Special relativity (Chapter 12)
In addition to traditional topics of Lorentz transformations and mass-energy equiv-

alence, this chapter presents the broader view of trajectories through Minkowski
space-time whose geometric properties are defined by the Minkowski metric.
Relativistic forces and noninertial (accelerating) frames connect to the next
chapter that generalizes all relativistic behavior.
• General relativity (Chapter 13)
The physics of gravitation, more than any other topic, benefits from the over-
arching theme developed throughout this book—that the geometry of a space
defines the properties of all trajectories within that space. Indeed, in this geometric
view of physics, Newton’s force of gravity disappears and is replaced by force-
free geodesics through warped space-time. Mercury’s orbit around the Sun,
and trajectories of light past black holes, are elements of geodesic flows whose
properties are easily understood using the tools developed in Chapter 4 and
expanded upon throughout this textbook.
Acknowledgments
I gratefully acknowledge the many helpful discussions with my colleagues

Ephraim Fischbach, Andrew Hirsch, Sherwin Love, and Hisao Nakanishi during
the preparation of this book. Special thanks to my family, Laura and Nicholas, for
putting up with my “hobby” for so many years, and also for their encouragement
and moral support. I also thank the editors at Oxford University Press for help in
preparing the manuscript and especially Sonke Adlung for helping me realize my
vision.
Part I
Geometric Mechanics
Traditional approaches to the mechanics of particles tend to focus on individual

trajectories. In contrast, modern dynamics takes a global view of dynamical
behavior by studying the set of all possible trajectories of a system. Modern
dynamics furthermore studies properties in dynamical spaces that carry names
like state space, phase space,and space–time. Dynamical spaces can be highly abstract
and can have high dimensionality. This initial part of the book introduces the
mathematical tools necessary to study the geometry of dynamical spaces and the
resulting dynamical behavior within those spaces. Central to modern dynamics
is Hamilton’s Principle of Stationary Action as the prototypical minimization
principle that underlies much of dynamics. This approach will lead ultimately
(in Part III) to the geodesic equation of general relativity, in which matter
warps Minkowski space (space–time), and trajectories execute force-free motion
through that space.
Physics and Geometry
1
1.1 State space and dynamical
flows 4
1.2 Coordinate representation of
dynamical systems 10
1.3 Coordinate transformations 15
1.4 Uniformly rotating frames 25
1.5 Rigid-body motion 32
1.6 Summary 48
1.7 Bibliography 48
1.8 Homework problems 49
Foucault’s Pendulum in the Pantheon in Paris
Modern dynamics, like classical dynamics, is concerned with trajectories through

space—the descriptions of trajectories (kinematics) and the causes of trajectories
(dynamics). However, unlike classical mechanics, which emphasizes motions of
physical masses and the forces acting on them, modern dynamics generalizes the
notion of trajectories to encompass a broad range of time-varying behavior that
goes beyond material particles to include animal species in ecosystems, market
prices in economies, and virus spread on connected networks. The spaces that
these trajectories inhabit are abstract, and can have a high number of dimensions.
These generalized spaces may not have Euclidean geometry, and may be curved
like the surface of a sphere or space–time warped by gravity. The central object
of interest in dynamics is the evolving state of a system. The state description of
a system must be unambiguous, meaning that the next state to develop in time is
Introduction to Modern Dynamics. Second Edition. David D. Nolte, Oxford University Press (2019).
© David D. Nolte. DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780198844624.001.0001
4 Introduction to Modern Dynamics
uniquely determined by the current state. This is called deterministic dynamics,

which includes deterministic nonlinear dynamics for which chaotic trajectories
may have an apparent randomness to their character.
This chapter lays the foundation for the description of dynamical systems that
move continuously from state to state. Families of trajectories, called dynamical
flows, are the fundamental elements of interest; they are the field lines of dynamics.
These field lines are to deterministic dynamics what electric and magnetic field
lines are to electromagnetism. One key difference is that there is only one set of
Maxwell’s equations, while every nonlinear dynamical system has its own set of
equations, providing a nearly limitless number of possibilities for us to study.
This chapter begins by introducing general ideas of trajectories as the set of all
possible curves defined by dynamical flows in state space. To define trajectories,
we will establish notation to help us describe high-dimensional, abstract, and
possibly curved spaces. This is accomplished through the use of matrix (actually
tensor) indices that look strange at first to a student familiar only with vectors,
but which are convenient devices for keeping track of multiple coordinates. The
next step constructs coordinate transformations from one coordinate system
to another. For instance, a central question in modern dynamics is how two
observers, one in each system, describe the common phenomena that they
observe. The physics must be invariant to the choice of coordinate frame, but the
descriptions can differ widely.
1.1 State space and dynamical flows

Configuration space is defined by the spatial coordinates needed to describe a
dynamical system. The path the system takes through configuration space is its
trajectory. Each point on the trajectory captures the successive configurations of
the system as it evolves in time. However, knowing the current configuration of
the system does not guarantee that the next configuration can be defined. For
instance, the trajectory can loop back and cross itself. The velocity vector that
pointed one direction at the earlier time can point in a different direction at a later
time. Therefore, a velocity vector must be attached to each configuration to define
how it will evolve next.
1.1.1 State space

By adding velocities, associated with each of the coordinates, to the configuration
space, a new expanded space, called state space, is created. For a given initial
condition, there is only a single system trajectory through this multidimensional
1 See A. E. Jackson, Perspectives of Non-
space, and each point on the trajectory uniquely defines the next state of the
linear Dynamics (Cambridge University system.1 This trajectory in state space can cross itself only at points where all the
Press, 1989). velocities vanish, otherwise the future state of the system would not be unique.
Physics and Geometry 5
Example 1.1 State space of the damped one-dimensional harmonic oscillator
The damped harmonic oscillator in one coordinate has the single second-order ordinary differential equation2
mẍ + γ ẋ + kx = 0 (1.1)
where m is the mass of the particle, γ is the drag coefficient, and k is the spring constant. Any set of second-order
time-dependent ordinary differential equations (e.g., Newton’s second law) can be written as a larger set of first-order
equations. For instance, the single second-order equation (1.1) can be rewritten as two first-order equations
ẋ = v
(1.2)
mv̇ + γ v + kx = 0
It is conventional to write these with a single time derivative on the left as
ẋ = v
(1.3)
v̇ = −2βv − ω02 x
in the two variables (x, v) with β = γ /2m and ω02 = k/m. State space for this system of equations consists of two
coordinate axes in the two variables (x, v), and the right-hand side of the equations are expressed using only the same
two variables.
To solve this equation, assume a solution in the form of a complex exponential evolving in time with an angular
frequency ω as (see Appendix A.1)
x(t) = Xeiωt (1.4)

Insert this expression into Eq. (1.1) to yield
−mω2 Xeiωt + iωγ Xeiωt + kXeiωt = 0 (1.5)

with the characteristic equation
0 = mω2 − iωγ − k
= ω2 − i2ωβ − ω02 (1.6)
where the damping parameter is β = γ /2m, and the resonant angular frequency is given by ω02 = k/m. The solution
of the quadratic equation (1.6) is

ω = iβ ± ω02 − β 2 (1.7)
Using this expression for the angular frequency in the assumed solution (1.4) gives

x(t) = X1 exp (−βt) exp i ω02 − β 2 t + X2 exp (−βt) exp −i ω02 − β 2 t (1.8)
Consider the initial values x(0) = A and ẋ(0) = 0; then the two initial conditions impose the values
2 The “dot” notation stands for a time derivative: ẋ = dx/dt and ẍ = d 2 x/dt 2 . It is a
modern remnant of Newton’s fluxion notation.
Example 1.1 continued
⎛ ⎞
A ⎝ ω0 − β − iβ ⎠
2 2
X1 =
2 ω02 − β 2
⎛ ⎞ (1.9)
A ⎝ ω0 − β + iβ ⎠
2 2
X2 = = X1∗
2 ω2 − β 20
The final solution is ⎡ ⎤

β
x(t) = A exp (−βt) ⎣cos ω02 − β 2 t + sin ω02 − β 2 t ⎦ (1.10)
ω02 − β 2
which is plotted in Fig. 1.1(a) for the case where the initial displacement is a maximum and the initial speed is zero.
The oscillator “rings down” with the exponential
decay constant β. The angular frequency of the ring-down is not
equal to ω0 , but is reduced to the value ω0 − β . Hence, the damping decreases the frequency of the oscillator from
2 2
its natural resonant frequency. A system trajectory in state space starts at an initial condition (x0 , v0 ), and uniquely
traces the time evolution of the system as a curve in the state space. In Fig. 1.1(b), only one trajectory (stream line) is
drawn, but streamlines fill the state space, although they never cross, except at singular points where all velocities vanish.
Streamlines are the field lines of the vector field. Much of the study of modern dynamics is the study of the geometric
properties of the vector field (tangents to the streamlines) and field lines associated with a defined set of flow equations.
(a) (b)
Configuration space State space
1
1.0
A=1
Envelope function β = 0.05
exp(–βt) ω0 = 0.5
0.5
Position
Velocity
0 0
–0.5
–1 –1.0
–1 –0.5 0 0.5 1
0 20 40 60 80 100
Time Position
Figure 1.1 Trajectories of the damped harmonic oscillator. (a) Configuration position versus time. (b) State space, every point
of which has a tangent vector associated with it. Streamlines are the field lines of the vector field and are dense. Only a single
streamline is shown.
1.1.2 Dynamical flows

This book works with a general form of sets of dynamical equations called a
dynamical flow. The flow for a system of N variables is defined as
dq1
= F1 (q1 , q2 , . . . , qN ; t)
dt
dq2
= F2 (q1 , q2 , . . . , qN ; t)
dt (1.11)
..
.
dqN
= FN (q1 , q2 , . . . , qN ; t)
dt
or, more succinctly,
dqa
= Fa (qa ; t) (1.12)
dt
which is a system of N simultaneous equations, where the vector function Fa is

a function of the time-varying coordinates of the position vector. If Fa is not an
explicit function of time, then the system is autonomous, with an N-dimensional
state space. On the other hand, if Fa is an explicit function of time, then the system
is non-autonomous, with an (N + 1)-dimensional state space (space plus time) The
solution of the system of equations (1.12) is a set of trajectories qa (t) through the
state space.
In this book, the phrase configuration space is reserved for the dynamics of
systems of massive particles (with second-order time derivatives as in Examples
1.1 and 1.2). The dimension of the state space for particle systems is even-
dimensional because there is a velocity for each coordinate. However, for general
dynamical flows, the dimension of the state space can be even or odd. For
dynamical flows, state space and configuration space are the same thing, and the
phrase state space will be used.
Example 1.2 An autonomous oscillator
Systems that exhibit self-sustained oscillation, known as autonomous oscillators, are central to many of the topics
of nonlinear dynamics. For instance, an ordinary pendulum clock, driven by mechanical weights, is an autonomous
oscillator with a natural oscillation frequency that is sustained by gravity. One possible description of an autonomous
oscillator is given by the dynamical flow equations

ẋ = ωy + ωx 1 − x2 − y2
(1.13)
ẏ = −ωx + ωy 1 − x2 − y2
continued
where ω is an angular frequency. The (x, y) state-space trajectories of this system are spirals that relax to the unit circle as
they approach a dynamic equilibrium, shown in Fig. 1.2. Without the second terms on the right-hand side, this is simply
an undamped harmonic oscillator. Examples and problems involving autonomous oscillators will recur throughout this
book in Chapters 4 (Chaos), 6 (Synchronization), 7 (Networks), 8 (Evolutionary Dynamics), 9 (Neurodynamics) and
10 (Economic Dynamics).
Figure 1.2 Flow lines of an autonomous oscillator with a limit cycle. All trajectories converge on the limit cycle.
Example 1.3 Undamped point-mass pendulum
The undamped point-mass pendulum is composed of a point mass m on a massless rigid rod of length L. It has a
two-dimensional state-space dynamics in the space (θ , ω) described by
θ̇ = ω
g (1.14)
ω̇ = − sin θ
L
The state-space trajectories can be obtained by integrating these equations using a nonlinear ODE solver. Alternatively,
the state-space trajectories can be obtained analytically if there are constants of the motion. For instance, because the
pendulum is undamped and conservative, the total energy of the system is a constant for a given initial condition,
1
mL2 ω2 + mgL (1 − cos θ )
E= (1.15)
2
referenced to the bottom of the motion in configuration space. If the maximum angle of the pendulum for a given
trajectory is θ0 , then
E = mgL (1 − cos θ0 ) (1.16)
and
1
mL2 ω2 = mgL (cos θ − cos θ0 ) (1.17)
2
which is solved for the instantaneous angular velocity ω as

ω (θ ) = ±ω0 2 (cos θ − cos θ0 ) (1.18)
These are oscillatory motions for θ0 < π. For larger energies, the motion is rotational (also known as libration). The
solutions in this case are

ω (θ ) = ±ω0 2 (cos θ0 − cos θ ) (1.19)
where cos θ 0 is not a physical angle, but is an effective parameter describing the total energy as
E
cos θ0 = 1 + (1.20)
mgL
The (θ, ω) state-space trajectories of the undamped point-mass pendulum are shown in Fig. 1.3. When the state space
pertains to a conservative system, it is also called phase space. Conservative systems are Hamiltonian systems and are
described in Chapter 3.
10
Open orbits
5
Momentum
0 Separatrix
–5
Closed orbits
–10
–5 0 5
Angle
Figure 1.3 State space of the undamped point-mass pendulum. The configuration space is one-dimensional along the angle
θ . Closed orbits (oscillation) are separated from open orbits (rotation) by a curve known as a separatrix.
Example 1.4 A three-variable harmonic oscillator
As an example of an odd-dimensional state space, consider the three-dimensional flow

ẋ = ω0 (y − z)
ẏ = ω0 (z − x) (1.21)
ż = ω0 (x − y)
This mathematical model is equivalent to a three-variable linear oscillator with no dissipation. To solve this flow, assume
a solution in the form of a complex exponential in time evolving with an angular frequency ω as x(t) = Xeiωt . Insert
this expression into Eq. (1.21) to yield
iωX = ω0 (Y − Z)
iωY = ω0 (Z − X) (1.22)
iωZ = ω0 (X − Y )
Solve the secular determinant for the angular frequency ω:

iω −ω0 ω0

ω0 iω −ω0 = iω −ω2 + ω02 + ω0 ω0 iω − ω02 + ω0 ω02 + ω0 iω = 0
(1.23)
− ω0 ω0 iω

ω −ω2 + 3ω02 = 0
The solutions for ω are
√
ω = 0, ± 3ω0 (1.24)
The solutions, for any initial condition, are three sinusoids with identical amplitudes and frequencies, but with relative
phases that differ by ±2π/3. A dynamical system like this is not equivalent to modeling a particle with inertia. It is a
dynamical flow with a state-space dimension equal to three that might model the behavior of an economic system, or
an ecological balance among three species, or a coupled set of neurons. In the study of modern dynamical systems,
the emphasis moves away from particles acted on by forces and becomes more abstract, but also more general and
versatile.
This example has what is called “neutral stability.” This means that even a slight perturbation of this system may
cause the oscillations to either decay to zero or to grow without bound. In Chapter 4, a stability analysis will identify
this system as a “center.” This oscillatory system is not a robust system, because a small change in parameter can
cause a major change in its qualitative behavior. However, there are types of self-sustained oscillations that are robust,
maintaining steady oscillatory behavior even as parameters, and even dissipation, change. These are autonomous
oscillators and are invariably nonlinear oscillators.
1.2 Coordinate representation of dynamical

systems
Although physics must be independent of any coordinate frame, the description
of what we see does depend on which frame we are viewing it from. Therefore, it
often will be convenient to view the same physics from different perspectives. For
this reason, we need to find transformation laws that convert the description from
one frame to another.
1.2.1 Coordinate notation and configuration space

The position of a free particle in three-dimensional (3D) space is specified by
three values that conventionally can be assigned the Cartesian coordinate values
x(t), y(t), and z(t). These coordinates define the instantaneous configuration
of the system. If a second particle is added, then there are three additional
coordinates, and the configuration space of the system is now six-dimensional.
Rather than specifying three new coordinate names, such as u(t), v(t), or w(t),
it is more convenient to use a notation that is extended easily to any number of
dimensions. Index notion accomplishes this by having the index span across all
the coordinate values.
Vector components throughout this text will be denoted with a superscript. For
instance, the position vector of a free particle in 3D Euclidean space is a 3-tuple
of values
⎛ ⎞
x1
⎜ 2⎟
x = ⎝x ⎠ (1.25)
x3
Vectors are represented by column matrices (which is the meaning of the super-
scripts here3 ). It is important to remember that these superscripts are not
“powers.” A coordinate component raised to an nth power will be expressed
as (xa )n . For N free particles, a single 3N-dimensional position vector defines
the instantaneous configuration of the system. To abbreviate the coordinate
description, one can use the notation

x = xa a = 1, . . . , 3N (1.26)
where the curly brackets denote the full set of coordinates. An even shorter, and
more common, notation for a vector is simply
xa (1.27)
where the full set a = 1, . . ., 3N is implied. Cases where only a single coordinate
is intended will be clear from the context. The position coordinates develop in
3 The superscript is a part of the nota-
time as
tion for tensors and manifolds in which
vectors differ from another type of com-
xa (t) (1.28) ponent called a covector that is denoted
by a subscript. In Cartesian coordinates,
a superscript denotes a column vector
which describes a trajectory of the system in its 3N-dimensional configuration and a subscript denotes a row vector (see
space. Appendix A.3).
1.2.2 Trajectories in 3D configuration space

A trajectory is a set of position coordinate values that vary continuously with
a single parameter and define a smooth curve in the configuration space. For
instance,
xa = xa (t) or xa = xa (s) (1.29)
where t is the time and s is the path length along the trajectory. Once the trajectory
of a point has been defined within its configuration space, it is helpful to define
properties of the trajectory, like the tangent to the curve and the normal. The
velocity vector is tangent to the path. For a single particle in 3D, this would be
⎛ ⎞
dx1 (s)
⎜ ds ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎜ dx2 (s) ⎟ ds
=⎜
v(s) ⎜
⎟
⎟ (1.30)
⎜ ds ⎟ dt
⎝ dx3 (s) ⎠
ds
where the ds/dt term is simply the speed of the particle. In the simplified index
notation, this is
ds dxa (s)
va (s) =
dt ds
ds
= Ta (1.31)
dt
where T a is a unit tangent vector in the direction of the velocity:
dxa
Ta = (1.32)
ds
Each point on the trajectory has an associated tangent vector. In addition to the
tangent vector, another important vector property of a trajectory is the normal to
the trajectory, defined by
dT a
= κN a (1.33)
ds
where N a is the unit vector normal to the curve, and the curvature of the
trajectory is
1
κ= (1.34)
R
where R is the radius of curvature at the specified point on the trajectory.

The parameterization of a trajectory in terms of its path length s is often
a more “natural” way of describing the trajectory, especially under coordinate
transformations. For instance, in special relativity, time is no longer an absolute
parameter, because it is transformed in a manner similar to position.Then it is
possible to define a path length interval ds2

in space–time that remains invariant
under Lorentz transformation (see Chapter 12) and hence can be used to specify
the path through space–time.4
Example 1.5 Parabolic trajectory in a gravitational field
This is a familiar problem that goes back to freshman physics. However, it

is seen here in a slightly different light. Consider a particle in a constant
gravitational field thrown with initial velocity v0 in the x direction. The
mathematical description of this motion is
dx
= v0
dt (1.35)
dy
= −gt
dt
with the solution, for initial conditions x = 0, y = 0, ẋ = v0 , ẏ = 0,
x = v0 t
1 (1.36)
y = − gt 2
2
giving the spatial trajectory
1 g 2
y=− x (1.37)
2 v20
The speed of the particle is
2 2 2
ds dx dy
= +
dt dt dt
= v20 − 2gy
= v20 + g 2 t 2 = v2 (1.38)
with the arc length element

ds = v20 + g 2 t 2 dt

g 2 x2
= 1+ dx (1.39)
v40
and the tangent vector components
dx 1
T1 = =
ds g 2 x2
1+
v40
gx (1.40)
− 4 More generally, the invariant squared
dy v20
T2 = = path length interval ds2 is an essential part
ds g 2 x2 of the metric description of the geometry
1+ of space–time and other dynamical spaces,
v40 and is a key aspect of geodesic motion for
bodies moving through those spaces (see
continued
Chapter 11).
The trajectory and its tangent vector are described as functions of position—
a geometric curve rather than an explicit function of time. While the results
for this familiar problem may look unfamiliar, it is similar to the description
of trajectories in special relativity, or to geodesic trajectories near gravitating
bodies in space–time that will be treated in later chapters.
1.2.3 Generalized coordinates

The configuration coordinates considered so far have been Cartesian coordinates
(x, y, z). However, there are abstract coordinates, called generalized coordinates,
that may be more easily employed to solve dynamical problems. Generalized
coordinates arise in different ways. They may be dictated by the symmetry of
the problem, like polar coordinates for circular motion. They may be defined
by constraints on the physical system, like a particle constrained to move on a
surface. Or they may be defined by coupling (functional dependence) between
the coordinates of a multicomponent system, leading to generalized coordinates
known as normal modes. Generalized coordinates are often denoted by q’s.
They may be described in terms of other coordinates, for instance Cartesian
coordinates, as

qa = qa xb , t
(1.41)
xb = xb (qa , t)
where the transformations associated with each index may have different func-
tional forms and do not need to be linear functions of their arguments. The
generalized coordinates do not need to have the dimension of length, and each can
have different units. However, it is required that the transformation be invertible
(one-to-one).
Generalized coordinates can be used to simplify the description of the motions
of complex systems composed of large numbers of particles. If there are N par-
ticles, each with three coordinates, then the total dimension of the configuration
space is 3N and there is a dense set of system trajectories that thread their way
through this configuration space. However, often there are constraints on the
physical system, such as the requirement that particles be constrained to reside
on a physical surface such as the surface of a sphere. In this case, there are
equations that connect two or more of the coordinates. If there are K equa-
tions of constraints, then the number of independent generalized coordinates is
3N − K and the motion occurs on a (3N – K)-dimensional hypersurface within
the configuration space. This hypersurface is called a manifold. In principle, it
is possible to find the 3N – K generalized coordinates that span this manifold,
and the manifold becomes the new configuration space spanned by the 3N – K
generalized coordinates. Furthermore, some of the generalized coordinates may
not participate in the dynamics. These are called ignorable coordinates (also known
as cyclic coordinates), and they arise owing to symmetries in the configuration space
plus constraints, and are associated with conserved quantities. The dimensionality
of the dynamical manifold on which the system trajectory resides is further
reduced by each of these conserved quantities. Ultimately, after all the conserved
quantities and all the constraints have been accounted for, the manifold that
contains the system trajectory may have a dimension much smaller than the
dimension of the original Cartesian configuration space.
Example 1.6 Bead sliding on a frictionless helical wire
Consider a bead sliding without friction on a helical wire with no gravity. The trajectory is defined in 3D Cartesian
coordinates by
x(t) = R cos ωt
y(t) = R sin ωt (1.42)
z(t) = vz t
parameterized by time t. There are two constraints
x2 + y 2 = R 2
(1.43)
z = aθ
where a is the pitch of the helix and θ = ωt. These constraints reduce the 3D dynamics to 1D motion (3 – 2 = 1), and
the 1D trajectory has a single generalized coordinate

q(t) = t R2 ω2 + v2z (1.44)
which is also equal to the path length s. The speed of the particle is a constant and is

ṡ = R2 ω2 + v2z (1.45)
1.3 Coordinate transformations

For a general coordinate transformation, the original Cartesian coordinates x, y,
and z are related to coordinates q1 , q2 , and q3 by the functions

x = x q1 , q2 , q3

y = y q1 , q2 , q3 (1.46)

z=z q1 , q2 , q3
These equations can be inverted to yield
q1 = q1 (x, y, z)
q2 = q2 (x, y, z) (1.47)
q3 = q3 (x, y, z)
which may be generalized coordinates that are chosen to simplify the equations
of motion of a dynamical system.
1.3.1 Jacobian matrix

The Jacobian matrix of the transformation is defined from the coordinate trans-
formations (and inverse transformations) as
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
∂x ∂x ∂x ∂q1 ∂q1 ∂q1
⎜ ∂q1 ∂q2 ∂q3 ⎟ ⎜ ∂x ∂z ⎟
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ∂y ⎟
⎜ ∂y ∂y ⎟ ⎜ 2 ⎟
⎜ ∂y ⎟ ⎜ ∂q ∂q2 ∂q2 ⎟
J=⎜ 1 ⎟ J −1 =⎜ ⎟ (1.48)
⎜ ∂q ∂q2 ∂q3 ⎟ ⎜ ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎟
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ 3 ⎟
⎝ ∂z ∂z ∂z ⎠ ⎝ ∂q ∂q3 ∂q ⎠
3
∂q1 ∂q2 ∂q3 ∂x ∂y ∂z
The determinant |J| is called the Jacobian.

The Jacobian matrix requires two indices to define its individual elements, just
as a vector required one index. Because the Jacobian matrix is generated using
derivatives, an index notation that distinguishes between the differential vector in
the numerator relative to the differential vector in the denominator is
row index
a
Jba = ∂x (1.49)
∂qb
column index
where the superscript and subscript relate to xa and qb , respectively. The super-
script is called a contravariant index, and the subscript is called a covariant index.
One way to remember this nomenclature is that “co” goes “below.” The covariant
index refers to the columns of the matrix, and the contravariant index refers to the
rows. Column vectors have contravariant indices because they have multiple rows,
while row vectors have covariant indices because they have multiple columns. Row
vectors are also known as covariant vectors, or covectors.
When transforming between Cartesian and generalized coordinates, an
infinitesimal transformation is expressed as
∂xa
dxa = dqb = Jba dqb (1.50)
∂qb
b b
where the Jacobian matrix Jba can depend on position. If the transformation is
linear, then the Jacobian matrix is a constant. The operation of the Jacobian matrix
on the generalized coordinates generates a new column vector dxa .
Rather than always expressing the summation explicitly, there is a common
convention, known as the Einstein summation convention, in which the summation
symbol is dropped and a repeated index—one above and one below—implies
summation:

Einstein summation convention xa = Λab qb ≡ Λab qb (1.51)
b
where the “surviving” index—a—is the non-repeated index. Note that Λba is a
linear transformation. For example, in three dimensions, this is
x1 = Λ11 q1 + Λ12 q2 + Λ13 q3

x2 = Λ21 q1 + Λ22 q2 + Λ23 q3 (1.52)
x3 = Λ31 q1 + Λ32 q2 + Λ33 q3
which is recognizable in matrix multiplication as

⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞⎛ ⎞
x1 Λ11 Λ12 Λ13 q1
⎜ 2⎟ ⎜ 2 ⎟ ⎜ 2⎟
⎝x ⎠ = ⎝Λ1 Λ22 2
Λ3 ⎠ ⎝q ⎠ (1.53)
x3 Λ31 Λ32 Λ33 q3
and is simplified to
xa = Λab qb (1.54)
with the Einstein repeated-index summation. The Einstein summation convention

is also convenient when defining the inner (or “dot”) product between two vectors.
For instance,
A · B = Ax Bx + Ay By + Az Bz
= Aa Ba (1.55)
and the implicit summation over the repeated indices produces a scalar quantity
from the two vector quantities. The inner product in matrix notation multiplies a
column vector from the left by a row vector.
The Jacobian matrix and its uses are recurring themes in modern dynamics.
Its uses go beyond simple coordinate transformations, and it appears any time a
nonlinear system is “linearized” around fixed points to perform stability analysis
(Chapter 4). The eigenvalues of the Jacobian matrix define how rapidly nearby
initial conditions diverge (called Lyapunov exponents—Chapters 4 and 9). The
determinant of the Jacobian matrix is the coefficient relating area and volume
changes (Chapter 11), and is used to prove which processes conserve volumes in
phase space or Minkowski space (Chapters 3 and 12).
1.3.2 Metric spaces and basis vectors

In Cartesian coordinates, basis vectors are the familiar unit vectors x̂, ŷ, ẑ
directed along the coordinate axes. In the case of generalized coordinates, basis
vectors need to be defined through their relationship to the original Cartesian
coordinates. In two dimensions, the differential transformation between coordi-
nates xa and qb is expressed as
∂x 1 ∂x
dx = dq + 2 dq2
∂q1 ∂q
(1.56)
∂y 1 ∂y
dy = dq + 2 dq2
∂q1 ∂q
which is written in matrix form as

⎛ ∂x ∂x ⎞

dx ⎜ ∂q1 ∂q2 ⎟ dq1
=⎜
⎝ ∂y
⎟ (1.57)
dy ∂y ⎠ dq2
∂q1 ∂q2
The square matrix is the Jacobian matrix of the transformation. Transposing this
expression gives
⎛ ⎞
∂x ∂y
⎜ 1
∂q ∂q1 ⎟
(dx dy) = dq1 dq2 ⎜⎝ ∂x
⎟
∂y ⎠
∂q2 ∂q2

e 1
q
= dq dq
1 2
(1.58)
eq2
where the rows of the matrix have become basis vectors (covectors)

∂x ∂y
eq1 =
∂q1 ∂q1
(1.59)
∂x ∂y
eq2 =
∂q2 ∂q2
Basis vectors are used to express elements of the Cartesian vectors in terms of the
curvilinear coordinates as
d x = eqa dqa (1.60)

where the Einstein summation is implied. Vectors describe the properties of

a physical system that cannot depend on the coordinate frame that is chosen:
changing coordinate systems cannot change the physics of the system! Therefore,
vectors such as d x are coordinate-free expressions. Vector components, on the
other hand, do depend on the choice of coordinate system used to express them.
Basis vectors are attached to the coordinate system, defining the elementary com-
ponents along which a vector is decomposed. Basis vectors can vary depending on
their location within the coordinate system, and are not necessarily unit vectors.
A vector can be expressed in terms of basis vectors as
A = A1 e1 + A2 e2 + A3 e3

(1.61)
= Ab eb
which shows how vectors and covectors combine.
Example 1.7 Cylindrical coordinates
The coordinate transformations describing Cartesian coordinates in terms of polar coordinates are
x = r cos θ
y = r sin θ (1.62)
z=z
The basis row vectors for the composition of Cartesian components in terms of the curvilinear coordinates are

∂x ∂y ∂z
er = = (cos θ sin θ 0)
∂r ∂r ∂r

∂x ∂y ∂z
eθ = = (−r sin θ r cos θ 0) (1.63)
∂θ ∂θ ∂θ

∂x ∂y ∂z
ez = = (0 0 1)
∂z ∂z ∂z
1.3.3 Metric tensor

The path length element is a quadratic form that is expressed in terms of
generalized coordinates as
ds2 = gab dqa dqb (1.64)
(Einstein summation implied), where gab is called the metric tensor. To find
an explicit expression for the metric tensor, given a coordinate transformation,
consider the differential transformation between coordinates xa and qb ,
∂xa b
dxa = dq (1.65)
∂qb
which is written out explicitly for three dimensions as
∂x 1 ∂x ∂x
dx = dq + 2 dq2 + 3 dq3
∂q1 ∂q ∂q
∂y 1 ∂y ∂y
dy = dq + 2 dq2 + 3 dq3 (1.66)
∂q1 ∂q ∂q
∂z 1 ∂z ∂z
dz = 1
dq + 2 dq2 + 3 dq3
∂q ∂q ∂q
The square of the first line is

∂x 1 ∂x ∂x 3 2
(dx)2 = dq + 2 dq2 + dq
∂q1 ∂q ∂q3
∂x ∂x 2 ∂x ∂x 2 2 ∂x ∂x 2
= 1 1 dq1 + 2 2
dq + 3 3 dq3
∂q ∂q ∂q ∂q ∂q ∂q
∂x ∂x 1 2 ∂x ∂x ∂x ∂x
+2 1 2
dq dq + 2 1 3 dq1 dq3 + 2 2 3 dq2 dq3 (1.67)
∂q ∂q ∂q ∂q ∂q ∂q
with similar expressions for dy and dz. These squares are added (in quadrature)
to give the squared line element
ds2 = dx2 + dy2 + dz2 (1.68)
which leads to a new expression
ds2 = g11 dq1 dq1 + g12 dq1 dq2 + g13 dq1 dq3
+ g21 dq2 dq1 + g22 dq2 dq2 + g23 dq2 dq3
+ g31 dq3 dq1 + g32 dq3 dq2 + g33 dq3 dq3
= gab dqa dqb (1.69)
in terms of the metric tensor gab . Collecting the coefficients of each of the dqa dqb
terms, and equating ds2 to the right-hand side, yields
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂z ∂z
g11 = + 1 1 + 1 1
∂q1 ∂q1 ∂q ∂q ∂q ∂q
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂z ∂z (1.70)
g12 = 1 2
+ 1 2 + 1 2
∂q ∂q ∂q ∂q ∂q ∂q
...
with the general expression
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂z ∂z
gab = + a b + a b (1.71)
∂qa ∂qb ∂q ∂q ∂q ∂q
Cylindrical coordinates (r, θ, z) x r cos θ

xa = y = r sin θ
z z
z-axis
ds2 = dr 2 + r 2dθ2 + dz 2
r
P (r, θ, z)
O
y-axis
θ
x-axis
Spherical coordinates (r, θ, φ)

x r sinθ cosφ
z-axis
xa = y = r sinθ sinφ
P (r, θ, φ) z r cosθ
θ
ds2 = dr 2 + r 2dθ2 + r 2 sin 2 θdφ2
r z
O y-axis
φ
x-axis
Figure 1.4 Cylindrical and spherical
coordinate systems with line elements
ds2 .
for each element of the metric tensor. Alternatively, one can begin with
ds2 = d r · d r

= ea dqa · eb dqb
= (
ea · eb ) dqa dqb (1.72)
and the assignment can be made directly for
gab = ea · eb (1.73)
where the metric tensor elements are the inner products of basis vectors.
The metric tensor will be described extensively in Chapter 11 as a fundamental

element used in the description of general geometries that go beyond ordinary
Cartesian coordinates. The metric tensor is central to the description of space–
time in special relativity and warped space–time in general relativity.
1.3.4 Two-dimensional rotations

A common class of coordinate transformation consists of rotations. The rotation
matrix is an operator that operates on the components of a vector to express them
in terms of a new rotated set of coordinate axes. The components of a vector Aa
are transformed as

Ab = Rba Aa (1.74)

where Rba is the rotation matrix and Aa are the components of the vector as
viewed in the unprimed frame. For a 2D coordinate frame O that has been rotated
clockwise by an angle θ relative to the unprimed frame O, the rotation matrix that
transforms the vector components (described with respect to the new frame) is

cos θ − sin θ
2D rotation matrix Rba = . (1.75)
sin θ cos θ
It is important to keep a clear distinction between basis vectors (like x̂ and

ŷ) that point along the coordinate axes and the components of the vector A
projected onto these axes. If the basis vectors (and hence the coordinate frame)
are rotated clockwise, then the vector components, as seen from the transformed
coordinate frame, appear to have rotated counter-clockwise. This is shown in Fig.
1.5. Therefore, basis vectors are rotated through the inverse rotation matrix. The
transformation of the basis vectors is therefore
eb = Rab ea (1.76)
which is the inverse of Eq. (1.74):

−1 cos θ sin θ
Rba = Rab = (1.77)
− sin θ cos θ

The inverse transformation Rba has the primed index below, while in the forward

transformation of vector components, Rba , the primed index is above.
A vector quantity is expressed in terms of the basis vectors as

A = Aa ea = Ab eb (1.78)
y
y

Ab = Rba Aa
Ay
Ay
Ax cos θ –sin θ Ax
=
A Ay sin θ cos θ Ay
êy
êx
êy Ax x Figure 1.5 Rotated coordinate axes

Ax
θ through the transformation Rab . The
êx vector A remains the same—only the
description of the vector (vector compo-
x
nents projected onto the axes) changes.
which is independent of the coordinate system—vectors are invariant quantities

(elements of reality) that exist independently of their coordinate description. This
invariance of vectors is described explicitly through the derivation

A = Aa ea

= Aa Rba Rab ea

= Aa Rba Rab ea
= Ab eb (1.79)

where the quantity Rba Rab is the identity matrix.
1.3.5 Three-dimensional rotations of coordinate

frames
Three-dimensional rotations of coordinate axes can be constructed as successive
2D rotations applied around different axes. Three angles are required to express
an arbitrary 3D rotation, and the general rotation matrix can be expressed as

Rad = Rcd (ψ) Rbc (θ ) Rab (φ) (1.80)
where each rotation is applied around a different axis. When applied to a basis
vector ea , this produces the successive transformations

eb = Rab (φ) ea

ec = Rbc (φ) eb (1.81)
c
ed = Rd (φ) ec
where the original primed frame is rotated into the double-primed frame, then the
z
. double-primed frame is rotated into the triple-primed frame, which is rotated into
φ the unprimed frame, which is the resultant frame of the 3D rotation. Although
there is no unique choice for the rotation axes, one conventional choice known
z = z . y as Euler angles uses a rotation by φ around the z axis, then by θ around the x
Ψ θ
axis, and finally by ψ around the z axis (Fig. 1.6). The rotation matrices for this
choice are
⎛ ⎞
y cos φ − sin φ 0
ψ x a ⎜ ⎟
Rz (φ) = Z = ⎝ sin φ
b cos φ 0⎠ (1.82)
x φ
. 0 0 1
θ ⎛ ⎞
x = x 1 0 0
⎜ ⎟
Line of Nodes
Rx (θ ) = Xcb = ⎝0 cos θ − sin θ ⎠ (1.83)
Figure 1.6 Euler angles for a 3D rota- 0 sin θ cos θ
tion. The original primed axes are first ⎛ ⎞
cos ψ − sin ψ 0
rotated by φ around the z-axis (fixed- ⎜ ⎟
frame z-axis), then by θ around the Rz (ψ) = Zdc = ⎝ sin ψ cos ψ 0⎠ (1.84)
x-axis (also known as the line of nodes), 0 0 1
and finally by ψ around the z-axis (body
z-axis). Euler angles are important for describing spinning or rotating systems in terms
of angular velocities. The angular velocities in the body frame are
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞⎛ ⎞
ω1 sin θ sin ψ cos ψ 0 φ̇
⎜ 2⎟ ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟
⎝ω ⎠ = ⎝ sin θ cos ψ − sin ψ 0⎠ ⎝θ̇ ⎠ (1.85)
ω3 cos θ 0 1 ψ̇
with individual components in the body frame being
ω1 = φ̇ sin θ sin ψ + θ̇ cos ψ

ω2 = φ̇ sin θ cos ψ − θ̇ sin ψ (1.86)
ω3 = φ̇ cos θ + ψ̇
These expressions will be useful when solving problems of rotating or tumbling

objects.
The Euler angles are a natural choice for a 3D rotation to describe the
complicated motions of spinning tops (see Section 1.5). However, the choice is
not unique, and a different choice for the rotation matrix in 3D can be used when
there is a single rotation axis and rotation angle θ . For a defined rotation axis given
by a unit vector ûa and a rotation angle θ , the rotation matrix is

3D rotation matrix Rab = Iba cos θ + Sba sin θ + Tba (1 − cos θ) (1.87)

where Iba = δba is the identity matrix, and the other matrices are
⎛ ⎞
0 −uz uy
a ⎜ ⎟
Sb = ⎝ uz 0 −ux ⎠
− uy ux 0
⎛ ⎞ (1.88)
ux ux ux uy ux uz
⎜ ⎟
Tba = ⎝uy ux uy uy uy uz ⎠
uz ux uz uy uz uz

with ua being the Cartesian components of the unit vector. The matrix Tba is the

tensor product of the unit vector with itself, denoted in vector notation as û ⊗ û .

The matrix Sba is a skew-symmetric matrix constructed from the unit vector and

is denoted in vector notation as the operator û× for the cross product. The
structure of the skew-symmetric matrix reflects the geometry of rotations in 3D
space. It is this intrinsic property of 3-space that is the origin of physics equations
containing cross products, such as definitions of angular momentum and torque
as well as equations that depend on the moments of inertia, which are encountered
later in this chapter.
1.4 Uniformly rotating frames

A uniformly rotating frame is an important example of a non-inertial frame. In
this case, acceleration is not constant, which leads to fictitious forces such as the
centrifugal and Coriolis forces.
Consider two frames: one fixed and one rotating. These could be, for instance,
a laboratory frame and a rotating body in the laboratory, as in Fig. 1.7. The fixed
frame has primed coordinates, and the rotating frame has unprimed coordinates.
The position vector in the fixed lab frame is

r = xa êa = x êx + y êy + z êz (1.89)
The position vector in the rotating frame is
r = xa êa = xêx + yêy + zêz (1.90)
relative to the origin of the rotating frame. The primed position vector is then
r = R + r (1.91)
x3
P
r
x3
x2
r

R
x1
x2
Figure 1.7 Coordinates for a rotating

frame. The body frame is the unprimed
frame. The lab, or fixed, frame is primed. x1
Taking the time derivative gives
˙ + d xa ê
r˙ = R a
dt
=R˙ + ẋa ê + xa ê˙
a a
˙ + r˙ + xa ê˙
=R (1.92)
a
(the Einstein summation convention on the repeated index is assumed), where the
last term is a non-inertial term because the basis vectors of the rotating frame are
changing in time.
To obtain the time derivative of the basis vectors, consider an infinitesimal
rotation transformation that operates on the basis vectors of the body frame

d êa
êb = Rab êa = δba êa + dt (1.93)
dt

where the infinitesimal rotation matrix Rba from Eq. (1.87) is expressed to lowest
order in dθ = ωdt as
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
1 0 0 0 −ωz ωy
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
Rab ≈ ⎝0 1 0⎠ − ⎝ ω z 0 −ωx ⎠ dt (1.94)
0 0 1 − ωy ωx 0
5 Cartesian vector components can be

where the ωa are the Cartesian components of the angular velocity vector ω
denoted with subscripts, but they are not
to be confused with the general covectors along the axes.5 Therefore, the time derivatives of the basis vectors of the body
that are defined in Chapter 11. frame are
d êx
= ωz êy − ωy êz
dt
d êy
= ωz êx + ωy êz (1.95) ωz
dt
d êz
= ωy êx − ωx êy
dt
eˆz
The rotation of the basis vectors by the different components ωa is shown in ωy
Fig. 1.8. eˆx eˆy
Using Eq. (1.95) to express the non-inertial term in Eq. (1.92) gives
xa ê˙a = xωz êy − xωy êz ωx

+ y −ωz êx + y ωx êz Figure 1.8 Angular velocities related to
+ zωy êx − zωx êy (1.96) changes in the basis vectors.
Combining terms gives

xa ê˙a = êx ωy z − ωz y

− êy ωx z − ωz x

+ êz ωx y − ωy x (1.97)
where the result is recognized as the cross product
xa ê˙a = ω
× r (1.98)
Cross products occur routinely in the physics of rotating frames and rotating
bodies, and are efficiently expressed in vector notion, which will be used through
most of the remainder of the chapter instead of the index notation.6 By using Eq.
(1.98) in Eq. (1.92), the fixed and rotating velocities are related by
vf = V + vr + ω
× r (1.99)
the time rate of change in the fixed

This result is general, and, for any vector Q,
frame is related to the time rate of change in the rotating frame as

dQ
dQ
= +ω
×Q (1.100)
dt fixed dt rotating
= ω,
As an example, consider the case Q 6 Vector cross products arise from the
wedge product A ∧ B of Hermann Grass-

dω
dω mann (1844), introduced in The Theory of
= +ω
×ω
(1.101)
dt fixed dt rotating Linear Extension, a New Branch of Mathe-
matics.
where the last term is clearly zero. Therefore,
˙ f = ω
ω ˙ r (1.102)
proving that angular accelerations are observed to be the same, just as linear
accelerations are the same when transforming between inertial frames. This
equality is because the rotating frame is in constant angular motion.
As a second, and more important example, take the time derivative of
Eq. (1.99). This is

d vf d V d vr ˙ × r + ω d r
= + +
ω × (1.103)
dt fixed dt fixed dt fixed dt fixed
The second term on the right is expanded using Eq. (1.100) as

d vr d v
= +ω
× vr (1.104)
The fourth term in Eq. (1.103) becomes

d r d r
×
ω =
ω × +ω
× (ω
× r)
=ω
× vr + ω
× (ω
× r) (1.105)
The acceleration in the fixed frame is then
¨ + a + ω
af = R ˙ × r + ω
× (ω
× r) + 2ω
× vr (1.106)
r
For a particle of mass m, Newton’s second law is
¨ + ma + mω
F f = mR ˙ + r + mω
× (ω
× r) + 2mω
× vr (1.107)
r
which is the force in the fixed frame.

Therefore, in the rotating frame, there is an effective force
¨ − mω
F eff = mar = Ff − mR ˙ × r − mω
× (ω
× r) − 2mω
× vr (1.108)
The first two terms on the right are the fixed-frame forces. The third term is the
effect of the angular acceleration of the spinning frame. The fourth term is the
centrifugal force, and the last term is the Coriolis force. The centrifugal and the
Coriolis forces are called fictitious forces. They are only apparent in the rotating
frame because the rotating frame is not inertial.
Center-of-mass
Centrifugal force
acceleration
.
¨
mar = Ff – mR – mω × r – mω × (ω × r) – 2mω × νr
External force Angular Coriolis force Figure 1.9 Effective force in a frame
acceleration rotating with angular velocity ω.
1.4.1 Motion relative to the Earth

For a particle subject to the Earth’s gravitational field (Fig. 1.10), the effective
force experienced by the particle is
gmax
¨ − mω
F eff = F ext + mg0 − mR ˙ × r − mω
× (ω
× r) − 2mω
× vr (1.109) g0
g
The fourth term is related to the deceleration of the Earth and is negligible. The
−mω × ω × R
( )
centrifugal term is re-expressed as

¨ = ω
R × ω × R gmin
=ω ˙
×R (1.110)
The effective force is then

Figure 1.10 Geometry for motion rela-
F eff = F ext + mg0 − mω
× ω × r + R − 2mω
× vr (1.111) tive to the Earth.
and redefining the effective gravitational acceleration through

geff = g0 − ω
× ω × r + R (1.112)
gives
F eff = F ext + mgeff − 2mω

× vr (1.113)
This last equation adds the centrifugal contribution to the measured gravitational
acceleration. The last term in Eq. (1.113), −2mω× vr , is the Coriolis force that has
important consequences for weather patterns on Earth, and hence has a powerful
effect on the Earth’s climate (Fig. 1.11). It is also a sizeable effect for artillery
projectiles. On the other hand, it plays a negligible role in the motion of whirlpools
in bathtubs.
Figure 1.11 Dramatic example of cyc-

lone motion in the Northern Hemisphere
for a low-pressure center between Green-
land and Iceland.
1.4.2 Foucault’s pendulum

z
Foucault’s pendulum is one of the most dramatic demonstrations of the rotation
of the Earth. It also provides a direct measure of latitude.
A simple pendulum (Fig. 1.12) swinging at a latitude λ will precess during the
day as a consequence of the Coriolis force. The acceleration in the rotating Earth

frame is
1
T
y ar = g + T − 2ω
× vr (1.114)
m
mg
where the components of the tension and angular velocity are
x
x
Tx = −T ωx = −ω cos λ

Figure 1.12 Geometry of a Foucault y
pendulum of mass m attached to a mass- Ty = −T ωy = 0 (1.115)

less string of length supporting a ten- z
Tz = −T ωz = ω sin λ
sion T.
The cross product is

⎛ ⎞⎛ ⎞
0 −ωz ωy vx
⎜ z ⎟⎜ ⎟
× vr = ⎝ ω
ω 0 −ω ⎠ ⎝vy ⎠
x
− ωy ωx 0 vz
⎛ ⎞⎛ ⎞
0 −ω sin λ 0 vx
⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟
= ⎝ω sin λ 0 ω cos λ⎠ ⎝vy ⎠
0 −ω cos λ 0 0
⎛ ⎞
−ωẏ sin λ
⎜ ⎟
= ⎝ ωẋ sin λ ⎠ (1.116)
− ωẏ cos λ
and the acceleration in the rotating frame is
Tx
arx = ẍ = + 2ẏω sin λ
m (1.117)
Ty
ary = ÿ = − − 2ẋω sin λ
m
leading to the coupled equations
ẍ + ω02 x = 2ωz ẏ
T g (1.118)
ÿ + ω02 y = −2ωz ẋ where ω02 = ≈
m
The coupled equations are added in quadrature (See Appendix A.3) to yield
(ẍ + i ÿ) + ω02 (x + iy) = −2iωz (ẋ + i ẏ) (1.119)
This is converted into a single second-order equation through substitution of the

variable q = x + iy to give
q̈ + 2iωz q̇ + ω02 q = 0 (1.120)
which is the equation of a harmonic oscillator with imaginary damping. The

solution is
⎡ ⎤
i ωz2 +ω02 t −i ωz2 +ω02 t
q(t) = e−iωz t ⎣Ae + Be ⎦ (1.121)
For a typical pendulum, ω0 >> ωz and the solution simplifies to

q(t) = e−iωz t Aeiω0 t + Be−iω0 t (1.122)
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boys,” he said, “will tease you for a bit, but don’t you take any notice of
them. There is nothing really bad at their hearts.”
“Thank you,” said Sandie; “I’ll try to take your advice.”
By-and-bye the young men began to arrive in swarms, and Sandie at
once became the centre of attraction. It must be confessed that Sandie’s
clothes, if not decidedly countrified, were not over fashionable.
“Hullo, Geordie,” cried one fellow, rushing up and seizing Sandie by the
hand; “man, I’m awfu’ glaid to see you.”
“And hoo’s the taties and neeps?” cried another.
Sandie answered never a word.
“Man, Geordie Muckiefoot, do you think ye can manage to do a
version?”
“Can you conjugate amo, Geordie? Ye ken hoo it goes: Amo, amas, I
love a lass; amas, amat, she lived in a flat, and so on?”
“But I say, Geordie Muckiefoot,” cried a taller fellow, coming forward
and throwing himself into a pugilistic attitude before Sandie—squaring up,
as it is called—“can ye fecht? Losh! I’m spoilin’ for a fecht.”
“I can’t fight, and I won’t fight,” said Sandie; “I’d rather be friends with
you.”
“Rather run a mile than fecht a minute, eh? Weel, weel, dinna fash your
fins; I wadna like to hurt ye, Geordie Muckiefoot.”
This hulking lad, it may be as well to state, was the bully of the school,
and all had to lower their flag to him. He changed his tactics now to tactics
more tantalising.
“And foo (how) did ye leave a’ at hame?” he asked. “Foo is your big fat
mither, and your sister, muckle-moo’d Meg?”
Sandie’s face grew crimson with rage.
“Stop just right there,” he cried; “you may insult me as much as you like,
but you shall leave my dear mother and sister alone.”
“Bravo!” cried several students.
But the bully didn’t mean to be put back. He threw off his jacket, and
advanced once more in a threatening attitude, and once more launched an
insult at Sandie’s sister.
Off came the ploughman-student’s coat, and in half-a-minute more the
bully was lying in the quad, breathless, and bleeding from nose and eye.
But he hadn’t quite enough. He rallied, and once again came on like death.
And now Sandie got his head in chancery, and simply made what is
called a mummy of the fellow. When our hero let him go, he dropped down
on the gravel as limp and “dweeble” as bath-towel, and the rest of the
students crowded round the victor to wish him luck, and bid him welcome
to the Grammar School. Fraser, the bully, they said, richly deserved what he
had gotten, and he, Sandie M‘Crae, had emancipated the whole school.
Just then the bell began to ring, and presently Rector Geddes himself
walked up to the hall-door. He walked with a slight studious stoop. Whether
or not he saw Fraser doubled up there like an old dishcloth may never be
known; at all events, he took no notice.
Sandie said that he quite reciprocated the good feeling of the lads, and
hoped they would all be friends henceforward. Then he went quietly in with
his burden of books, and seated himself at the very bottom of the lowest
faction. Here Lord Byron’s name was cut out in the desk; it had been carved
by his own hand, and the lads who occupied this faction pointed to it with
no little pride. They were a merry lot in this corner, and laughed and talked
instead of paying any attention to what the Rector was saying.
“You’ll be as happy as a king down here for months,” said one bright-
faced and particularly well-dressed boy; “I’ll lend you novels to read, if you
like.”
“But I hope,” said Sandie, “I won’t be long down here. Your father is
rich, I suppose?”
“Yes, my father is Provost.”
“Ah! but mine is only a poor farmer, and I am really only a farm-servant
to him. If I get a bursary this year, I will get on; if not, I shall have to go
back again to the plough.”
“Poor fellow! what is your name?”
“Sandie M‘Crae.”
“Well, Sandie, I like you; you are brave. I rejoiced in the way you stood
up for your mother and sister; I’m sure she must be a nice girl.”
“She is the best and sweetest girl in all the parish of Drumlade.”
“And I like the way you tumbled old Eraser, the bully, up, and turned
him outside in. Will you come and have supper with me to-night? Do.”
What could Sandie say to this idle but gentle boy? He could not well
refuse.
“My life depends on my gaining a bursary,” he replied; “but I will come
for two hours.”
“Well, two hours be it.”
And no more was said.
That forenoon the students under the Rector adjourned to the hall, and
the version was dictated, and translations gone on with.
Sandie found that version far more easy than he had expected. He hardly
had to use a dictionary twice the whole time. When he had finished, he
carefully revised it twice, than handed it in, and received a bow and thanks
from the polite Rector.
. . . . . .
He did not forget his appointment with gentle Willie Munro, the
Provost’s son. Sandie dressed most carefully for the occasion, and in his
Sunday’s clothes, with a flower in his button-hole, he really looked
handsome.
He was shy, however, and a little taken aback when ushered into the
splendidly furnished and well-lighted drawing-room, more particularly as
Willie’s mother and ever so many sisters were there. The mother rallied him
about the battle with the bully, and Willie arriving just then, Sandie was
soon completely at his ease. He soon found that he was among real friends,
in the bosom of a family of kind-hearted people, who, though very well-to-
do in the world, had none of that foolish pride only too common to people
in such a station.
When at the two hours’ end Sandie left to burn the midnight oil, it was
with a promise that he would come again and again, that he would look
upon them as friends, and the house as his home. Sandie promised.
Very much to his own astonishment, and to the wonder of everybody
else, Sandie’s version next day was declared sine errore (free from all
mistakes), and from the bottom faction he was elevated to the very first,
close beneath the Rector’s desk.
As he walked up the passage between the rows of seats, he held down
his head, for his face was burning like a coal.
Rector Geddes held out his hand, and shook that of Sandie.
“I congratulate you, boy, from my heart, and trust you will maintain the
proud position you have now secured.”
And Sandie did. He never once had reason to leave that first faction all
the time he was there. And the Munroes became his constant friends and
companions whenever he had an hour to spare. Many a delightful long walk
Willie and he had together out by the dark woods of Rubislaw, or by the old
bridge of Balgownie, that Byron writes about so feelingly. After walks like
these, Sandie always went to Willie’s house to supper. The girls would play
and sing to him, and sometimes he himself would be induced to sing an
auld Scotch song, so that the evenings passed quickly and pleasantly
enough.
One day Sandie received a polite invitation from the Rector to come to
supper. It wanted just eight days from the great competition day. The Rector
was very merry to-night, and did not talk classics at all; but just before
Sandie left, he took him by the hand.
“You’ll do what I tell you, won’t you?”
“I will, sir, right gladly.”
“Well, you shall go home to-morrow to the country, and you shall not
open a book nor pass a single hour in study until you are seated in the
University Hall with the competition papers before you. Do this, and you
will succeed. Disobey me, and you will worry yourself and fail.”
“I promise,” said Sandie; and he kept his word.
CHAPTER VII
THE LOVE-DARG—THE BALL AT KILBUIE

Home with Sandie to his rural residence went Willie Munro. Willie had
invited himself. Willie would not be denied. It was all in vain that Sandie
had told him flatly that he would be a stranger to all luxury, that he would
have to live on milk, oatmeal, sheep’s-head broth, and new-laid eggs, and
sleep in a closet not big enough to swing a cat in.
“I don’t care,” cried Willie determinedly; “I’m going. Rural fare will be
a delightful change, and I don’t want to swing a cat, so I’m going, Sandie.
Besides,” he added demurely, “I want to get some fishing, and to hear your
sister play the zither.”
There had been no gainsaying such arguments as these; so on the
evening of a bright clear day in October, Sandie’s mother was bidding her
son and his friend a right hearty welcome in the best parlour.
If ever there was a real city lad, that lad was Willie Munro. His total
ignorance of country and farm life was delightfully refreshing to Sandie and
his sister. Of course Willie knew that potatoes did not grow on trees, but
that was about the extent of his agricultural knowledge; and as to natural
history and the lives of birds, moths, beetles, &c., he really knew nothing.
Had any one told him that the rook built its nest in a bush of broom, and
that the lark built high in a swaying ash-tree, Willie would have taken it for
truth.
Willie’s ignorance of country life did not, however, detract in the least
from his enjoyment thereof. He had come out from town with the intention
of being jolly and happy, and he determined he should be so.
He was not long in confiding to Sandy that his sister Elsie was an angel,
and that his mother was an angel’s mother. Elsie was quite as much pleased
with Willie as Willie was with her, and it gave her very great pleasure to
play the zither and sing to him in the evening.
Well, then, they paid a visit to the manse together. Mackenzie was much
pleased to see Sandie once again, and to hear of his success, and Willie
seemed to fall head over heels in love with Maggie May. But Maggie May
was severely demure, very much to Sandie’s delight, and he felt that the
child loved no one half so well as she loved him—that is, after her father, of
course.
They all went fishing together, and wonderful to relate, Willie succeeded
in catching a trout, a real live trout, that capered and jumped about on the
green grassy bank at a fine rate, turning up its silvery sides to the sun till in
mercy Sandie put it out of pain.
But Willie was not really happy until, that same evening, he had written
home a long account of the capture of that fish and his hopes of catching
more.
The day after that was a big day at Kilbuie, for the love-darg in
ploughing came off. Almost before the dawn, horses and ploughs and
ploughmen began to arrive at the farm from all directions, and when all
were assembled, it was found there were no fewer than two-and-twenty
pairs. With such a force, long before sundown every ridge of stubble or
grass on Kilbuie would be turned over.
Not only the ploughmen themselves, but in many cases the farmer-
owners of the horses had come over, and these farmers had made up
between them several prizes to be awarded to the men who did the best
work.
So the ploughing went merrily on. It was a fine sight too to see all those
gallant horses in their light but polished harness, and gay with silken
ribbons of every colour, and brass bradoons, walking majestically to and fro
the ridges, the gaily dressed honest-faced ploughmen holding the stilts and
quietly but earnestly trying to do their best.
Willie Munro was delighted. But he and Sandie had something else to do
that day than simply look on at the ploughing match; for that evening, in
Kilbuie’s largest grain loft, there was going to take place a grand country
ball, and the decorations of the room devolved upon Sandie, Willie freely
offering to help.
Well, the first thing was to get the place thoroughly swept out and
cleaned. This was a dusty job, but it was finished at last. It also had been a
thirsty job, but Sandie’s sister Elsie had brought the boys a whole gallon of
delicious butter-milk, and thirst was kept in abeyance. Geordie Black, the
orra man, had been busy for days in making wooden sconces for candles,
and these were nailed up all around the hall, and tall candles placed in them.
Off now to the woods went Sandie and Willie to cut down green boughs
for the purpose of decoration. They made many such journeys to and fro,
and did not spare their backs, so that by the time the frugal mid-day meal
was on the board, they had conveyed home nearly enough. Elsie was too
busy in the house, so the whole work devolved upon the two boys; but right
cheerily it went on.
The last part of the room to be decorated was the orchestra. This was
simply a raised bench close to the wall in the middle of the room, so that
dancers at either end could have an equal chance of hearing the music.
The band was to consist of three small fiddles, one double-bass, and a
clarionet. They were all volunteers, and would not charge Mr. M‘Crae a
brass farthing for their services. This was the band proper, but during the
evening they would be relieved occasionally by a couple of Highland pipers
—
“All plaided and plumed in their tartan array.”
Well, then, when the work was at last finished, they paused to look at it.
“I think it will do well,” said Sandie.
“And I say it is just too awfully scrumptious for anything,” said Willie.
“I think we ought to receive a vote of thanks.”
“And I think we can live a long time without having the proud
satisfaction glowing within our manly buzzoms that we have done it all.”
“But come, I’m hungry,” said Sandie.
“Et ego quoque,” quoth Willie.
“There is cold beef about, I know. Let us go and hunt up Jeannie.”
Jeannie was easily found, and produced in the kitchen, sans cérémonie,
not only cold beef, but freshly boiled mashed potatoes and two huge
beakers of milk.
“Fa’ tee,” she said, meaning “Fall to.” “Fa’ tee, laddies.”
The laddies didn’t require a second bidding.
That evening at six o’clock, after bread and cheese and a dram, the
ploughman chiels took their horses home. They would need all their time to
dress and get back to the ball; but the farmers themselves were entertained
in Kilbuie’s biggest room to a plain but substantial dinner. They sat down at
half-past six o’clock, and it was nine before they rose to go.
By this time the hall was beginning to fill with buxom lads and lasses
gay. There were forms by way of seats arranged all around the walls, and
the lasses sat religiously on one side, and the lads on the other.
The dresses of the girls were all simple, chiefly white, with coloured
ribbons in their hair, and light silken plaids of tartan thrown prettily over the
shoulder. Many of the lads wore the Highland dress.
An Englishman would have been utterly surprised and taken aback at the
display of beauty on the female side of the room. The girls were nearly all
young and regular in feature, while their bright eyes, ruddy lips, and
splendid complexions left nothing to be desired.
Couple after couple now began to arrive rapidly enough, the lads leading
their partners to the female side of the house, bowing, and leaving them.
Anon, the fiddles began to tune up, every note striking a joy-chord in the
hearts of the younger girls and boys, bringing a brighter flush to their
cheeks, a more gleesome glitter to their eyes.
But as yet dancing had not commenced. Presently, however, there
entered M‘Crae with his buxom wife, followed by a posse of sturdy
farmers. They were received with a true Highland cheer, and it was felt by
all that the ball would now begin.
M‘Crae first made a little speech, bidding everybody heartily welcome
to the winter ball at Kilbuie, and especially thanking the farmers and their
bold ploughmen for their kind and thoughtful love-darg. His own dancing
days being over, he said, his son, and a friend of his, would open the ball
with the Reel of Tulloch, to which the pipers would vouchsafe music.
Now Willie and Sandie take the floor. Willie leads up Sandie’s shy but
smiling sister, Elsie, who is dressed in white, with a M‘Crae tartan plaid,
and a single blood-red rose in her dark hair. Sandie wears the kilt, but he
has yet to look for a partner.
There are a good many downcast looks, and not a few palpitating hearts,
as he walks gaily along the ladies’ benches. He is simply looking for the
prettiest girl he can find.
He is satisfied at last, and leads her blushing to the floor. The pipers take
their stand, and, after a few preliminary skirls, strike straight into the Reel
o’ Hoolachan.
Anon the dance begins, and such dancing! Don’t call waltzing or the
quadrille dancing, reader. Unless you have seen the Reel of Tulloch danced
well, as it is at, say, the balls at Balmoral Castle, you have never known
what a dance is in your life.
After this wild reel, the ice may be said to be fairly broken, and dance
after dance succeeds each other without intermission, accompanied by
much cracking of thumbs and “hooching.”
It is a merry scene—the merriest of the merry. No English tourist, who
wants to learn anything about the Scot at home, should neglect seeing a
rural ball, if he should be fortunate enough to get the chance of securing a
ticket. I think he would retire south with kindlier thoughts of the Scottish
people than are usually entertained in the southern counties at the present
day.
One chief feature of the ball I must not forget to mention, namely, the
sweetie-wives. No one knows where these women gather from, but there
they are, to the number of a dozen or more, sitting in two rows, just outside
the door. At their feet stand huge baskets, filled with packets of Scotch
confectionery, and the lads during all the evening are constant in their
attendance, buying sweets, to treat their partners withal.
Some of the more pretty girls have really not pockets enough to contain
all the sweets they receive from their admiring partners of the dance, and so
distribute them with a liberal hand to their less fortunate neighbours, thus
making room for more.
Some time after midnight there is a lull in the dancing, and bread and
cheese, with pailfuls of steaming punch or toddy, are handed round twice.
During this interval for refreshment, several bonnie old Scotch songs are
sung, to the sweet accompaniment of fiddle and clarionet.
After this, the fun may be said to become fast and furious, and the ball is
kept up without intermission till long past three o’clock. But now weary
eyes begin, to long for sleep; so shawls and big Highland plaids are got out,
and one by one the couples melt away, and presently the band descends
from its perch, helps itself to more bread and cheese and the remainder of
the now cold punch, then puts up its instruments in green baize bags, and
seeks the outer air.
The ball is over, but through the length and breadth of the country next
day it is freely admitted that no night’s enjoyment ever remembered could
compare with the glorious ball, the gleesome rant, at the farm of old
Kilbuie.
CHAPTER VIII
THE STORM—SNOW SHOES—A SLEIGH RIDE

More than once during this week Sandie M‘Crae experienced an almost
irresistible longing to get back to his books. What, he could not help saying
to himself, would dear old Horace and Homer the thunderer do without
him? Then he remembered his promise to Rector Geddes and refrained. He
knew in his own heart that the Rector really was right, for by giving the
brain a complete rest, it would be all the fresher when it came to stand the
test. The first part of the brain-power to get weak is the memory; and rest,
and rest alone, can restore this.
So whenever Sandie longed for his books, he jumped up and went in
search of Willie, who was never far away, and together they would plan
some new amusement.
They marched over to the manse of Belhaven one day, for example, with
their shooting-bags on their backs, and their guns upon their shoulders. The
minister was delighted to see them. Yes, they had just come to the right
place. There were plenty of partridges in the turnips, there were rabbits on
or near the corries, and there were thousands of wild pigeons, devouring the
remainder of the blaeberries on the blaeberry hill. The good minister even
caused his cook to make up a delightful luncheon for them, and put in the
basket two bottles of heather-ale.
“Of course,” said Mackenzie, “you will want a keeper or guide.”
“Shall we?”
“Oh, yes, most certainly; and I’ll send you one.”
He retired for that purpose.
Presently into the room marched pretty Maggie May herself, with a bag
slung over her shoulder, and in her hand a tiny double-barrelled fowling-
piece.
After her came her father.
“Boys,” he said, smiling, “behold your keeper!”
Both lads looked astonished, but especially Willie.
“Why—why,” he ejaculated, “you never mean to say that she can let a
gun off?”
“She is a very good sportsman, indeed,” said her father proudly. “I
myself would go with you, but I am busy to-day. She knows the
whereabouts of every bird on the glebe and on the hills. Trust her.”
I may mention here, parenthentically, that it is by no means an
uncommon thing in the Highlands of Scotland for young ladies to go to the
hill with bag and gun, and I know many at this moment who are very
excellent shots indeed.
“Well,” continued Willie, “I am astonished. In fact, I believe you could
knock me down with a feather, or with a sledge-hammer anyhow. Shouldn’t
wonder now if Miss M‘Crae mightn’t be a better shot than I am.”
“Have you had much experience?” asked Mackenzie.
“Oh, quite a deal!” answered Willie seriously—“in the ha’penny
shooting-galleries, ye know. ‘Only a ha’penny a shot, and fire away;’ and ‘a
great big cocoa-nut if ye rings the bell.’ I rung the bell once. It was before I
took aim—the gun just went off by chance. But of course that is a mere
detail; I got the great big cocoa-nut all the same, I have it in my study till
this day, labelled, ‘Won at a shooting-match.’ ”
Maggie May and her father both laughed.
“But you’ve never been on the hill?”
“Oh, never near it.”
“Well, you must try not to shoot the dogs.”
“I’ll try hard.”
“Mine are a charming Gordon setter, who won’t range far away, and a
curly retriever, as wise as many a Christian.”
The dogs were delighted to get out: the setter fawned and cringed by
way of showing his delight and thankfulness; the retriever stood boldly
erect and barked his joy.
Maggie May proposed walking first to the distant blaeberry hill, and
trying their luck among the wild pigeons.
“The worst of it is,” said Maggie, “that after the first volley they all fly
away, and it may be hours before we see them again.”
They reached the hill at last, and approached the feeding-grounds of the
doves very cautiously—almost creeping, in fact.
All at once the good setter started a flock that flew right over them.
Both Sandie’s barrels and both Maggie May’s rang out on the still
autumn air almost simultaneously, and four birds fell.
But Willie’s gun, the trigger of which had been duly drawn, missed fire.
“Whatever is the matter?” cried the boy wonderingly.
Now, this gun was a muzzle-loader; but, if the truth must be told, the lad
had never loaded a fowling-piece in his life before; and, being cross-
questioned, here is how he confessed having done so now. First he had
measured the charge of shot, and put that in, next the gunpowder, and
finally the wad. When he had put on the cap, he thought himself a true
sportsman, and fit for anything.
To say that Maggie May and Sandie laughed, would but poorly express
the degree of merriment they experienced at Willie’s confession.
Sandie now addressed a few words to Maggie May in the Gaelic, and
she smiled as she gave a brief reply.
The truth is, that with the screw end of the ramrod Sandie could easily
have drawn the wad and emptied the gun; but as Willie did not know this,
his companion determined to do nothing of the kind; for, if he did, he felt
certain in his own mind that one of the dogs would be shot ere sundown,
even if no more terrible tragedy should occur.
“What am I to do?” cried poor Willie, looking the very picture of
disconsolation.
“There is a blacksmith,” said Sandie, “lives about five miles from here,
who, I dare say, in three or four hours could put matters right. But I’m not
sure.”
“And my sport is ended for the day?”
“I’m afraid so.”
“Heu! me miserum! as the Latin Grammar says. I’m in the dumps.”
And he looked so sad that Maggie May positively felt sorry for him.
They adjourned now to the corries, and all the forenoon was spent
among the rabbits. Here they certainly made a good bag—two good bags—
though they would have done better had they faced the bunnies in the open
or in the woods. Among the corries there was so much cover, so many
stones, and burrows or caves, and rabbits have a disagreeable habit of
dragging themselves out of sight even when all but dead. Carlo, the
retriever, however, did most excellent work, and succeeded in dragging
many a rabbit to bank, even after it had almost disappeared.
About two o’clock Maggie May frankly expressed herself as being
hungry, and Willie said he was famishing, though he hadn’t fired a shot.
So luncheon was produced, and ample justice done thereto, for these
three young people had succeeded in establishing appetites of a kind
practically unknown in the lower districts of Merrie England.
Willie, after luncheon and a draught of heather-ale, admitted he felt
better, and could bear his misfortune with greater equanimity.
A start was now made for the turnip-fields, and here, the dogs having
better play, excellent sport was obtained. The Gordon setter worked
wonderfully well, keeping well in, not ranging, as Irish setters—beautiful
though they be—are rather too apt to do. He made splendid points, and
never less than two fell to the two guns if there was anything like a covey.
This was good, for it must be remembered that the birds were now rather
wild.
After the partridges, they once more adjourned to the blaeberry hill, to
which by this time the wild pigeons had returned. They managed to bag a
few more; and going on upwards to the heath-crested portion of the hill,
they were lucky enough to bring down a couple of grouse and a ptarmigan.
Neither Sandie nor Maggie May, who were real children of the mist, felt
one whit tired, but Willie frankly confessed that he was beginning to get
both “dweeble” and drowsy.
Well, the sun was already so near the horizon that it was getting as red as
a rising moon, and was just as rayless; so Maggie May, out of pity for
Willie, proposed to return home.
Mackenzie was standing in his hall-door to welcome home the
sportsmen, laden with the spoils of the chase.
“And what sort of a day have you had, boys?”
“Oh, splendid, sir, especially I,” said poor Willie. He then told him how
he had loaded his gun to begin with.
“But,” said the parson, “couldn’t you——”
A few words of Gaelic from Maggie May, and the sentence was never
finished.
“I’m afraid, Willie,” said Mackenzie, “your city method of loading guns
and our rural way present some slight differences. But away you go and
wash, the whole lot of you; dinner will be ready in half-an-hour.”
And dinner was. And such a dinner! Willie felt a happy man now. Clear
soup to trifle with as a commencement; then salmon that, but the day
before, had been sporting in the clear waters of the sunny Don; partridges,
and a small turkey to follow, with all the usual vegetable fixings—what
could heart of even so mighty a Nimrod as Willie Munro desire better than
that?
. . . . . .
It was long past nine o’clock, and the moon’s rich light was falling on
woods and valleys, when the two students, bidding their kindly entertainers
good-bye, started to walk home to the old farm of Kilbuie.
“I feel very contented and happy, Sandie,” said Willie, when they at
length reached the long loanings, and saw the lights from Kilbuie windows
blinking bonnily over the garden. “Very contented and happy. There
certainly are a few advantages in living in a city, but, ah! give me a farmer’s
life in preference to any. I do believe I shall ask my dad to make me a
farmer.”
“Well,” sighed Sandie, “it is all right when things go well; but, alas! my
dear father has had losses that would have driven many a man distracted.
Ha! here comes Tyro to bid us welcome. Down, doggie, down, boy, down.
Good dog! did you think we’d never return again any more?”
My English readers will not, I trust, feel shocked when I tell them that
the boys really enjoyed the nice little supper that Elsie had spread for them
by the roaring kitchen-fire. They were not gluttons, but remember they had
had a long walk since dinner, and that the air of the Don-side Highlands is
so strong and pure, that to be out in it for even a couple of hours is to secure
the appetite of a lion-hunter.
. . . . . .
It was eight o’clock next morning before either awoke, and, considering
the exertions of the previous day, this is not to be wondered at. But when
they did at last draw the blinds and look out, they were surprised, agreeably
or otherwise, to find that, during the night, a heavy snowstorm had fallen,
and that the snow was still coming steadily down. There had been no wind,
however, and it had not drifted.
Just after breakfast Jamie Duncan announced that he and Geordie, the
orra man, were going off to the fields to get up a “fordle” (large supply) of
“neeps” (turnips) for the cattle before the storm became deeper and
rendered it impossible.
“I’ll go too,” said Sandie determinedly.
“And I also,” put in Willie.
Willie would not be denied; so half-an-hour afterwards four brave young
fellows were busy in the turnip-field. To pull the turnips with the hands
was, of course, impossible. They had to be dragged up with a curious kind
of fork, whose toes were claws. It is called in Aberdeenshire a “pluck.”
But so well and manfully did they work, that, with the assistance of the
light cart and the orra beast, before one o’clock the “fordle” was secured,
and as many turnips stored in the shed as would last the cattle for three
weeks’ time at least.
It cleared up in the afternoon, and Sandie got out a pair of real skis,[4] or
snowshoes, that a cousin of his had brought him from Norway some years
ago. He was quite an adept on these, and the speed with which he went
skidding over the snow-clad fields was truly marvellous.
It seemed so easy, too; so, of course, Willie must beg to be allowed to
try.
“You’ll find them a bit awkward at first,” said Sandie. “In about a week
you might master them.”
Willie got them on, or rather he got fastened on to them.
His first sensation on trying to move was that his feet were tied like
those of a hen going to market; his second, that he had dislocated both
ankles; his third, that he had broken his neck in the heap of snow into which
he had tumbled.
However, he prayed Sandie, as a good and kind friend, to release him.
“No more shees or skis, or whatever you call them, for me, thank you.”
Sandie laughed.
“If to-morrow is anything like a day,” he said, “we’ll get out the sleigh,
and Lord Raglan will tool us over to see the minister; you’ll be safe enough
in that, anyhow.”
“Oh, that will be delightful,” cried Willie excitedly.
Well, the next day was propitious, so far as the fore part of it went, at all
events. So Lord Raglan had his best harness put on, with any number of
silver-toned bells to jangle all around him; then he was put into the sleigh,
which was loaded with rugs and furs of all kinds, and after luncheon they
got on board. Geordie Black tucked the rugs well around them; Sandie
flicked the pony lightly with the whip.
“Hip, hip, hip, hurray!” cried Geordie, Jamie, and Jeannie, and away
went the sleigh, never a sound breaking the silence save the merry music of
the bells, bells, bells, the ringing and the jingling of the bells.
How very brightly the sun shone! How bright and white the snow! It
seemed to have been sown with diamonds too, for the snow-stars sparkled
with all the colours of the rainbow, but far more brightly than any rainbow
ever bent o’er blackest cloud.
As the boys walked it, across country that is, the distance to the manse of
Belhaven would not be over five miles, but by horse-road it was fully
seven; and this was the road Sandie had to take with the sleigh. But so
warm and snug were they, and so exhilarating was the journey, that the time
seemed very short indeed. To Willie it was more than exhilarating—it was
romantic, and his heart spoke through his eyes as he exclaimed—
“As long as I live, Sandie, I will never forget this delightful visit to your
charming Highland home.”
THE BLIZZARD.—Page 83.
CHAPTER IX
THE ADVENTURE AT BRUCE’S CAVERN

On their arrival at the manse, they found that the minister himself had been
called away to pray with a poor woman who was supposed to be dying.
But Maggie May was eminently suited to perform the duties of hostess,
and a right hearty welcome did she give them.
With her own hands did she prepare them a delicious hot draught of
mulled heather-ale, with soft biscuit broken up in it, for it was a long time
ere the dinner-hour.
Lord Raglan was put in the best stall in the stable, and the sleigh was
drawn into the shed.
Given three people all in their teens, a good piano, plenty of books and
music, and I think there is no danger of the time feeling irksome. It did not
in this case, at all events; and when Mackenzie entered the room three hours
after, he found them all as merry as crickets, and merrier.
He was glad to see the boys, and said he really envied them their
pleasant ride. “For,” he added, “of all kinds of vehicular motion, that of the
sledge is undoubtedly the most pleasant.”
Sandie was a true gentleman at heart, and he at once proposed to place
his sleigh and Lord Raglan at the disposal of Mackenzie and his little
daughter for next day, if he chose to enjoy a ride. He himself would be
going back to Aberdeen, he said, in three days’ time, but his father would
let him have the sleigh at any time, all the same.
“Besides,” said Sandie, “it will hold you and me, sir, and little Maggie
May easily; so, if you like, I will come over if it is fine to-morrow and give
you an outing.”
The minister thanked him very much and readily accepted. But, woe is
me! there is many a slip in this world ’twixt the cup and the lip.
At dinner that day all three male people seemed to be in more than their
usual spirits, while Maggie May sat saying little, but an amused and
delighted listener nevertheless.
At nine o’clock it was time to start, but, first and foremost, all went out
to have a look at the weather.
It was moonlight—bright, clear, full moonlight—but ever and anon grey
and white ominous-looking snow-clouds were driving across the moon’s
disc, and rendering it momentarily dark. There was heard also now and then
a low moaning sound coming upwards from the pine woods that fringed the
icy Don. It appeared as if a storm were awakening in the forest, and might
soon burst bounds and go howling over all the land.
“I must confess,” said Mackenzie, shaking his head, “that I don’t quite
like the look of things. The wind—what little there is—is dead from the
north too. Don’t you think you had better stay all night?”
But for once in a way Sandie was obstinate, and so the sleigh was had
out, and Lord Raglan with his jingling bells put proudly in.
Soon after this, bidding their friends an affectionate “good night,” the
boys took their seats, and, with a farewell wave of their caps, off they
started as silently as if they had been ghosts—only ghosts don’t have such
sweetly musical bells.
. . . . . .
They had accomplished about three miles of the journey at no great pace,
and were now in a very wild and dreary country indeed, hill and dell and
gloomy glen.
They were down in a hollow, and just crossing a Gothic bridge that
spanned a stream of dark brown water, which, slowly winding between its
banks of snow, looked at present as black as ink. Hardly had they left the
bridge, when, from the hills above and from the pine woods, swept a
blizzard so terrible that it almost cut their breath away, and caused even the
horse himself to stagger and feel faint.
It grew very dark too all at once, and, strange sight, they could see
lightning flashes among the snow, and hear peals of thunder high over the
roaring of the blizzard wind.
The whole air was not only filled with falling snow, but with ice-dust, as
it is called,—that is, the snow was caught up from the ground and
pulverised, till it became a powder so fine, but so cold, that to breathe it
caused a feeling of asphyxia, somewhat akin to that one feels on going first
under a shower-bath.
It must be confessed Sandie M‘Crae was taken aback, and hardly knew
what to do for the best. Perhaps the best would have been to return to the
manse. But his pride forbade, and he determined to push on.
It must be confessed, also, that Lord Raglan did all he could, and proved
himself a right good pony indeed. Yet it was soon evident to Sandie that he
must depend upon his sagacity entirely to keep to the right path, for he
could not tell in which direction he was driving.
Facing fearful odds, they got on about another mile, and the blizzard
now seemed to increase rather than abate, while great snow-wreaths were
thrown across the road that were all but impassable.
Sandie had shut his eyes for a time, leaving everything to Lord Raglan.
Every eyelash was an icicle, and the ice and snow were incrusted on the
cheeks of both boys.
And now I have to record an instance of sagacity on the part of this wise
old pony, that, if not unparalleled, is at least very strange, and proves that
there are more things in heaven and earth than we have dreamt of in our
philosophy. In fact, in our human pride, we are all too apt to despise the
lower animals, and to forget that they reason and think on the same lines as
we do, though not to the same degree. But every now and then occasions or
emergencies arise that seem to stimulate their reasoning faculties, and raise
them for the time being to a level with those of the biped man.
When Sandie opened his sleepy, half-frozen eyes—indeed he was not
sure that he had not been asleep—he found that there was a momentary lull
in the blizzard, and that the moon once more shone clearly down on the
great snow waste, though away to windward huge clouds, like rocks and
towers, were slowly banking up, and would soon again cover all the sky,
when once more the storm would rage with additional fury.
But he also noticed, to his alarm and surprise, that Lord Raglan had left
the road, bringing the wind more on their backs, and that he was rapidly
approaching a high, black, rocky cliff at the head of a field, and close to a
dark and brawling burn.
Ten minutes afterwards he drew up right at the foot of these rocks, and
close to the opening of a cave.
Lord Raglan and Sandie too had often been here before in the sweet
summer-time, when the banks of the stream were covered with wild-
flowers, and glad fish leapt up in scores in every sunlit pool.
Sandie knew the place at once.
He nudged Willie, who was half asleep.
“Willie, Willie,” he cried, “we are saved. The horse has saved us from a
terrible death.”
“Where are we?” muttered Willie.
“At Bruce’s cavern. I know it well. We must all get in before the storm
comes on again. Arise, Willie, pull yourself together; there is no time to
lose.”
Willie did arise, and leapt as nimbly down as his half-frozen legs would
permit him.
Then Lord Raglan was unharnessed and led into the cave. Next the
sleigh was dragged in, and hardly was this secured ere the blizzard came on
again with redoubled fury. The mouth of the cave was so situated that the
snow could not drift very far in, but in less than an hour it was entirely and
completely snowed over, so that to all intents and purposes the boys were
buried alive.
The snow at the cave mouth, however, only made it warmer within. So
one of the lamps were lit, and Sandie proceeded to make a bed from the

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Introduction to Modern Dynamics:

Chaos, Networks, Space, and Time 2nd

Introduction to Modern Dynamics: Chaos, Networks,

Introduction to Modern Analysis, 2nd Edition

Introduction to Chaos, Fractals and Dynamical Systems

Foundations of Space Dynamics 1st Edition Ashish Tewari

Introduction to Unity ML-Agents: Understand the

Introduction to Unity ML-Agents: Understand the

Demanding Energy: Space, Time and Change 1st Edition

Interference: The History of Optical Interferometry and

The goal of the second edition of Introduction to Modern Dynamics is to

A unifying concept: geometry and dynamics

A common tool: dynamical flows and the

Traditional junior-level physics: how to use

What’s simple in complex systems?

• Chaos theory (Chapter 4)

Much of nonlinear dynamics can be understood through linearization of the

The nonlinear synchronization of two or more oscillators is a starting point for

• Network theory (Chapter 7)

• Evolutionary dynamics (Chapter 8)

• Neural networks (Chapter 9)

• Econophysics (Chapter 10)

• Geodesic motion (Chapter 11)

• Special relativity (Chapter 12)

In addition to traditional topics of Lorentz transformations and mass-energy equiv-

• General relativity (Chapter 13)

I gratefully acknowledge the many helpful discussions with my colleagues

Traditional approaches to the mechanics of particles tend to focus on individual

Foucault’s Pendulum in the Pantheon in Paris

Modern dynamics, like classical dynamics, is concerned with trajectories through

uniquely determined by the current state. This is called deterministic dynamics,

1.1 State space and dynamical flows

1.1.1 State space

Example 1.1 State space of the damped one-dimensional harmonic oscillator

x(t) = Xeiωt (1.4)

−mω2 Xeiωt + iωγ Xeiωt + kXeiωt = 0 (1.5)

Example 1.1 continued

The final solution is ⎡ ⎤

1.1.2 Dynamical flows

or, more succinctly,

which is a system of N simultaneous equations, where the vector function Fa is

Example 1.2 An autonomous oscillator

Example 1.2 continued

Example 1.3 Undamped point-mass pendulum

Example 1.3 continued

Example 1.4 A three-variable harmonic oscillator

As an example of an odd-dimensional state space, consider the three-dimensional flow

1.2 Coordinate representation of dynamical

1.2.1 Coordinate notation and configuration space

1.2.2 Trajectories in 3D configuration space

xa = xa (t) or xa = xa (s) (1.29)

where T a is a unit tangent vector in the direction of the velocity:

where R is the radius of curvature at the specified point on the trajectory.

possible to define a path length interval ds2

Example 1.5 Parabolic trajectory in a gravitational field

This is a familiar problem that goes back to freshman physics. However, it

Example 1.5 continued

1.2.3 Generalized coordinates

eb = Rab ea (1.76)

wedge product A ∧ B of Hermann Grass-