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SOCIOLOGY, MEDIA AND JOURNALISM IN CHINA
Bing Tong
Journalism and
Communication in
China
and the West
A Study of History, Education and Regulation
Sociology, Media and Journalism in China
This series provides an interdisciplinary and cutting edge approach to the key
areas of media, journalism and communication in China. Offering titles cut-
ting across these areas, Sociology, Journalism and Communication in China
addresses the rapid changes affecting how news is disseminated in China, how
people communicate in daily life, and how mobile technologies are affecting
contemporary human interaction in sociological and commercial settings.
This series also examines major sociological trends in China and how these
are developing, as well as rapid changes in how communication is affecting
and being affected by China’s growing population and internal migration.
Providing a vital comparative approach, notably with western nations, this
series considers the development of Chinese media, journalistic cultures and
histories and sociological development on a global scale.
More information about this series at

http://www.palgrave.com/gp/series/16016
Bing Tong
Journalism
and Communication
in China and the West
A Study of History, Education and Regulation
Bing Tong
Fudan University
Shanghai, China
ISSN 2662-7981 ISSN 2662-799X (electronic)

Sociology, Media and Journalism in China
ISBN 978-981-15-7872-4 ISBN 978-981-15-7873-1 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-7873-1
Jointly published with China Renmin University Press

The print edition is not for sale in China Mainland. Customers from China Mainland please
order the print book from: China Renmin University Press.
ISBN of the China Mainland edition: 9787300040394
Translation from the Chinese language edition: 比较新闻传播学 (新闻传播学文库) by Bing

Tong, © China Renmin University Press 2002. Published by China Renmin University Press. All
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Foreword: Deepening Journalism and
Communication Studies Through
Comparative Analysis
Being a branch of journalism and communication discipline, the comparative

journalism and communication is regarded as subordinate to journalism and
communication. Journalism and communication is a science studying on the
phenomena, undertakings, and laws of journalism and communication. The
comparative journalism and communication, as a subdiscipline of journalism
and communication, studies on the journalism and communication phenom-
ena and undertakings and their laws in all different places by comparison.
Compared to journalism and communication, the significance of method-
ology of the comparative journalism and communication is emphasized. In
this respect, the comparative journalism and communication can be defined
as follows: a branch discipline of journalism and communication that reveals
the laws of journalism and communication in a comprehensive and in-depth
manner through the systematic comparative research on the phenomena and
undertakings of journalism and communication in different countries and
regions.
The State Bureau of Technology Supervision had published the Table of
Code of Disciplines (National Standard) on November 1, 1992, which listed
the Comparative Journalism (code 860.1050) as a third-level discipline under
the second-level discipline journalism and communication (code 860).1 This
was the first time to establish the discipline status of comparative journalism
in legal instruments during the construction of humanities and social sciences
disciplines in China.
1The Manual of Humanities and Social Sciences Research Management System in Universities
and Colleges in China, Edition 1, Page 116, Shenyang, Shenyang Publishing House, 1997.
v
vi FOREWORD: DEEPENING JOURNALISM AND COMMUNICATION STUDIES …
In 1997, journalism and communication was listed as the first-level dis-

cipline by the Academic Degrees Committee of the State Council, which
symbolized the status elevation of journalism and communication (previ-
ously known separately as journalism science and communication science) in
humanities and social sciences in China and proposed more stringent require-
ments on education and scientific research of journalism and communication.
Since the Academic Degrees Committee renamed the previous journalism
science and communication science to be journalism and communication, the
author here uses the comparative journalism and communication instead of
the comparative journalism. In another book, An Introduction to Theoretical
Journalism and Communication, the author explained the change of the
name in this way: journalism and communication, not simply the journalism
science and the communication science, is a discipline exploring the commu-
nication process and law of news, which, on the basis of traditional journal-
ism, incorporates some academic achievements of communication, applies
some academic terms of communication, examines the phenomenon of news
communication and reviews the process of news communication from a new
perspective and with a new method, and discusses the special laws and prin-
ciples of journalism and communication that are distinguished from the ordi-
nary public communication.2
Compared to other subdisciplines of journalism and communication, such
as journalism and communication theory, history of journalism and com-
munication, journalism and communication practices, journalism and com-
munication law, journalism and communication ethics, and journalism and
communication sociology, the comparative journalism and communication
shows its own characteristics.
Firstly, while the subdisciplines mentioned above have their own special
objects of research, comparative journalism and communication mainly stud-
ies on the phenomena and undertakings of journalism and communication,
sharing a similar object of study with the discipline of journalism and com-
munication. However, what varies between the two lies in that comparative
journalism and communication incorporates the phenomena and undertak-
ings of journalism and communication in two or more countries or regions in
the object of study, covers extensive research objects and proposes the special
regional requirements.
Secondly, though the method of comparative study is adopted in these
subdisciplines mentioned above, it is used in an extensive and frequent way
for comparative journalism and communication. In a manner of speaking, the
comparative study method constitutes the foundation and vitality of compar-
ative journalism and communication; or, in other words, comparative jour-
nalism and communication will cease to exist without the comparative study.
2TongBing, Preface of An Introduction to Theoretical Journalism and Communication, 1st

edition, Page 1, Beijing, China Renmin University Press, 2001.
FOREWORD: DEEPENING JOURNALISM AND COMMUNICATION STUDIES … vii
Only by extensively and carefully comparing and analyzing a great mass of

data can the common law of journalism and communication as well as the
special law of journalism and communication in different countries and
regions be discovered and understood.
A detailed explanation is given to the latter characteristic.
The word “method” in the western language is derived from Greek
“μéταōδōs.” In this word, “μéτα” suggests “along” and “ōδōs” means
“road.” Therefore, the “method” refers to moving along a certain road. As
pointed out by a scholar Wu Daiming, in the modern scientific sense, the
“method” is the collective name of the approach, means, tool, and mode that
people use for a certain purpose when attempting to keep a grip on reality
theoretically or practically in all areas.
Many great scientists emphasized on the extreme significance of the
method. Ivan Petrovich Pavlov said that “Science is advancing based on the
achievements made in the study method. A progress of the study method will
make us move a little further and bring us a broader view filled with the new.
Therefore, our primary task is to draw up the study method.”3
As an important methodology, comparative study plays a more important
role in humanities and social sciences. Japanese scholar OkiHara Yutaka com-
pared the role of comparison in social sciences to the role of experiment in
physics and biology.
Comparison is a way of thinking to compare the properties and character-
istics of a thing to that of another thing and determine the common grounds
and differences, thus to fulfill people’s goal of understanding and practice.
The method of comparative study refers to researching on humanities and
social sciences by means of this thinking pattern and reaching certain conclu-
sions or laws based on a great many phenomena.
There are sufficient theoretical bases for the application of the compara-
tive study method and the introduction of the method to the journalism and
communication studies to all countries and regions.
Firstly, the dialectical combination of unity and diversity constitutes the
common law of the development and changes of objective things, which is
embodied in the unity of the laws of journalism and communication and
diversity of the activities of journalism and communication in different coun-
tries and regions. These common grounds and differences are considered
as the objective basis for comparative study. The things coexisting simulta-
neously in a space and the things existing in succession all share some com-
mon grounds and show certain differences. Therefore, the comparison can be
conducted spatially and temporally. In the former case, we can compare the
established forms of things and then discover the external characteristics of
different things; and in the latter case, we can compare the historical forms of
things and understand the different conditions of the same thing in different
tenses.
3A Collection of Pavlov’s Works, 1st edition, Page 49, Science Press, 1955.
viii FOREWORD: DEEPENING JOURNALISM AND COMMUNICATION STUDIES …
Secondly, objective things complement and depend on each other, are dia-
lectically interconnected to each other and exist separately from each other
for their different characteristics. The activities and undertakings of journal-
ism and communication in different countries and regions are independent
but interconnected to each other. These common connections and differ-
ences have made up the second scientific basis for the application of the com-
parative study method.
Thirdly, due to the imbalance of the development of objective things,
the imbalance is seen in the development of journalism and communication
undertakings and activities in different countries and regions and the devel-
opment of journalism and communication undertakings in the same country
or region but in different historical periods. A difference results in a charac-
teristic, while a characteristic constitutes an object of scientific research. This
is another theoretical basis for the application of comparative study method in
the research of journalism and communication.
The application of the comparative study method has two important prem-
ises: firstly, the two or more parties for comparison are comparable, and sec-
ondly, the researchers must own a great mass of data.
The corresponding property relation among different things is called
the identical relation. Only the different things showing the identical rela-
tion are comparable. Therefore, the journalism and communication under-
takings under different social systems in China and foreign countries can be
compared in terms of the nature and functions of journalism and communi-
cation undertakings as well as the internal management and external super-
vision, since the journalism undertakings under different backgrounds show
the identical relation in regard to the nature, functions, internal management,
and external supervision. Also, the past and the present of the Chinese audi-
ence can be compared as the identical relation can be found. However, the
nature of journalism and communication undertakings in China cannot be
compared to the readers of foreign newspapers, while the layout of Chinese
newspapers cannot be compared to the TV audience in the west, as no identi-
cal relation can be seen.
Facts and data are indispensable to all scientific studies. Once mentioned
by Ivan Petrovich Pavlov, “Birds can never fly without the support of air no
matter how strong their wings are. To scientists, the fact is the air. Without
the fact, they can never fly; and without the fact, the ‘theory’ makes no
sense.”4 In the Critique of Political Economics of Karl Marx, Friedrich Engels
not only emphasized the significance of facts and data to studies, but also
proposed explicit requirements on facts and data. He pointed out “It takes
years of hard work and intensive study even only to develop a materialistic
view based on a single history instance, because apparently empty talk makes
4The Collected Works of Pavlov, 1st edition, Vol. 1, Page 16, Beijing, People’s Medical
Publishing House, 1959.
FOREWORD: DEEPENING JOURNALISM AND COMMUNICATION STUDIES … ix
no sense and this mission can only be completed when a great mass of histori-
cal data has been critically examined and fully mastered.”5
While facts and materials are indispensable to general scientific research
and must meet strict requirements, the requirements on materials and facts
are even higher in comparative study so as to achieve a more focused and
convincing analysis and comparison. When doing research on the science of
history, Hu Shi emphasized that scholars put the most diligent efforts on col-
lecting materials, studied on the materials in an elaborate way and examined
the materials with the most rigorous method.6 Fu Sinian specifically pointed
out it was necessary to make every attempt to seek for and study first-hand
materials in order to do research. He stated in The Objective of the Work in the
Research Institute of History and Language that progress could only be made
when the materials could be directly studied; and it would lead to regress if
only studying materials indirectly, or studying the materials that predecessors
had studied, or studying the material system built by predecessors.
The comparative study of journalism and communication is a part of cul-
tural comparison. According to some scholars’ research, the comparative
method was firstly applied in social sciences instead of natural science. As
early as in the fourth century B.C., Aristotle had conducted a comparative
analysis of the political systems in 158 city-states and, on this basis, written
the famous The Athenian Constitution. It was until the eighteenth century
when the systematic comparative study was conducted for a certain discipline
in a conscious and comprehensive way. In the eighteenth century, the French
Enlightenment thinker Montesquieu, who was honored as the forerunner
of comparative methodology, had compared some countries in the west and
the east in The Spirit of Laws. By the nineteenth century, comparative litera-
ture had emerged in France and the United States in succession. As to China,
Sima Qian had conducted a comparative study of history in the Records of the
Historian; and On the Urgency of Changing the World by Yan Fu in the late
Qing Dynasty was considered as the start of the comparative study between
Chinese and western culture. Following Yan Fu, Wang Guowei, and Liang
Qichao had also researched on comparative literature. Wang Guowei had
made a comparative analysis of A Dream in Red Mansions and Faust. Liang
Qichao had compared and analyzed the systems in China and some other
countries in On Similarities and Differences of the Constitution in China and
in Europe.
As pointed out by some scholars, China’s connection to foreign culture
can be traced back to the Han Dynasty, when the Buddhist culture was intro-
duced to China from India. In the long history from Han, Wei, Jin, the
Northern and Southern Dynasties to Sui and Tang, after countless conflicts,
5Karl Marx, Critique of Political Economy, 1st edition, Page 165, Beijing, People’s Publishing
House, 1959.
6Ge Maochun, Selected Works of Philosophic Thinking of Hu Shi, Vol. 1, 1st edition, Page 536,
Shanghai, East China Normal University Press, 1981.

x FOREWORD: DEEPENING JOURNALISM AND COMMUNICATION STUDIES …
fights, exchanges, and integrations between Confucian culture and Taoist cul-
ture in local China and foreign Buddhist culture, they were finally assimilated
by traditional Chinese culture, leading to the rise of a new Confucianism, the
neo-Confucianism in the Song and Ming Dynasty. Later, Marco Polo traveled
around China and Matteo Ricci introduced the Christian culture to China,
but on profound effect of western culture had been generated since China
still considered itself as the “Celestial Empire,” the center of the world at that
time. Therefore, the collision between the two cultures had not produced
an ideological trend. In the modern times, western countries had won the
worldwide dominance relying on their great economic and technical advan-
tages. “Europocentrism” and ethnocentrism had been widely spread in the
western world. Meanwhile, westerners started to reflect on themselves as
inspired by the people under colonial control fighting against aggression and
safeguarding local culture: whether there was another culture outside the
west that could not be conquered or assimilated by western culture; if yes,
how was the culture formed and what characters did it have; and what were
the differences between this culture and western culture. Westerners launched
an upsurge of comparative study of culture for the sake of conquering other
culture. Some scholars with curiosity and preoccupation with cultural explo-
ration also joined the trend. This constituted the foundation for the objective
comparison study of western culture in early times.
Comparative study in China was earlier applied to literature and culture.
In the 1980s, the monograph Five-Hundred Year Comparison Between China
and the West that comprehensively compared the politics, economy, ideology,
culture, science, technology, and education between China and the west was
published. Famous scholar Tang Yijie pointed out that “This is a monograph
of the comprehensive comparison between China and the west that stands on
the reality, looks back into history, faces the world and looks forward to the
future. Being a monograph applying this style of writing for the first time, it
is of great academic and practical values.”7 This 700,000-word monograph is
the most representative work of comparative study known to the author.
The comparative study of journalism and communication in mainland
began in the 1990s. Four representative works are recommended here.
The first is the Comparative Journalism, which was written by Mr. Tao
Han from the Institute of Journalism and Communication, Chinese Academy
of Social Sciences and published in April 1994. This book was actually com-
pleted by 1992 and prefaced by Tan Wenrui who served as the chief editor
of People’s Daily at that time. This book comprehensively conducted the
comparative study of journalism and communication and combined both
historical facts and theories. With merely 160,000 words, it had paved the
way for the comparative study of journalism and communication in mainland.
7HaoXiajun, Mao Lei and Shi Guangrong, Five-Hundred Year Comparison Between China
and the West, 1st edition, Page 4, Beijing, China Worker Publishing House, 1989.
FOREWORD: DEEPENING JOURNALISM AND COMMUNICATION STUDIES … xi
According to the publishing notes of the book, this book “fills a gap in jour-
nalism studies in mainland.”
The second is the Comparison Between Chinese and Western Journalism,
which was jointly completed by Professor Fan Fan from the School of
Journalism and Communication, Wuhan University, and five postgraduates
under his guidance and was published in September 1994. This book had
observed and analyzed the similarities and differences in news thoughts, cul-
tural constraints, journalism ethics, and journalist writings between China
and the west from the perspective of culture and philosophy, and put forward
many enlightening academic views of great values and insights.
The third is the Comparative Journalism jointly written by Professor Liu
Xiatang from the Department of Economics and Culture, Jiangxi University
of Finance and Economics and some other scholars from the School of
Journalism, Nanchang University and Jiangxi Daily. This book consists of 18
chapters, including 7 about the comparison of journalism theories, 5 about
the comparison of journalist writing, and 6 about the comparison of journal-
ism businesses. This book is more comprehensive in terms of the layout.
The fourth is the book Outline of the Comparison of Journalism in China
and the West written by the author here as supported by other members of
the research group, and it is a final result of the state “eighth five-year plan”
program of philosophy and social sciences. This book, with over 300,000
words, is divided into seven chapters, respectively including historical review,
editorial policies, media organization, social regulation, ethics of law, journal-
ism education, and journalism concept. Among the above four books, this is
the book of the most comprehensive content, the longest length, and deeper
comparative research.
In addition to the four books mentioned here, there are approximately
more than 100 papers about the comparative study of journalism and com-
munication published in journalistic journals in all places.
Generally, since the comparative study of journalism and communication
just started in China, it reached only a few achievements, had no systematic
research group, lacked necessary organization or investment, and exerted
insignificant influence on journalism and communication practices. Therefore,
at present, it is vital to conduct comparative study of journalism and commu-
nication in a more extensive and profound way and construct the theoretical
framework of comparative journalism and communication. For this purpose,
this book is written and published.
Shanghai, China Bing Tong

Preface
Since 1997 when journalism and communication had been upgraded to

be a first-level discipline by the Academic Degrees Committee of the State
Council, the discipline building of journalism and communication in China
has advanced swiftly and vigorously and achieved significant development.
Meanwhile, the new higher requirements have been raised on teaching, scien-
tific research, and academic writings.
After China Renmin University Press published the The 21st Century
Journalism and Communication Teaching Materials in 1999, over ten
publishing houses including Beijing Broadcasting Institute Press, Huaxia
Publishing House, Nanjing University Press, China Social Sciences Press and
Xinhua Publishing House successively released teaching materials with differ-
ent characteristics and the Chinese version of the classics written by foreign
journalism and communication masters. However, among them, there are
only a few monographs that represent the highest academic level and show
the latest scientific research achievements of this discipline in China.
Meanwhile, significant progress has been made in journalism and com-
munication education in China. The colleges and universities providing the
education of journalism and communication had increased sharply from 66 in
1994 to 232 in 2001. According to incomplete statistics, more than 50,000
students are now studying in the 6 major of journalism and communica-
tion in junior colleges and universities nationwide. The degree education of
the communication and journalism has also developed, and 8 doctoral pro-
grams and 40 master programs have been established in China by now. A
number of research institutes are rising, including the School of Journalism
and Communication of Renmin University of China and Fudan Journalism
School. Characterized by the high starting point and diversified professions,
the journalism and communication education of Peking University and
Tsinghua University has boosted the new vigorous development of these two
century-old prestigious schools. Communication University of China now
xiii
xiv PREFACE
embraces an impressive level of journalism and communication education and

ranks among the most well-known schools in this discipline in China. The
School of Journalism and Communication, Wuhan University, has launched
a series of education and scientific research programs based on the new doc-
toral program, to display its unique charm. The academia and society are
expecting that the “first echelon” of journalism and communication educa-
tion in China will publish new works and acquire new achievements that con-
tribute to the discipline building.
Since the beginning of the new century, the journalism and communica-
tion in China has developed by leaps and bounds in a comprehensive way,
along with the rapid popularization of the new media represented by the
Internet, the cooperation between the new media and the traditional media
and the rising initiative of hundreds of millions of people to participate in
public communication. The people are using the mass media in an unprece-
dentedly extensive and timely manner. The mass media has become an indis-
pensable part in people’s daily life and exerts a profound influence on people
any time and any place. It is of great urgency for the whole society, particu-
larly the journalism and communication educators, to popularize the social
education of journalism and communication among all the people. Currently,
an urgent task of the academic circle of journalism and communication is to
provide high-quality journalism and communication works to the public.
It can be clearly seen that it is an important job of great academic val-
ues and practical meaning to publish high-level academic works of journal-
ism and communication that satisfy the demands of discipline building and
professional and social education of journalism and communication. In
view of this fact, upon the joint efforts of all scholars, the “Journalism and
Communication Library” has emerged.
This Library aims to assist in achieving some new breakthroughs in the dis-
cipline building of journalism and communication, discuss on the new sys-
tem of the discipline, demonstrate new academic ideas, seek new research
methods, apply the new way of discourse and explore the new writing style
of papers. In a word, compared to the previous achievements in journalism or
communication, the works of the Library shall tell some new things and pres-
ent some innovative ideas.
To achieve innovation, the first task is to discard the old system, old
ideas, and old things. Based on the Marxist theoretical character of advanc-
ing with the times, it is the only road of the discipline development to dis-
card the old and grow the new, and therefore the humanities and social
sciences workers enjoy the right of theoretical innovation. As pointed out by
Friedrich Engels, their theories are developing instead of being the doctrine
that must be memorized and parroted. According to a Russian writer’s mem-
ory of the talk between Friedrich Engels and him, Friedrich Engels hoped
that the Russians, or people from other countries, would not mechanically
apply what Karl Marx and he said, but should think as Karl Marx did based
PREFACE xv
on their own conditions. Only in this way they could be called the “Marxist.”
China is different from foreign countries, the old China is different from the
new China, and the new China in the first three decades is different from
that in the latest two decades. Correspondingly, the journalism and commu-
nication study under the current historical conditions in China shall have the
methods and conclusions different from foreign countries, the old China,
and the first three decades of new China. In this case, the “Journalism and
Communication Library” proposes the following requirements on the
authors and their works: understanding the characteristics of the times, meet-
ing the requirements of the times, advancing with the times, adhering to the
theoretical courage to profoundly discuss the social transformation from the
planned economy to the market economy and the complicated communica-
tion relationship among the Party, government, media and audience, studying
on new issues, seeking for new methods, acquiring new knowledge, discov-
ering new ideas and demonstrating new conclusions. This is the aim and
expectation of the Library. We expect that each work and each author of the
Library will lead the readers to the academia of journalism and communica-
tion and reveal a new academic world.
Innovation is accompanied by risks. The sense of innovation coexists with
the risk awareness. Innovation means to do things that have never been done
before and say things that have never been said, or overthrow what has been
done or correct what has been said. When denying the old things, systems
or ideas, challenging the traditional customs and obsolete theories and criti-
cizing the old ideas that had been memorized for years, it would necessarily
result in the suppression and strike by the old forces. Therefore, scholars who
stick to theoretical innovation must bear the risk awareness. Compared to
the rapid progress of society and high-speed development of journalism and
media undertakings, the discipline building of journalism and communication
is relatively slow and backward. Under the circumstances, it may be difficult
to prove some new ideas and opinions of the Journalism and Communication
Library to be correct and scientific, and meanwhile takes time and practices
for the correct ideas and opinions to become a common view of the society
and among scholars. Correspondingly, while promoting the sense of innova-
tion, the author must bear a strong risk awareness. We appeal to the society
and scholars to give the tolerance and love to the authors and workers of the
Library. We also sincerely welcome any strict criticism over the works, since
criticisms also suggest the readers’ deep love.
The “Journalism and Communication Library” bears the responsibil-
ity to require the authors concentrating on research, writing books elab-
orately and providing some penetrating academic findings. These works
have explored the new academic areas in journalism and communication,
or cleared some old systems or old ideas, or demonstrated the advices pro-
posed to the journalism and media authority, or applied Chinese language
and Chinese traditional culture to understand foreign works about journalism
xvi PREFACE
and communication in a new way. In a word, the Library must provide peo-
ple with the classical works of academic study of journalism and communica-
tion. Adhering to the principle of a smaller quantity with better quality, the
Library selects three to five research findings among numerous scholars inside
and outside Renmin University of China each year. In three to four years, an
extensive range of academic achievements will be covered by the Library, win-
ning a place in the forest of academic research achievements of the journalism
and communication and even the humanities and social sciences.
Right at the beginning of the new century, China Renmin University Press
has released the Library based on an elaborate plan and a comprehensive
structure. I would like to express deep appreciation and gratitude toward the
strategic insight of the Press and the teamwork of authors. I hope that we can
make a concerted effort to do a better job.
Shanghai, China Bing Tong

January 2002
Contents
1 Significance and Method of Studies of Comparative

Journalism and Communication 1
1 The Purpose of Studies of Comparative Journalism
and Communication 1
2 The Object of the Studies of Comparative Journalism
and Communication 5
3 Research Methodology of Comparative Journalism
and Communication 8
2 Review of the Journalism and Communication History

of the Six Countries: Germany, the United States,
the United Kingdom, France, Japan and Russia 15
1 Historical Process of Journalism and Communication
Activities 16
of the Six Countries Including Germany, the United States,
the United Kingdom, France, Japan, Russia 24
3 Journalism and Communication Undertakings in China 46
4 The Law of Formation and Development of Journalism and
Communication and the Imbalanced Development of the Press
in China and the West 52
3 Analysis of Journalism and Communication

Ideas in China and the West 65
1 The Idea on the Nature of Media 67
2 The Idea on the Functions of Media 73
3 The Idea on the Authenticity of News 83
4 The Idea on the Communication of News 91
xvii
xviii CONTENTS
5 The Idea on the News Values 103

6 The Idea on the Propaganda of News 109
7 The Idea on Public Opinion of News 116
8 The Idea on the Rights of News 123
9 The Idea on the Audience of News 131
10 Several Concluding Remarks About the Analysis
of Journalism and Communication Ideas 139
4 Differences and Similarities Between the Journalism

and Communication Systems in China and the West 143
1 Analysis of the Ownership of Chinese
and Western News Media 144
2 Comparison of the Editorial Policies of Chinese
3 Different Organizational Structures of News Media
5 Regulation and Supervision on Journalism and

Communication in China and the West 207
1 Analysis of Journalism and Communication Regulation
2 Comparison Between the Legal System of Journalism
and Communication in China and the West 242
3 Comparison Between Journalism and Communication
Ethics in China and the West 273
6 Practice Views of Chinese and Western Journalism

and Communication 291
1 Similarities and Differences Between Chinese
and Western News Sources and Processing 292
2 Different Statuses of News Commentary in China and West 304
3 Layout Features of Chinese and Western News Media 310
4 Analysis of Advertising Dissemination Between Chinese
5 Some Conclusions on the Practice Views of Chinese
and Western Journalism and Communication 324
7 Comparison of Chinese and Western News Education 329

1 News Education in Western Countries 330
2 Journalism Education in China 346
3 Comparison of Chinese and Western Journalism Education 358
Afterword 365
List of Figures
Chapter 4
Fig. 1 The chart of the organizational structure of The Times 184
Fig. 2 Chart of the organizational structure of shareholding
newspapers in the west 185
Fig. 3 Chart of the organizational structure of British and American
newspapers with the separation between news and speech 186
Fig. 4 Chart of the organizational structure of commercial radio
in the United States 187
Fig. 5 Chart of the organizational structure of commercial television
Fig. 6 Chart of the organizational structure of French Broadcasting
Corporation 189
Fig. 7 Chart of the organizational structure of BBC 189
Fig. 8 Chart of the organizational structure of private or semi-official
news agencies in the west 190
Fig. 9 Chart of the organizational structure of small-sized newspapers
Fig. 10 Chart of the organizational structure of medium-sized newspapers
Fig. 11 Chart of the organizational structure of large-sized newspapers
Fig. 12 Chart of the organizational structure of the news Department
of American Radio Stations 194
Fig. 13 Chart of the organizational structure of a major community
TV station 195
Fig. 14 Chart of the representative operation agencies of medium-sized
newspapers in the United States 196
Fig. 15 Chart of the organizational structure of Ta Kung Pao in 1942 198
Fig. 16 Chart of organizational structure of Shanghai Central Daily News
in 1947 199
xix
xx LIST OF FIGURES
Fig. 17 Chart of the Organizational Structure after Adjustment

in December 1954 200
Fig. 18 The basic pattern of organizational structure of Chinese media
before the cultural revolution 202
Fig. 19 Chart of the traditional organizational structure
of Chinese media 204
List of Tables
Chapter 2
Table 1 The Verified Magazine Circulation in 1992 27
Chapter 4
Table 1 Daily newspapers that support presidential candidates
with leading articles 156
Chapter 6
Table 1 Statistical table of the winning works of the first
to the Ninth China News Awards 315
Chapter 7
Table 1 Journalism program setting and credit distribution
plan (158 credits) 354
Table 2 Teaching schedule for journalism major 356
Table 3 Graduates’ evaluation on journalism teaching 361
xxi
CHAPTER 1
Significance and Method of Studies

of Comparative Journalism
and Communication
Have two blades cut each other to tell sharp from blunt; and compare two theo-
ries to tell right from wrong.
—Wang Chong
Our development owes to the inextricable influences of the world, among

which we can absorb the available and useful parts to us.
—Johann Wolfgang von Goethe
An independent discipline holding a place in the academia must have its spe-
cial object and unique values. The significance, object and method of the dis-
cipline shall be firstly clarified at the beginning of study. This chapter mainly
aims to explain the significance, object and method of studies of comparative
journalism and communication.
1 The Purpose of Studies of Comparative Journalism

and Communication
Instead of being the purpose, comparison is a means of study. An inscription

of “Know Yourself” hangs in the Delphi Temple in ancient Greece. To know
yourself is one of the eternal subjects of men from of old. Cornelius Tacitus,
the famous Roman historian, once stated that you should compare yourself
to others, in order to know yourself. Also, according to the poetic drama
Tasso written by Goethe, when you thought you had lost your values, com-
pare yourself with others. Thus, it can be seen that comparison is a method of
thinking and cognition of people.
Marxism points out that all things in the world are interrelated, interde-
pendent, mutually transforming and struggling, so scientific understandings
can never be obtained through any static, isolated and one-sided way to know
© The Author(s) 2020 1

B. Tong, Journalism and Communication in China
and the West, Sociology, Media and Journalism in China,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-7873-1_1
2 B. TONG
the world. As a saying goes, “nothing can be identified without comparison”,

which proves that comparison is not only a cognition method, but also a kind
of scientific working method. Once indicated by Karl Marx and Friedrich
Engels, the disciplines such as anatomy, botany and linguistics had made great
achievements by comparing and finally identifying the differences among the
objects of comparison, while comparison had shown universal significance in
these disciplines.
The major three purposes of studies of comparative journalism and com-
munication are as follows:
Firstly, explore the basic laws of journalism and communication.
Albert Einstein believes that science is “a coherent idea for finding the
regular relationship between our sensory experiences”.1 When engaged in
journalism and communication, the first thing is to know, understand and
master its laws. By comparing the journalism and communication activities
and undertakings in different countries and regions, finding their similari-
ties and differences, further comparing their social, political, economic and
cultural backgrounds and seeking for the reasons for the similarities and
differences, you can explore the basic laws of journalism and communica-
tion activities and summarize universal experiences, in order to adjust and
improve these activities, promote the effect of journalism and communi-
cation and fulfill the social mission of journalism and communication in a
better way.
All phenomena reflect certain laws from different levels and perspectives.
Being universal and repeated, the law is the essential connection and inexora-
ble trend of the development of things. It is objective and inherently existing
in things, which cannot be created, altered or eliminated by men, but can be
identified and utilized. Science bears the task to upgrade perceptual knowl-
edge to conceptual knowledge, unveils objective laws and guides people’s
practices. As early as in 1843, Karl Marx pointed out it must be admitted that
the newspaper and the magazine “features something universally recognized
by people that can even be seen in plants, i.e. the inherent laws, which shall
not and can never be avoided.”2 The final purpose of journalism and commu-
nication is to find and identify the law, thus to guide journalism and commu-
nication practices and promote the communication effect.
The same with general laws, the journalism and communication laws are
widely seen in different countries and regions, different historical periods
and different media, and repeatedly emerge in communication of different
social incidents and other facts. Therefore, when comparing and studying the
journalism and communication activities in different countries and regions,
1 The Collected Works of Albert Einstein, 1st edition, Page 253, Vol. 3, Beijing, The Commercial
Press, 1979.
2 Collected Works of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, Chinese 2nd edition, Page 397, Vol. 1,
Beijing, People’s Publishing House, 1995.

1 SIGNIFICANCE AND METHOD OF STUDIES OF COMPARATIVE … 3
comparing and analyzing the journalism and communication phenomena in

different historical periods, and particularly comparing and researching the
activities in different countries, regions and historical periods that show vastly
varied media and communication environment, you can find, identify and
master, more profoundly and keenly, the basic laws of journalism and com-
munication as well as the universal experiences that are playing a part in all
different conditions.
As to this purpose, the comparative journalism and communication mainly
focuses on studying the journalism phenomena and activities that are play-
ing a decisive and guiding role in journalism and communication activities,
such as the media ecology, the communication environment and the com-
munication system; and tends to apply the macro comparison as the research
method, such as investigating the changes of journalism and communication
phenomena and the evolution of media in a certain historical period or con-
ducting comparative studies on different countries and regions. The Four
Theories of the Press written by American scholar Wilbur Schramm et al. and
the report Many Voices, One World prepared by the International Commission
for the Study of Communications Problems have set a model for the macro-
scopical comparative study.
Secondly, understand the features of journalism and communication in dif-
ferent media ecologies.
The theory of media ecology regards the society as an organic structure,
where the media system, the political system and other systems constitute sta-
ble relationships of interdependence and mutual influence. As discovered in
the observation and study with the media as a subject, the media depends on
the political, economic and cultural systems. Hence, the media ecology prac-
tically consists of two parts, the media environment and the communication
environment. The study of the medial environment refers to a static observa-
tion and investigation on the environment for the media, mainly about the
social and economic system as well as the communication system where the
media exists; while the study of the communication environment conducts
a dynamic observation and investigation on the whole condition for media
operation, which means the multiple conditions and factors that affect the
communication effect.
The medial ecology, i.e. the media environment and the communication
environment, determines the nature, functions and features of journalism
and communication. In other words, in order to understand the features of
news media and media communication in different social systems, you must
have an extensive and profound understanding of the social system and the
economic system, the final strength that determines their features and char-
acteristics. For example, when defining the nature of two kinds of newspapers
and magazines in two social systems, Mao Zedong emphasized on their dif-
ferent economic foundations. He pointed out that the newspaper in a social-
ist country was a manifestation of the planned economy established based on
4 B. TONG
the socialist economy, i.e. the public ownership, through the means of press;
while the newspaper in a capitalist country was a reflection of the anarchic
economy of group competition in the press sector.
On the basis of this fundamental difference, you can clearly define the
nature, the functions, the editorial policies, the operating characteristics, the
personnel management and the reporting style, etc., of the two different
kinds of news media in two different social systems. The studies of compara-
tive journalism and communication exactly aim to understand and master the
different characteristics of journalism and communication in different media
ecologies. Only by identifying the different natures, functions and features of
the journalism and communication in different media ecologies, can you cor-
rectly understand the complicated journalism and communication phenom-
ena under current circumstances, have the initiative in news exchange and
international cooperation, know others and know yourself in a realistic way
and develop the strengths, avoid the weaknesses and learn from others. The
Internal and External Journalism History by Japanese journalism master Ono
Hideo and The Comparison of Television Systems by Chinese Taiwan journal-
ism scholar Li Zhan are considered as successful instances of studies in this
respect.
Thirdly, learn from foreign experiences in a critical manner and promote
the development of journalism and communication in China.
To learn from others is an important goal of comparative studies, while
learning in a critical manner will be more effective. In foreign countries, par-
ticularly Western developed countries, based on the 400-year experiences of
the journalism and communication development, the mature and efficient
mechanisms and means of communication reports, news operation, industry
management and team construction have been established, and rich experi-
ences have been accumulated in dealing with the interactive relations between
journalism and communication and the economic, political and cultural sys-
tems as well as the relations between the press and the government, parties,
social groups and the public. Though these experiences, mechanisms and
means are subject to the influence of bourgeois values, the bourgeois journal-
ism and communication, essentially one of the social tools of the bourgeoisie,
still reflects the understandings of the basic laws of journalism and communi-
cation, which can be learned and used by China.
China can find its shortages and weaknesses by comparing to foreign
activities and undertakings of journalism and communication and thus can
improve, transform and perfect the journalism and communication opera-
tion in China correspondingly. Since the Reform and Opening Up, the press
in China has been engaged in increasingly active exchanges and cooperation
with foreign presses and has constantly found its own shortages and weak-
nesses while identifying and sticking to its own advantages and strengths.
According to Upholding the Four Cardinal Principles written by Deng
Xiaoping, “We have already admitted our backwardness of natural science and
now we shall also admit our backwardness of studies of social science (the
comparable aspects) compared to foreign countries.”3 The author strongly

agrees with it and hopes to learn more experiences from foreign presses
through the profound comparative studies, overcome the shortages and
weaknesses of the press in China, promote the development of Chinese jour-
nalism and communication and contribute to the development and prosperity
of journalism and communication worldwide. Bearing the same goal, many
scholars have conducted all-around comparative studies on the journalism
and communication systems and internal management mechanisms, the oper-
ation modes and works of journalism and communication, the operation and
development of news media and the principles and methods of news opera-
tion and management between China and foreign countries, which have con-
stituted the theoretical support and resource support to journalism reform
that is carried out currently.
The press is now actively performing theoretical innovation and institu-
tional innovation. Innovation never excludes studying beneficial experiences
from the outside. The new cultural factors of a society may also derive from
those of another society. Some scholars believe that the process of communi-
cation indicates a group studies from cultural factors in another society and
integrates them into their own culture. A group can avoid certain mistakes
and save much time in the development course by studying and learning from
others.
All these demonstrate that it is of great significance to learn from foreign
experiences in a critical way for promoting the development of journalism and
communication in China and achieving more scientific studies of journalism
and communication.
The academic values of comparative journalism and communication can be
summarized with a saying of Friedrich Engels, the pioneer of Marxism, “only
a nation always equipped with theoretical thinking can reach the highest peak
of science.”4 As the theoretical sub-discipline of the discipline of journalism
and communication, the comparative journalism and communication applies
theoretical thinking the most among all research sectors of journalism and
communication.
2 The Object of the Studies of Comparative Journalism

and Communication
Generally, the comparative study refers to comparing the issues that need
to be studied and explored within a certain spatial–temporal scale, identify-
ing their similarities and differences, strengths and weaknesses and advan-
tages and disadvantages, and analyzing and demonstrating the factors that
3 The Collected Works of Deng Xiaoping, 2nd edition, Page 181, Vol. 2, Beijing, People’s
Publishing House, 1994.

4 Friedrich Engels, Dialectics of Nature, 1st edition, Page 47, Beijing, People’s Publishing
House, 1984.
6 B. TONG
lead to the homogeneity and heterogeneity. The explicit time range shall
be firstly determined for the study. All things develop along with the time
axis and exist and change as time goes by. Only within a certain time range
can the comparison and targeted analysis be done for the comparative study.
Comparison may be vertically comparing the past and the present of the same
object or horizontally comparing the objects of the same kind within the
same time range. Secondly, the relatively stable and clear spatial domain shall
be determined. The comparative study is generally conducted between one
country and another, or one region and another, since this is more specific
and direct. However, the comparison can also be made between one coun-
try or one region and some other countries or regions together. For exam-
ple, the comparison between China and the West consists of several countries.
Furthermore, the provinces or municipalities within a country, the different
areas within a province and different media can also be compared, such as
the comparison of media at the two sides of the Taiwan Straits, the compari-
son of the newspapers of Beijing School and the newspapers of Shanghai and
Guangdong School, the comparison between the press media including news-
papers and magazines and the electronic media including radio and television
and the comparison between the traditional media including newspapers,
magazines, radio and TV and the new media including online media, etc.
It is believed that the comparative study shall be extensive and all-round
spatially and temporally. We advocate that diversified objects shall be incor-
porated in the comparative study. However, like the comparative literature
and comparative law, the comparative journalism and communication shall
have the object placed in the same time range, and shall conduct comparison
mainly between one country and another one or several countries and one
region and another one or several regions in terms of the spatial domain. The
given time and space guarantee the quantity and quality of the comparative
study and helps clarify and regulate on the study object.
Under the certain spatial–temporal conditions, comparative journalism
and communication covers extremely extensive objects of study. Everything,
macro or micro, media or works, virtual or actual, internal or external, people
or things, can be compared, analyzed and studied only if they are comparable,
and can be considered as the object of study of comparative journalism and
communication.
It is a kind of macro comparative study to compare the properties, char-
acteristics, functions and missions, etc., of journalism and communication
undertakings in different countries and regions under different social sys-
tems and historical conditions as well as their economic, political and cul-
tural backgrounds. As introduced above, Mao Zedong had once pointed
out the different properties of the two kinds of journalism and commu-
nication undertakings in the world in an article he wrote in 1957, which
was essentially a comparative analysis of the property of newspapers based
on the Marxist principle of the relationship between the economic base
and the superstructure. Relative to the macro issues such as the properties,
characteristics, functions and missions of journalism and communication

undertakings, the studies on the business characteristics, working methods
and norms of works, etc., such as the study on the different roles of jour-
nalists in China and Japan, the comparison of the media in China and the
United States and the comparison of the news works and styles in China and
foreign countries shall be deemed as the comparative studies on micro issues.
The comparative studies can also be conducted at the virtual and the actual
level, respectively about the journalism and communication ideas and ideolog-
ical trends and about the actual operating issues such as the newspaper lay-
out, manner of writing and title production, etc., in different countries and
regions. The investigation and analysis at both levels are necessary and mean-
while comparable. The former kind of study lays stress on theoretical perspec-
tives and shows strong academic rationality; while the latter emphasizes the
practices and presents strong operability. As to the journalism and commu-
nication ideas, foreign countries and China share quite a few common views
but also see many differences. For example, both China and foreign countries
consider that being interesting and personal is an important factor of news val-
ues; but some Western scholars see it as the “foundation of news values,” and
the mainstream news values in China regard the significance and timeliness of
news higher. The comparison between ideas at the virtual level will become a
substantial subject with rich content if combining the journalism and commu-
nication practices, though it is a kind of analysis and study of concepts after
all. Meanwhile, the comparison of tangible news products such as the layout,
programs, titles, writing and pictures and their operation methods is essentially
the analysis at the operational level based on practical examples, which is sig-
nificantly different from the relatively abstract comparison of ideas.
The comparative studies of journalism and communication mainly focus
on but are not limited to the journalism and communication system. Any
issue directly or indirectly related to journalism and communication activities
and undertakings can be the object of comparative studies, including “the
internal and external” issues of comparative studies. As the study object of
comparative journalism and communication, the internal issues of the jour-
nalism and communication system cover the ownership and management
right of journalism and communication undertakings and the editorial pol-
icies, principles of editing and speech, advertising aims, personnel man-
agement systems and salary and labor management of media agencies. In
addition, the issues outside the system that need to be compared include the
direct supervision over journalism and communication activities by the gov-
ernment, ruling party and legislative and judicial agencies and the indirect
influence of the social pressure groups, advertisers and social public opinions
on journalism and communication activities.
The journalism and communication activity constitutes an important way
for people to influence the social process through reports and reviews on
social incidents. The judgment of the working method and social influence
of journalism and communication activities shall focus on the performance
8 B. TONG
of different media in different social incidents. Therefore, the attitudes and

behaviors of news media in social incidents in different countries and regions
are deemed as an important object of comparative studies. In this book, the
readers will find that the author has combined the analysis of the performance
of media in social incidents in the studies on news media.
The social incident itself also embodies people’s behaviors and perfor-
mances, particularly the words and deeds of journalists and communica-
tion-related workers. Therefore, the communicators also make up an integral
part of the objects of comparative studies. A colleague of the author once had
an argument with a German academic authority on the history of printing for
the unfair judgments of some Western scholars on Bi Dan from China and
Johannes Gutenberg from Germany, who were both the inventors of print-
ing. This debate was essentially a comparative study on the two great people
engaged in communication practices.
In conclusion, the comparative journalism and communication studies on
extensive objects under certain spatial–temporal conditions, since it covers the
whole area of journalism and communication instead of a particular scope.
This book embraces all levels and aspects of the study objects of comparative
journalism and communication from ideas to practices (the virtual and the
actual), from systems to methods (the macro and the micro), from regula-
tions to policies (the external and the internal) and from major news to repre-
sentative journalists and communication-related workers (things and people)
and discusses them from five perspectives, the journalism and communication
history, the journalism and communication ideas, the journalism and commu-
nication system, the journalism and communication operation and the scien-
tific research and education of journalism and communication.
It is important to note that the comparative studies of Chinese and for-
eign journalism and communication generally regard Chinese mainland and
Western developed countries as the two parties for comparison for historical
reasons. This is necessary and favorable for the progress of journalism and
communication practices and learnings.
In order to serve the present and serve China, the practices of studies of
comparative journalism and communication lay special emphasis on the cur-
rent journalism and communication activities, mainly regard the comparison
between China and foreign countries as the object of study and adhere to the
academic pursuit of seeking the basic laws of journalism and communication
and carrying forward the Chinese characteristics in journalism and communi-
cation activities and studies.
3 Research Methodology of Comparative Journalism

and Communication
The comparative study is the most widely applied and the most important
method in the comparative journalism and communication. As mentioned
above, the method of comparative study is a thinking process and scientific
method to compare and analyze two or more things that have certain internal
connections based on certain rules, confirm on their similarities and differ-
ences, and grasp the essence, characteristics and laws of the things. Three pre-
requisites must be satisfied to apply this method.
Firstly, adhere to the principle of comparability.
Comparison can only be conducted between the things that see different
essences but show certain similarities. Things without any similarity have no
universal foundation or standard, so they cannot be compared. Therefore,
before applying the comparative study in journalism and communication, the
comparative bases for the comparison must be identified and demonstrated,
to prove the similarities or common grounds of the things.
It is of particular significance to adhere to the principle of comparability
in the comparative study of the things of different kinds. According to the
practices of the comparative study and life experiences, things of different
kinds can be compared. Charles Darwin had compared the human kind with
mammal. However, a certain condition must be satisfied for the comparison,
which lies in that the attribute of the two objects for comparison shares a uni-
versal unit or standard. Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels had given an example
of this in the book The German Ideology, “Berciani is considered as an incom-
parable singer when people compare her to other singers, appreciate her with
their ears and musical accomplishments and finally realize her incomparability.
The singing of Berciani cannot be compared to the croaking of frogs, though
general comparison can be conducted between the human kind and the
frog……The first case constitutes the comparison between individuals, while
the second case is merely the comparison of the features of different species
or types.”5
Secondly, adhere to the principle of universality.
The similarities and differences between two or more things are essentially
the universality and individuality of different things. It is necessary to study
on both the “similarities” and “differences” among different things, as they
show certain universality and individuality as well as generality and particular-
ity. Only by fully understanding the similarities and differences and the uni-
versality and individuality of the things can the essence be mastered.
The stable standard for comparison shall be clarified when seeking com-
monness among differences or seeking differences among commonness. This
standard provides the foundation and basis for quantification and qualifica-
tion. Quantitative comparison is relatively easy in the comparative studies
of journalism and communication, as the comparison of the media, audi-
ence, circulation and audience rating is explicit and convincing. Meanwhile,
it is difficult but possible to find the applicable standards for qualitative
comparison.
5 Collected Works of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, Chinese 1st edition, Page 517~518, Vol.
3, Beijing, People’s Publishing House, 1960.
10 B. TONG
The in-depth comparison shall be conducted when seeking commonness

among differences or seeking differences among commonness. Discoveries
can only be made by seeking similarities or common grounds among largely
different objects of comparison or by seeking differences among similar
objects of comparison. Instead of merely listing the universality and indi-
viduality and the generality and particularity, the scientific research shall see
through the appearance to perceive the essence, find the essential common
grounds among the things showing great differences on the surface and see
the essential differences among the things that seem extremely similar. G. W.
F. Hegel once analyzed the follows in his book Science of Logic: “People who
can see some evident difference such as between a pen and a camel will not
be considered as very intelligent; and people who can compare similar things
such as oak and locust or a temple and a church and find their similarities
will not be considered enjoying great comparing ability. What we require is
to find the commonness among differences and see the differences among
commonness.”6
Thirdly, adhere to the principle of diversity.
Diversified comparative approaches are applied due to different perspec-
tives and scales of people. In terms of the comparative methods in compar-
ative journalism and communication, the comparison can be conducted
partially or wholly, vertically or horizontally, internally or externally, quanti-
tatively or qualitatively, statically or dynamically. Therefore, we shall choose
multiple perspectives when using the comparative methods and meanwhile
respect the multiple perspectives of others.
It shall be noted that the comparative studies shall be guided by correct
theories when adhering to diversity. Generally, it is impossible for the compar-
ative studies of journalism and communication to formulate the accurate and
stable comparative standards like the studies of natural science do, or rely on
the specimen as the basis like species comparisons do. Correct theories shall
guide not only the qualitative comparison but also the quantitative compar-
ison in the comparative studies of journalism and communication. Only the
theories tested by practices can be regarded as correct theories. Moreover, the
application of these theories shall avoid making mistakes of dogmatism, for-
malism or pragmatism.
As proved by the development of proletarian and socialist journalism and
communication undertakings in China and some other countries, Marxist
view of journalism is the theoretical guidance we must follow in the compar-
ative studies of journalism and communication. The journalism ideas of Karl
Marx, Friedrich Engels and Vladimir Lenin as well as the three generations
of leaders of the Communist Party of China including Mao Zedong, Deng
Xiaoping and Jiang Zemin have provided the correct guiding ideology and
methodological principle for the work and academic research of journalism
and communication.
6 G. W. F. Hegel, Science of Logic, 1st edition, Page 253, Beijing, The Commercial Press, 1980.
However, what shall be paid attention to is that the method of compar-

ative study, the most widely applied method in comparative journalism and
communication, is not universal but has its own limitations. According to
Vladimir Lenin, it is known to all that no comparison is perfect, since com-
parison only compares one or several aspects of a thing or a concept by
ignoring other aspects conditionally. We would like to draw readers’ atten-
tion to this truth that is often forgotten. Therefore, instead of being used
independently, the comparison method shall be combined with some other
methods. Different methods shall be applied comprehensively. Some research
methods used in comparative journalism and communication in addition to
the comparison method are listed as follows.
The method of comparative study in the comparative journalism and com-
munication can be specifically applied in following ways:
Firstly, the same-class comparison method and different-class comparison
method can be applied based on the identity and otherness of comparison
objects of the comparative journalism and communication.
The same-class comparison method is used to understand the differences
among two or more objects of the same class. It can be seen from the com-
parison that the things similar on the surface may show certain differences.
This kind of comparison is carried out based on the researchers’ consensus
on the laws and principles. This comparison method which is widely used in
comparative studies can be applied in a macro or micro way against either
large or small objects, as long as the comparison is conducted among the
things or phenomena of the same class.
As to newspapers, the comparison can be made between American newspa-
pers and Chinese newspapers or between Chinese newspapers before and after
the Reform and Opening up in the comparative journalism and communica-
tion. In regard to the study of audience, Shanghai readers can be compared
to Beijing readers, and aged readers can be compared to young readers. The
same-class comparison method can be applied in these cases.
The different-class comparison method is utilized to understand the simi-
larities among two or more objects of different classes. It can be seen from
the comparison that the things or phenomena seeming to be different on the
surface share some same characteristics. In the research of comparative jour-
nalism and communication, the different-class comparison method is applied
to the comparison between the functions of the print media including news-
papers and magazines and that of electronic media such as radio and televi-
sion, between the timeliness of paper newspapers and electronic newspapers
(the electronic edition of newspapers) and between the properties of American
newspapers and Chinese newspapers. This comparison method aims to discover
the similarities of two different classes of objects that show great differences on
the surface, so as to find the common law and common characteristic.
Secondly, the vertical comparison and horizontal comparison method can
be applied based on the continuity and interrelation of the research objects of
comparative journalism and communication.
12 B. TONG
The vertical comparison method is applied to compare the development

and changes of the same research object in different periods. It can trace back
to the historical origin of the development of things and confirm on the his-
torical sequence based on this method, which is therefore also known as the
historical comparison method. This method is widely used in comparative
journalism and communication, such as the comparison of the three histori-
cal development stages of newspapers in the United States including the early
newspapers, party newspapers and popular newspapers and the comparison
among the three times of journalism reforms, respectively, in the period of
Jiefang Daily in Yan’an China, during the substantial revision of People’s Daily
in 1956 and since the Reform and Opening up.
The horizontal comparison method compares different objects of the same
class in the same historical period. This method can only be applied when the
different research objects fall into the same class, show interconnection and
mutual influence and are in the same historical period. The study of compar-
ative journalism and communication also frequently adopts this method, such
as the comparison of the mutual influence of Chinese and foreign exchanges
of journalism culture in the new period and the comparison of the trend of
news media in China and in Japan after the World War II, etc.
Thirdly, the static and dynamic comparison method can be applied based
on the static and dynamic nature of the research objects of comparative jour-
nalism and communication.
The static comparison method refers to comparing some relatively static and
stable things in a long and relatively stable historical period within the devel-
opment course of two or more research objects. For example, with this static
comparison method, the influence of Chinese traditional culture on the con-
tent and form of journalism and communication in China can be compared to
the influence of American political culture on the content and form of journal-
ism and communication in the United States, and the historical background
for the rise of popular newspapers in the United States can be compared to the
conditions for the rise of popular newspapers in China. It shall be noted that,
in this method, the content of research is formed during quite a long time, and
is stable and changes slowly and constantly after its generation.
The dynamic comparison method conducts a dynamic observation over
two or more research objects and compares their overall trends of develop-
ment and changes. This method is frequently used in the studies of com-
parative journalism and communication, such as the comparison of the
relativity between economic development and the growth of newspaper
groups in China and the United States, the comparison of the development
of media education and changes of the audience values in China and Japan,
the comparison of the openness of news media in the east and west China
and the comparison of television development strategies in China and foreign
countries in the new century.
According to some scholars, the static comparison method and the
dynamic comparison method shall be combined for comprehensive use. The
study may be exposed to sophistry and relativism without static comparison

and be exposed to mechanism and metaphysics without dynamic comparison.
Only by combining the two can the study conform to dialectics and the law
of cognition.
Several forms of comparison methods used in the studies of comparative
journalism and communication have been introduced above. Here several
steps for the application of the comparison method are briefly explained below.
When applying the method of comparative study, the first step is record-
ing, i.e. keeping a detailed record on relevant contents of the research objects
of the comparative study. In this case, it is necessary to collect the most rep-
resentative and convincing literature and objectively observe and describe the
actual situation at present, and prudently classify the literature into primary,
secondary and auxiliary data.
The second step is reading, i.e. reading and analyzing the collected liter-
ature based on the views and knowledge of social sciences and humanities
including journalism and communication, political economics, sociology and
culturology and correctly judging the significance and background of the
data.
The third step is juxtaposing the data. According to Japanese scholar
OkiHara Yutaka, the first two steps are merely the preparation for the com-
parative study, while the comparative study in a strict sense begins from juxta-
position. Classify relevant journalism and communication data of the research
objects in the previous stages of recording and reading into several types, jux-
tapose the data in a comparable form and propose the researcher’s hypothesis.
The fourth step is comparing, i.e. conducting the comparative study based
on the methods and perspectives introduced above, proving the correctness
of the hypothesis raised in the juxtaposition step and reaching a conclusion of
the scientific study, which is to demonstrate the similarity or difference of the
two or more research objects within a certain scope. Then the comparative
study of the topic is completed.
In addition to the comparative study that is introduced in details above,
comparative journalism and communication often applies the literature anal-
ysis. The literature analysis is a method to research on different social phe-
nomena and social development trends and laws through the interpretation of
literature. Frequently applied by comparative journalism and communication,
this method plays an irreplaceable role in the studies of historical figures, his-
torical incidents and social and historical phenomena.
The literature used in comparative journalism and communication gener-
ally includes the follows:
1. Written literature: the social data recorded in a form of text, such as

the foreword to newspapers, the editing principles approved by or reg-
istered at the government and legal instruments on news supervision in
different countries, etc.
14 B. TONG
2. Statistical information: the social data recorded in a digital form, such

as the quantity of newspapers and periodicals published every year in
a country, the number of periods, the total number of printing paper,
advertising statistics, the statistical number of readers of representative
media and ratings survey, etc.
3. Audio-visual materials: the social data recorded in a form of sound and
image, including the disc, tape, photo, picture, video and film, etc.
The literature analysis generally observes the following procedure. Firstly,

confirm the goal and mission of the study. Secondly, collect, evaluate and
select relevant literature. These two steps are similar to the comparative study.
The third step is to analyze the literature, and the fourth step is to reach a
conclusion based on the analysis. Distinguished from the juxtaposition and
comparison in the comparative method, literature analysis requires conduct-
ing the traditional qualitative analysis and formalized quantitative analysis
over the literature.
The method of qualitative analysis aims to describe the fact with accurate
words and expressions instead of numbers and measurements. It is difficult to
perform the quantitative analysis since most literature used in the studies of
comparative journalism and communication is written literature; so, the tradi-
tional literature analysis adopts the qualitative analysis. Attention shall be paid
to the following when this method is used:
1. Distinguish the primary data from the secondary data, as the former is
more reliable. When the secondary data needs to be quoted from other
works, the information shall be verified.
2. Analyze the connection between the author of the literature and the
facts recorded in the literature, so as to discover whether the author
intentionally distorts or omits any truth.
3. Confirm on nothing inappropriate in the preparation of the literature.
4. Compare the different informative materials. The same record on the
same fact in different materials is more reliable; otherwise, the informa-
tion shall be treated cautiously and be abandoned if necessary.
5. Conduct in-depth analysis over the content of literature and meanwhile
perform necessary investigations on relevant economic, political, cul-
tural and social backgrounds.
In the literature analysis, the formalized quantitative analysis is applied

to convert the non-quantitative literature into quantitative materials and
describe them in an objective, systematic and quantitative manner. The study
results of this method are often displayed in a table of frequency distribution
and percentage, making it clear and convincing. In the study of comparative
journalism and communication, this formalized quantitative analysis is used
to analyze the media development, employees of the industry and advertising
volume, etc., in addition to necessary description in words.
CHAPTER 2
Review of the Journalism and Communication

History of the Six Countries: Germany,
the United States, the United Kingdom,
France, Japan and Russia
The economic production in each historical age and the social structure built
on this basis constitute the historical foundation for the politics and spirit of the
age.
—Karl Marx
Anyone pursuing the true knowledge and the correct principles need to under-
stand the origin and evolution of the principles.
—Wang Guowei
Generally, a subject often develops from a skill to a kind of knowledge before

its ultimate formation. The measurement is the forerunner of mathematics,
while the alchemy is the mother of chemistry. Therefore, it may be neces-
sary to briefly trace back to the skills of journalism and communication, i.e.
the historical process of journalism and communication activities of the whole
world, before the discussion of comparative journalism and communication.
It is also a common method of learning to discuss the history before the the-
ory. This chapter will conduct a macro comparative study on the develop-
ment of journalism and communication undertakings in China and Western
countries from a historical point of view. Each content covered by the jour-
nalism and communication history of different countries such as the system
evolution or conception renewal will be discussed one by one in following
chapters, but this chapter only provides the comprehensive comparison and
focuses on the basic law of the emergence, development and evolution of
journalism and communication undertakings and the different situations of
journalism and communication undertakings in different countries.
© The Author(s) 2020 15

B. Tong, Journalism and Communication in China
and the West, Sociology, Media and Journalism in China,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-7873-1_2
16 B. TONG
1 Historical Process of Journalism

and Communication Activities
1.1 Early Communication Activities and Media

The journalism and communication behavior is a kind of social activity
among people, groups, and organizations where humans receive and spread
news in order to know the external situation and deliver the information
already known. Once the human society came into being, humans started the
early journalism and communication activities that were different from the
activities of animals, thus to satisfy the needs of existence and development.
According to anthropologists, ape-men, one of the ancestors of mankind,
had appeared approximately more than 2 million years ago. The essential dif-
ference between this new creature and other species lay in that this new crea-
ture was able to make tools. In a million years since their emergence, they
had mastered the technology of fire. These early inventions, the crude stone
implements and fire, constituted the first step of human culture.
Humans started to preliminarily grasp the communication activities during
the joint work and activities. Initially, humans communicated in a way sim-
ilar to that used by complex animals nowadays, i.e. giving symbols and sig-
nals with voices and body movements understandable to each other. In other
words, the genetic and instinctive reactions played an important role in ini-
tial communication activities of mankind, with seldom acquired communica-
tion behaviors. Later, along with the slow growth of brain volume, humans
had learned the basic communication required in social life based on the ges-
ture, voice and other forms of signals commonly acknowledged by people.
As humans have been exposed to constant evolution, the communication sys-
tem based on the symbols and signals have become increasingly refined, rou-
tinized and efficient.
Scholars believe that people started to talk and master the language
approximately 35,000–40,000 years ago. At that time, people’s communica-
tion had seen a great improvement, and they could think and communicate
with language and work, hunt and safeguard their living place in a more coor-
dinated manner. Under these circumstances, people could memorize, deliver,
receive and understand different language information, raising the span, com-
plexity and fineness of the communication activity to a new level. The com-
munication means started using the language, unveiling the transition process
from the life mode of hunting and collection to the great classical civilization.
Humans entered the age of written language approximately five thousand
years ago. As pointed out by scholars, Chinese and Maya people were the two
earliest races that invented written language. Research shows that the written
language evolves from hieroglyphs to the phonetic system, i.e. from express-
ing the complicated concept with pictures or text graphics to using simple
letters to represent specific sounds. At the earliest time, humans recorded
information by portraying animals and hunting scenes on rocks for review
2 REVIEW OF THE JOURNALISM AND COMMUNICATION HISTORY … 17
or making it known to others. In this way, the rock had become the earliest
communication media. Compared to oral account or description, this method
of describing the world and communicating news with pictures had made
great progress. It required that the communicator (painter) and the audience
(viewer) both understood the meaning of the picture, i.e. both parties had
the agreed coding interpretation or consensus; otherwise, the picture would
have no value as a communication means. In this sense, the standard meaning
of pictures constituted a key step for the development of written language.
According to research findings, it was the demand of production and
development that boosted the progress of standardization of the picture
meaning. At that time, people needed to record the land boundary, land
ownership, buying and selling, rise and fall of the water level of rivers, celestial
bodies motion, and seasons for sowing and harvesting. Therefore, the “qua-
si-written language” in a form of engraved pattern showed up in the areas
exposed to the earliest agricultural development such as Mesopotamia, which
evolved to be the official cuneiform script later on. Emerging about four
thousand years ago, the former hieroglyphs expressed the meaning under-
standable to all people with merely several strokes. For example, a bow and
an arrow symbolize hunting, a wave means the lake or river, the sunrise sug-
gests the daytime, etc. By combining these patterns, a relatively complicated
event could be communicated. The latter represents specific pronunciations
with certain small symbols and is regarded as the early achievement of the
phonetic script and the major breakthrough of human communication activ-
ities. Through over a thousand years of development, the alphabetic script
appeared and was soon popularized; and contributed to the generation of the
famous Greek script after being spread to Greece several centuries later. Like
the tool, fire and language, the alphabetic script is one of the greatest accom-
plishments of humans.
Special attention shall also be paid to the development of Chinese char-
acters. According to the archaeological discovery, the ancient painted pot-
tery dated back to more than six thousand years ago had some symbols on it,
which should be the sprout of Chinse characters. By the Shang Dynasty, after
three thousand years of development, the characters were inscribed on animal
bones and tortoise shells, called the “oracle bone script.” By now, approxi-
mately four thousand and five-hundred characters of this script have been dis-
covered. Meanwhile, characters were also inscribed on ancient bronze objects,
and were named as the “bronze script” by historians. A relatively complete
system of Chinese characters had been formed by then. Until the Warring
States Period, the character systems varied in each country; but later Qin
unified the language with Xiaozhuan (small seal) script. In the Eastern Han
Dynasty, Xu Shen compiled the first Chinese dictionary, Origin of Chinese
Characters, in 22 years, which included 9353 characters of Xiaozhuan script.
The Li (official) script showed up in the late Han Dynasty and the Xing (run-
ning) script appeared in the Wei and Jin Dynasty whose style was between the
Kai (regular) script and Cao (cursive) script. Not only the major characters
18 B. TONG
of China, Chinese characters had been used by bordering countries to China

for more than a thousand years. After the World War II, Chinese characters
became one of the five working languages of the United Nations.
Since the emergence of written language, people found that though
the news communication based on characters could be understood by all,
it was inconvenient to carry the information. For example, it was so dif-
ficult to carry and spread the characters inscribed on the stone, bamboo,
wood or clay plate. After the symbols (codes) known to all are generated,
the urgent demand of news communication was to invent the new tools for
writing and objects carrying characters, i.e. the media for communication of
characters.
Approximately in 2500 BC, Egyptians found the way to make papyrus
paper, which was much lighter and more portable than stones and easier to
write on than stone inscriptions. Meanwhile, Egyptians also made the writing
brush with another kind of plant and made the ink with some dyestuff. The
“silk paper” from China and “Amat paper” from Mexico enjoy the same fame
with papyrus paper. The silk paper was made by drying the silk left on the
bamboo mat during silkworm raising and silk reeling. Historically known as
the “small thin paper,” it firstly showed up in the Shang Dynasty. Amat paper
was produced with the bark fiber of a kind of broadleaf tree named Amat,
which was invented by Maya people among Indians.
The evolution from the heavy stone, bamboo slip, wood block and
clay plate to the portable media had significantly improved the scope and
depth of journalism and communication, enabled the wide spreading of
news and largely increased the news audience; and in other words, it had
expanded the coverage of news and accelerated the speed of journalism and
communication.
However, the speed of handwriting as well as the number of news audience
is limited. Therefore, the task of top priority for the further development of
journalism and communication activities was to improve the way of handwrit-
ing. Then, the media for mass writing, the ordinary cheap paper, emerged.
As universally acknowledged by the whole world, China was the home-
town of papermaking. The earliest paper of mass production and low cost was
known as “Cai Hou (Marquis Cai) paper” to the Chinese. It is said that when
seeing people inconveniently use the heavy bamboo slip and expensive silk
for writing, Cai Lun made use of the royal workshop and employed skilled
craftsmen to produce a batch of good paper of high quality with raw materi-
als of bark, broken linen, broken cloth, fishing net, etc. In 105 AD, Cai Lun
dedicated the paper to the central government and won the praise and reward
by the Emperor He of Han, who ordered the nationwide popularization of
this kind of paper. As a matter of fact, Western Han paper (Lop Nur paper,
Baqiao Paper, Jinguan Paper, Fufeng Paper, etc.) had been discovered for sev-
eral times since the twentieth century, so the origin of papermaking in China
is believed to be two or three hundred years before Cai Lun. Therefore,
the Western Han was the earliest historical period when papermaking was
invented as well as the age of the birth of ancient physical paper in human
culture and communication history.
The application of paper and ink laid the material basis for the invention
of printing; while the seal and stone tablet rubbings provided the technol-
ogy foundation. The invention of printing had led to the major revolution of
journalism and communication and realized the qualitative improvement of
“writing method.” Since then, the news could be printed in a large number,
considerably expanding the scope of news dissemination. Karl Marx regarded
the printing as “the lever of human civilization.”
In the late Sui and early Tang Dynasty, the start of printing, wood-block
printing was invented. Until the Song Dynasty under the reign of Emperor
Renzong (AD 1041–1048), a talented printer Bi Dan had invented mova-
ble type, but it was a regret that the technology had not been popularized at
that time. It was until the late thirteenth century in the Yuan Dynasty when
agriculturalist Wang Zhen invented the movable wooden type and the runner
composing frame that the movable type was applied to practices. The inven-
tion of movable type by Chinese was 400 years earlier than the invention of
lead alloy movable type by Johannes Gutenburg from Germany.
Printing was firstly used to print books. In the west, printing was utilized
to print the brochures for religious propaganda in early days. Since the sev-
enteenth century, journalism and communication activities had gained rapid
development depending on printing. The rise of printing news had changed
the world enormously and conduced to substantial changes of people’s jour-
nalism and communication concepts. The technology of rapid printing and
the basic concept of newspaper had been combined in the 1830s, when the
modern newspapers, the first real mass media, was born.
1.2 Journalism and Communication Activities

in the Era of Capitalism
Karl Marx once pointed out in his Capital that “The initial sprout of capi-
talistic production had sparsely emerged in some cities on the Mediterranean
coast in the 14th and 15th century.”1
The news media for public communication has developed for over
500 years since the first “newsletter” was printed. The historical data shows
that along with the approach of the era of capitalism, the handwritten and
printed newssheet successively emerged in Europe from the fourteenth cen-
tury to the sixteenth century. World navigation was rapidly developing in this
period, when the shipping line from Europe to the east was opened (1498),
the New World was discovered (1492) and the trade on the Mediterranean
coast and near Netherland in Europe became unprecedentedly prosperous. At
latest in the fourteenth century, some people started to get paid to provide
1 Karl Marx, Capital, 1st edition, Page 784, Vol. 1, Beijing, People’s Publishing House, 1975.
20 B. TONG
irregular leaflets (newsletters) on the business conditions, sailing dates, for-

eign political and economic conditions and foreign customs and practices to
wealthy merchants and noblemen in some commercial cities. These hand-
written leaflets could be considered as the forerunner of modern newspapers.
Only a few of these newsletters have been preserved by now, such as the News
on Turkey Invading Europe in Augsburg of Germany in 1482 and the Record
on Charles V Invading Rouen issued in Paris in 1485.
Since the latter half of the fifteenth century, metal movable type, the great
achievement made by Johann Gutenberg from Germany (1395–1468), had
been widely spread in Europe. In the last few decades of this century, printers
in different countries of Europe started to publish the movable-type prints
and report on major incidents at home and abroad. During this period, the
journalist, a new professional in collecting, writing and selling news, emerged.
Some major trade cities had the centers for news collection and exchange.
Though the feudal rulers in some countries adopted strict policies to suppress
the publishing activities, the journalism and communication sector of great
vitality inevitably ushered in its prosperity. The representative prints in this
period included the follows:
1566: Notizie Scritte was released in Venice in Italy, with the sheet-fed print of
Venice Gazzetta.
1568: The single-page irregular newspapers Extraordinari-Zeitungen was
released in Germany.
1583: The irregular newsbook was released in Frankfurt in Germany, which was
changed to two issues a year since 1588 and became the earliest regular pub-
lication in the world.
1590: The weekly Avisa was released in Germany and continued to run until
1609.
1594: The Mercurius Gallo-Belgicus was released in Germany, one issue half a
year, running until 1635.
In the early seventeenth century, capitalism had been expanding in

Europe. In Netherland (current Holland and Belgium), one of the most pro-
ductive areas of capitalism, the first bourgeois revolution in history against
the rule by Spain was completed between 1568 and 1648. Subsequently,
bourgeois revolutions had taken place in many countries and all of them won.
During these bourgeois revolutions, the capitalist production had achieved
further development. Many countries in Europe had established the new
postal system, and the traffic, transport and press industry were constantly
advancing. The population in Amsterdam, Paris and London had exceeded
250,000. The struggle between the emerging bourgeois and the feudal influ-
ence represented by kings and nobles was becoming increasingly fiercer and
the burghers class showed a greater interest in foreign and domestic affairs.
Some cities including Vienna, Augsburg, Cologne, Hamburg and Danzig had
become the information communication centers known far and wide. Under
these circumstances, the conditions for the publishing of regular publications

had been satisfied. In this period, the real representative modern newspapers
had come out, including the follows:
1605: The Nieuwe Tijdinghen in Holland was released.

1606: The Die Frankfurter Oberpos-tamzeitung in Germany was opened, which
was the first weekly published continuously in the world and was only closed
by 1902.
1622: The Weekly Newes was released in United Kingdom.
1626: The Magdeburgische Zeitung was established in Germany.
1631: The French weekly La Gazette was opened and was renamed to be
Gazette de France in 1762, which is the regular publication of the longest
operation time in France.
1650: Einkommenda Zeitung was opened in Germany, commonly recognized as
the first daily of the world.
Around this period, many high-frequency regular news publications had

been released in Spain, Switzerland, Sweden, Denmark Belgium, etc.
In the seventeenth century, capitalism had got a firm foothold in some
European countries and were maturing. Based on the developed man-
ufacturing, the number of big cities is increasing in Europe and the urban
population rapidly expanded. Quite a few countries had lifted the prop-
erty restriction for the right to vote and established new education systems,
leading to the significant increase of the educated people. With the educa-
tional improvement and increasing interest in politics of citizens, they had a
stronger demand on newspapers. In this period, the content of newspapers
was expanding, the frequency was higher and many daily publications took
the lead. The representative publications included the follows:
1702: Daily Courant was released as the earliest daily paper of United
Kingdom.
1749: Berlingske Tidende was released as the earliest daily paper of Denmark.
1777: Le Journal de Paris was released as the earliest daily paper of France.
1785: Daily Universal Register started publication in London, and was renamed
as The Times in 1788.
Meanwhile, modern newspapers also emerged in the United States. In

1690, the Publick Occurrences Both Forreign and Domestick was released
but was closed down only after one issue. In 1704, Boston News-Letter had
become the first newspapers exposed to continuous publishing in the United
States. In 1719, the second and the third newspapers of continuous publish-
ing (respectively Boston Gazette and American Weekly Mercury) were opened.
In 1783, the Wednesday weekly Pennsylvania Evening Post was changed to be
the first daily paper in the United States.
22 B. TONG
In Russia which was still subject to feudal rule at that time, the Beдoмocти
(News Press) personally edited by Peter I was created in 1703 as the first
modern newspapers in Russia. However, due to the suppression by the feudal
rule, Prussia Germany, where quite a few newspapers had been released in
early days, had only one official newspaper Berlinische Privilegierte Zeitung
left by 1721 and had all other newspapers banned.
The breakout of the French Revolution in 1789 had led to newspaper
industry flourishing as never before. From 1789 to the end of 1800, 1350
newspapers had been newly created in France, twice the total number of
newspapers and magazines opened in the 150 years before the Revolution.
In the nineteenth century, the capitalist system had been finally established
in Europe after the bourgeois revolution in Germany and the unification of
Germany. In this context, productivity had ushered in unprecedented devel-
opment and financial capital had been gradually formed, providing huge
input to the further prosperity of the newspaper industry. The extensive con-
struction of railways increased the speed of transport and mail delivery; the
papermaking, print and telecommunication industry had seen sharp growth;
and the rapid development of commodity economy enabled the newspapers
to gain great profits through advertising. People’s demand on information
and news were considerably increasing due to the completion of the indus-
trial revolution in the United Kingdom and the spreading of the revolution in
other countries. All these factors above had contributed to the unprecedented
development of modern newspapers.
The most important material resources had been provided to the develop-
ment of modern newspapers in the nineteenth century:
1820: The new papermaking technology was invented, lowering the paper price
by one fourth. Based on the invention of chlorine bleaching and papermak-
ing technology, the wood pulp could be used as the raw materials for paper-
making, resulting in the mass production of cheap paper.
1831: The double cylinder press was invented.
1846: The high-speed cylinder press was invented.
1863: The technology of auto continuous feed was invented.
1835: The first news agency Havas was established, while Wolffs was born in
1849 and Reuters was founded in 1851.
1845: Telegraph was established.
1850: The submarine cable between the United Kingdom and Europe was laid.
1866: The submarine cable between Europe and the American continent was
laid.
1872: The hot-metal composing machine was invented.
With the successive victories of bourgeois revolutions in Europe and the

North America, the dominant position of bourgeois had been increasingly
consolidated and the restrictions on journalism undertakings imposed by the
feudal rulers had been lifted in succession. The newspapers had transformed
from the initial “newsletter” to weekly or quarto or folio daily and presented
the content and form of contemporary newspapers. The printing industry had
been finally separated from the press, while the newspapers had been divided
from magazines. The small private workshops or small enterprises had devel-
oped to be big profitable enterprises that are indispensable to the party, gov-
ernment and industrial financial capital.
The Industrial Revolution had brought two outcomes to the world news-
papering. Firstly, the proletarian newspaper that bore the opposite social mis-
sion against the bourgeois had emerged in the 1820s; and secondly, the cheap
newspapers featuring the qualities of mass media appeared in the 1830s. As
another result of the further development of capitalist newspapering, many
newspaper groups emerged in the late nineteenth century.
In the twentieth century, the newspaper industry ushered in the new his-
torical period of multimedia coexistence.
1920: The KDKA, a commercial radio of Westinghouse Electric Corporation

from the US established in Pittsburgh, started news broadcast.
1936: The first television station of the world was established in the United
Kingdom and started TV program broadcast.
1957: The Soviet Union launched the first artificial earth satellite of the world,
and the futurist John Naisbitt pointed out that this satellite opened the new
era of global satellite communication.
1962: France and the United States had respectively launched their communica-
tion satellite successfully.
1946: The first electronic computer ENIAC according to historical records
was invented in the United States, which blazed a trail in the road of the
new information technology revolution centering on the computer technol-
ogy, multimedia technology, satellite communication technology and fiber
technology. Since the 1990s, the large computer database has been applied,
turning a new page of human journalism and communication depending on
network communication.
American scholars have proposed a standard that media will become mass
media when the users account for one-fifth of the total population of the
country. With the United States as an example, based on the standard of 50
million users, it took 38 years for the radio to become mass media, compared
to 13 years of TV, 10 years of cable TV and only 5 years of the Internet. By
June 30, 2001, the number of computers connected to the Internet reached
10.02 million, having grown by 54% compared to the same time in 2000;
and the total number of netizens reached 26.5 million, with a growth rate of
approximately 57% compared to the same time of the last year. The Internet
is also rapidly developing in Japan, Hong Kong China and some other coun-
tries or regions. All these situations suggest that the human journalism and
communication activities are stepping into a brand new age.
24 B. TONG

of the Six Countries Including Germany, the United States,
the United Kingdom, France, Japan, Russia
When discussing the histories of different countries, Karl Marx once said that
the extremely similar events could lead to completely different results in dif-
ferent historical contexts. China has led a totally different path of journal-
ism and communication undertakings compared to foreign countries. The
journalism and communication histories of Germany, the United States, the
United Kingdom, France, Japan and Russia are briefly introduced here as the
background for the comparative study of Chinese and Western journalism
and communication history.
2.1 Germany
Germany had been the home to modern printing from the fifteenth to the
seventeenth centuries, when the irregular handwritten and printed journal-
ism and communication media had been popular. However, the feudal rul-
ers hated people enjoying the freedom of the press and adopted all different
measures to suppress the printed publications. Though as the home to mod-
ern newspapers, Germany failed to do more for the freedom of the press. In
the book The Mass Media of Communication in Federal Germany, Hermann
Meyn, the current chairman of the German Journalists Association, stated:
“The struggle for the freedom of the press has been essentially the strug-
gle to get rid of books and newspapers examination. Soon after Johannes
Gutenburg invented printing (around 1450), the church and the govern-
ment had issued many regulations and stipulated that any book or newspapers
could not be printed or communicated without the prior approval (examina-
tion).” “The strict regulations on the examination of books and newspapers
in Carlsbad decrees (1819) had completely silenced the ‘political voice’ in
German newspapers and magazines. The freedom of press was only temporar-
ily restored by 1848 revolution.”
By reviewing the history of Germany, the home to modern newspapers, we
can find some useful points.
2.1.1 Development of German Journalism Undertakings Before the World

War II
Johannes Gutenburg had invented the lead movable type in Mainz of
Germany around 1450, improving the scale of literal communication that
handwritten materials could never compare. The Avisa born in Wolfenbuettel
and the Relation born in Strasbourg turned Germany into the birthplace
of modern newspapers. Subsequently, Holland had its first newspaper in
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– Már mint én? – szólt szintén súgva – hát rossznak tartja az
olyan embert, aki nem bolond?
Éva durcásan visszakapja a kezét, amit eddig a pulton nyugtatott,
hadd paskolja a segéd, ha kedve tartja.
– Ha így beszél velem, akkor ajánlom magamat.
Blum úr nem ezt akarta. Súlyt vetett arra, hogy kollégái némi kis
bizalmaskodáson érjék a szép hölggyel s gondoljanak felőlük, amit
akarnak.
– Bocsánat, – szólt kissé elkeseredetten, – de végre is át fogja
látni, hogy eddig csak a bolondját járatta velem.
Éva hidegen biggyeszti a száját.
– Azt akarja, hogy egyszerűen az ölébe hulljak? Férfi dolga, hogy
győzzön és nem férfi, aki csak kényelmesen akar győzni.
Blum úrnak erre fejébe száll a vér.
– Jól van, – szólt eltökélten – én ezzel is beérem. Most már
legalább tudok valamit. Ha csak erő kell, hála istennek, az van.
– Ez már beszéd, – kacag Éva is, – nem szeretem a kunyoráló,
pipogya embereket.
Blum úr szeme most ravaszul csillan.
– Új mintáink jöttek, nem akarná megnézni?
– Szívesen, de minek is? Úgy sem vásárolok.
– Nem baj, – buzgólkodik a segéd – ha meglátja, tudom, hogy
kedvet kap rá.
– Kedvet kaphatok rá, – nevet Éva – hanem pénzem egyelőre
nincs.
Blum úr, aki csak arra gondol, hogy ő most erős lesz, legyint a
kezével.
– Ne beszéljünk erről. Csak nézze meg.
– No hát mutassa.
– Tessék erre jönni, még nincsenek beraktározva, a kis
magazinban vannak még.
Éva mintha egy darabig habozna, aztán elszánja magát.
– Jól van.
És követi Blum urat egy keskeny falközön át a hátulsó traktusba,
onnan egy kis ajtó nyilt előtte a kis magazinba. Kicsi helyiség, tele
ládákkal, szövetekkel s csak egy vak gázlámpa ég benne.
– Tessék leülni, – szól Blum úr reszkető hangon, aztán hirtelen át
akarja karolni a leányt, de nem sikerül neki.
– Előbb lássuk a mintákat, – szól Éva biztató mosollyal.
– Maga kegyetlen, – felel a segéd és még egyszer szerencsét
próbál. – Éva kisasszony, csak egyetlen, csak egy icike-picike
csókot!
– Már megint könyörög – szól rá Éva szemrehányóan.
– Igaza van – mondja a segéd és kiegyenesedik, – de meg fog
ezért fizetni, isten bizony, hogy megfizet érte.
Éva elpirul, úgy mondja:
– Ez már beszéd.
És Blum úr most már teljes önkivületben elébe rakja a legszebb
és legdrágább mintákat s beszél és magyaráz neki s nem is tudja,
mit mond. Éva ezt az időpontot találja legalkalmasabbnak s hirtelen
rászól:
– Hát ebből vágjon le öt métert és küldje el rögtön a Maison
Annába.
Blum úr, aki az üzleti részen túl akar esni, fogja a métert, meg az
ollót, s öt méter helyett hetet vág le.
– Hanem az ön lelke rajta, Blum úr, én csak egy félméter satint
akartam venni, erre a szövetre se szükségem, se pénzem.
– Jól van, jól – mondja Blum úr – majd fizeti akkor, amikor
felhasználta.
Ezzel kibujik a pult alól s mielőtt Éva csak gondolt volna reá,
átkapja a karjaival és mohón az ajkát keresi. Éva már nem tud
védekezni, a foga közé szorítja ajkait, úgy tűri nyögve a férfi
ostromát s mikor nagy nehezen kiszabadítja magát, félrefordítja
arcát, hogy rejtse haragját meg az undorát.
– Úgy-e – szólt Blum úr lihegve és diadalmasan – tudok én erős
is lenni.
– Menjen – szól Éva és elfödi arcát. Erre Blum úr meg akarja
ismételni a támadását, de Éva most már résen van.
– Ne, ne, elég volt mostan.
– De csak most – elméskedik a segéd.
– Hívja az inast és küldje el rögtön a szövetet.
– Ezt csak azért mondja, hogy ne legyünk tovább egyedül – véli
az okos ember. – Hát jól van, tudja Éva kisasszony, igaza van, ha
csak amolyan könnyen hódíthatnám meg, nem is törném magamat
utána. Móric!
És berohan Móric s már tudja, miről van szó, hogy neki most a
nyakába kell kerítenie a lábát és csomagot vinni.
– Ezt rögtön elviszed a Maison Annába és mondod, hogy
nagyságos Dermák kisasszony küldi. Hol a kalapod, kölyök?
Móric rohan a kalapjáért, Éva meg biztatóan, kacérkodva
csillogtatja szemét a fiatal emberre, aki kezében morzsolja vékony
ujjait, egyenként megnyomogatván őket.
– Isten vele – szól Éva s csöndesen kacag azzal az érzéki, najádi
kacagással, mely a férfit őrültté teszi s melyből igéretet ért mindenre,
amit csak gondol.
– Mikor láthatom? – szól Blum úr forró hangon.
– Majd írok – súgja Éva és könnyű főhajtással ismét kisuhan az
ajtón, gyorsan, hogy Blum úr utól ne érje s amint az utcai üzletbe ér,
gyors pillantással kutatja, nem érkezett-e még meg a tulajdonos s
lehajtott fővel, a ruháját szorosra fogva, kisuhan az utcára.
– Megvan! – gondolja magában és felsóhajt. Szinte kipihente
ennek a hadjáratnak a fáradalmait, amint most ismét nekiindult a
koronaherceg-utcának az utolsó, a legsúlyosabb tusára, melynek
ellenében a maga szegénységében tehetetlennek érezte magát,
mivel asszonnyal kell megvívnia.
Félelem is gyötörte, a szíve is dobogott és vergődő
aggodalmában fel is sóhajtott magában: hát érdemes? Nem volna
jobb, mint a huga, perkál szoknyában és viseltes cipőben járni, dolog
után látni, mint így küzdeni, hazudni, tűrni és megalázkodni azért a
cifra hazugságért, semmittevésben jobban kifáradni, agyongyötrődni,
mint a legsúlyosabb munkában? Igen, de amikor olyan irtózatos
szégyen a meglátszó szegénység, mikor oly szörnyű szenvedés a
leszállás a mélybe, a kivetkőzés a megszokott állapotból. Nem neki
kell ez a félig kikoldult, félig kicsalt cifraság, hanem a világnak.
Szívesen járna rongyokban, ha észre nem vennék s nem gondolnák:
ni, a Dermák Éva most rongyokban jár, mert nincs, aki selyembe
öltöztesse. Igaz: aki ismeri, tudja, honnan tellett eddig szép ruhára,
de mégis félig önáltatással, félig naivsággal önmagában tartotta a
hitet: ha most is jól öltözködik, amikor ez az ember nincs már, akkor
bebizonyította, hogy azelőtt sem volt. Nem gondolt arra, hogy ebből
mást is lehet következtetni, ami sokkal természetesebb, azt, hogy
eszerint más valakije van az első helyett. Ha eszébe is jutott,
egyszerűen kijelentette, hogy azt nem hiszi róla senki. Olyan könnyű
okoskodással győzni, amikor az ember csak önmagával vitatkozik.
A Kalap-utcában, a régi Athenæum-épülettől a harmadik házban,
ütött-kopott, csákány alá érett kis kétemeletes ház kapuja fölött fakult
a nagy firmatábla: Maison Anna női divatszalon. Ott fordult be Éva,
kínos köhögéssel, a keskeny csigalépcsőn megállt s míg fölért az
első emeletre, háromszor fújta ki az orrát, pedig nem volt náthás.
Vajjon itt van-e már a szövet? Bizonyára itt lesz, ez pedig nagyon
megkönnyítené a dolgát. Éppen amikor az utolsó lépcsőre ért, nyilt a
piszkos, hajdan fehérre festett szárnyas ajtó és kidőlt belőle a kis
Móric. Amint megismerte Évát, lekapta boglyas fejéről lyukas
kalapját és szeplős, csontos arcát alázatosan ráirányította:
– Elhozta? – kérdi Éva gépiesen, – várjon csak.
Kinyitja bugyellárisát és abból kihalászván megmaradt négy
krajcárját, odaadja a fiúnak:
– Nincs több aprópénzem, majd máskor.
A fiú megköszöni és elrohan, már a vérében van, mint a nyúlnak,
hogy folyton és mindenki elől meneküljön.
Éva pedig, mint a színésznő, aki a végszóra várva, már hangolja
magát, kinyújtja derekát; szigorúan összeszorítja a száját, az állát
kissé a mellének feszíti, aztán istennek ajánlva magát, nagy zörejjel
nyitja az ajtót.
Valami várakozó szalonféle volt ez. Egy ripszgarnitura,
megfeketülve és kifényesedve a sok használattól, egy pattogatott
politurás szalon-asztal, a falak tele ragasztva divat ujságok képeivel.
Amint nyilt az ajtó, megcsilingeltette a fölébe akasztott
rézcsöngetyűt. A belső ajtó nyitva volt, látszottak a függönytelen,
utcára nyíló ablakok, meg egy csomó vászonbáb, hol meztelenül, hol
megaggatva készülő ruhákkal.
Tágas kétablakos szoba volt, a mennyezetnek a belső falba
szakadó festéséről ítélve, valamikor még nagyobb. Az ajtó mellett
egy óriási fehér cserépkandalló merengett az elmult régi időn,
amikor a mostani szabószalon még valami nagy úrnak a díszterme
volt s neki is más volt a rendeltetése, mint hogy mindennemű lim-
lommal, mustrakártyákkal, gombostű-skatulyákkal, rossz vasalóval,
szövetmaradékokkal és üres kávéscsészékkel tele legyen rakva.
Egy óriási, puhafa rámás állótükör, meg néhány kopott vörös
bársony karosszék némi úriasságot iparkodott a szoba karakterének
adni, de hiába. A függönytelen ablakok pattogatott keretei és
mosatlan üvegei, a falak piszkossága, meg a padló szemetje a
lomposság tanyájává tette ezt a fogadó szalont.
Az előszoba riadozó csengetyűje egy vékony dongájú kis
varróleányt csalt az elfogadóba. Csak a fejét dugta rajta be, aztán
hirtelen visszahúzta. Éva néhány pillanatig magára maradt és a
tükör előtt igazgatta az arca kifejezését. Mi tagadás benne?
komolyan szorongott. A Maison Anna úrnője nem könnyen kezelhető
egyéniség.
Nyomban meg is jelent, az idegennek kissé sajátságos, de
Évának már megszokott módon. Az ajtót úgy föltépte, hogy belül
odacsattogott a falhoz, aztán megjelent, maga előtt egy kerekes
karosszéket tologatva, melyben egy őszbajuszú, aszottképű ember
ült, pipával a szájában, pokróccal betakart lábbal. Isten tudja,
hányszor történik ez meg vele naponta, mióta jár így, mégis minden
egyes esetben felesel az asszonnyal és próbál fordítani a dolgok
rendjén.
– Megint nem fognak dolgozni – mondja rikácsoló, ingerült
hangon – kárba vesz legalább egy félóra, pedig ha benn maradnék,
vigyázhatnék rájuk.
– Az én károm, – felelt ridegen az asszony, miközben a köszönő
Évára szegzi átható, lobogó tekintetét, mely tele van
elcsigázottsággal, keserűséggel és gyanúval. – Ismerlek már, azért
maradnál bent, hogy enyelegjél velük. Nem szégyenled magad?
– Istenem – nyögi a béna ember – hogy lehet valaki ilyen
szörnyen féltékeny? Nézze csak kisasszony, – fordult panaszos
hangon Évához – tehetetlen, beteg öreg ember vagyok és a
feleségem…
– Hallgass! – rivalt rá az asszony, – családi dolgok nem tartoznak
ide. Jó napot, kisasszony – kiált harsány hangon Évára. – Most
hozták a szövetjét, de abból ugyan nem lesz semmi, hogy meg is
csináljam. Megtartom részfizetésnek a tartozása fejében.
Kicsi, sovány asszony volt, csakúgy lógott szürke
háziszoknyájában, melyet a nyakán egy földig érő skót sállal kötött
össze, amit elül a pongyola nyílásán néhány hanyagul alkalmazott
gombostű iparkodott elősegíteni. A haja sötétfekete s ahol simára
volt fésülve, acélosfényű is. Kicsi, sovány arcából kimeredtek a
vékony csontok, a homlok kicsi, keskeny és szögletes. Vénnek,
csúnyának látszott, de a szeme fényének olykor kitáguló nagysága
fiatalságra vallott, amolyan elfonnyadt, korán hervadt és lelkileg
kiszáradt ifjúságra, melyet a gondok, a küzdelmek, csalódások és
szenvedések teremtenek.
Éva belül összerezzent e kemény, szinte goromba kifakadásra
(úgy számította, hogy a szövet majd hitelképessé teszi a varrónő
előtt is), de rögtön összeszedte magát. Dacosan hátraszegte a fejét,
homlokát összeráncolta s amúgy foghegyről, félig elfordulva, lassan,
élesen szólt:
– Tán nem tudja, kedves… hogy is hívják? hogy kivel beszél,
előbb jó volna meggyőződni, hogy van-e rá ok, mielőtt valakinek
ilyen hangon a szemébe vágja gorombaságait.
A varrónő egy pillanatra meghökkenve nézett Évára, aztán
keskeny ajka összeszorítva lekonyult s halk, harapós kacagással
mondta:
– Fizessen a kisasszony, akkor hinni fogok az ilyen beszédnek.
Elébb nem.
– Hol a számlám? – kiáltott Éva, most már felháborodva
(magában gondolta: nini, hiszen én most komolyan fel vagyok
háborodva, mintha csakugyan volna pénzem). – Rögtön kérem a
számlámat.
– Meglesz, – szólt kurtán az asszony. Emil, írd ki a kisasszony
számláját.
– Megint írni? – nyög az ember a tolószéken, de a felesége már
megindította és odagurította a kandalló mellé, ahol egy kicsike
kopott íróasztalon voltak a blanketták, meg a füles üzleti könyv.
– Szaporán, szaporán, – türelmetlenkedett Éva – nincs kedvem
tovább várni a számlára, mint maga a pénzére.
– Siess, – mordult az asszony az emberre, aki reszkető kezében
forgatta a könyvet és sehogy sem tudott a Dermák Éva kontójára
akadni.
Erről különben Éva maga is gondoskodott. A türelmetlenség
minden látható jelével odaállt ő is a kis íróasztal mellé s eközben
ruhája mintegy véletlenségből odaért az ember lábtakarójához.
A sorvadásos ember erre elkezdett reszketni. Megigézve emelte
szemét Éva arcához, aztán, mintegy félve, hogy ez elárulja és a
felesége rácsördít, leszegte fejét és reszkető kézzel, elkábult fejjel,
nem is gondolva a céljával, kezdett a füles könyvben őrülten össze-
vissza lapozni. A szeme eközben kidülledt, majd fáradtan
lecsukódott, minden arcizma rángatódzott s a melléből hörögve
szállt föl a lélekzet. Éva undorodva és szánakozva fordult el e
látványtól s a szerencsétlen mohó reflexmozdulattal utána hajlott.
Nem tartott egy percig sem. Az asszony is látta urának e
fölgerjedését. Tán azt hitte, hogy csak ő vette észre, hirtelen ott
termett és haragosan kitépte kezéből a könyvet:
– Téged se lehet semmire se használni. Különben jól van,
megelégszem egy részletfizetéssel is. Csak látni akarom, hogy
egyáltalán akar-e vagy tud-e fizetni.
– Én meg – szólt Éva hidegen – nem vagyok se csaló, se koldus
és nem vagyok hajlandó holmi igazolásokat bemutatni arra, hogy
magának munkát és keresetet adhassak.
– Be lóhátról beszél a kisasszony, – pattogott most már az
asszony – mikor legutóbb itt volt, egészen más hangon beszélt
hozzám. Akkor kedves, édes Bernstockné voltam, meg hogy csak ez
egyszer segítsek rajta. No hát, kedves kisasszony, ha olyan
goromba, akkor fizessen.
Ezzel maga fogta a könyvet, egy-kettőre felütötte az Éva lapját és
póklábú, ügyetlen vonásokkal kiírta belőle: Dermák Éva kisasszony
– számla-maradék 175 frt 50 kr.
Erre Éva nem volt elkészülve. Nem sikerült, gondolta magában
és elképedt.
– Hát itt van, fizessen! – kiáltott a kegyetlen asszony
diadalmasan és látszott az arcán, hogy szinte szeretné, ha áldozata
nem tudna fizetni.
Ez a helyzet elviselhetetlen volt.
– Szaldirozva van? – kérdi kurtán.
– Az egészet?
– Az egészet! – kiáltott Éva most idegesen. Valami új ötlete
támadt, amitől magában megijedt, de szemben ezzel az asszonnyal
megszünt minden habozása.
– Most majd én írok, – szólt és odatelepedett a kis asztalhoz.
Hamarosan két sort vetett papirosra.
– Itt a pénze, – szólt rá se nézve az asszonyra – és most
köszönöm a szívességét, nem dolgoztatok többet magánál.
– Mi ez, mi ez? – szól Bernstockné és szeméhez viszi a papirost.
«Kedves Miklós, fizesse ki ezt a potomságot. Éva.» – Ah – tette
hozzá megváltozott hangon – tehát ismét összejöttek?
– Amint látja, – mondja Éva egykedvűen.
Bernstockné néhányszor forgatta a cédulát jobbra, balra,
összeszorította az ajkát, tétova szemében látszott a gondolkodás,
meg a habozás, végül határozott: a cédulát a fiókjába zárta s most
már keményen ugyan, de minden indulat nélkül mondta:
– Nem akarom azt az urat háborgatni, aztán nem is ő, hanem
maga tartozik nekem. Majd ha összekerül vele, kérje el ön tőle a
pénzt. Mi legyen abból a szövetből? Alj?
– Alj.
– Milyen blouse kell hozzá?
Éva hamarosan elgondolta, hogy ha most a réginek átalakítását
kívánja, ezzel gyanút ébreszt.
– Vannak mintái? – kérdi.
– Vannak, különben a divatlapot is nézheti, keressen magának
façont. Hja, – tette hozzá, mintegy végleg expiálni akarván előbbi
rideg viselkedését – így már rendjén van. Nekem azt mondták, hogy
a kisasszony csak úgy éli világát, nem érintkezik urakkal, sőt vissza
is utasít mindenkit, nekem pedig hever a drága pénzem.
– Ami azt illeti, kedves Bernstockné, – szólt Éva most már
szintén békülő hangon – arról ne is beszéljünk. Hiszen nem kell
hozzá nagy tudomány, hogy az ember megbecsüljön egy ruhát,
amelyért ön százötven, meg kétszáz forintot számít.
– Nálam ilyen az ár, – felelt Bernstockné – s az én vevőim nem
sokallják, mert kapnak valamit a pénzükért. Hát te itt mit
gargarizálsz? – fordult most az urához, aki magában összeroskadva,
eddig majd elnyelte Évát a szemével, miközben félig nyitott szájjal
egyre hörgött. Amint a felesége rászólt, nyomban elhallgatott,
lesütötte a szemét és közömbösséget erőltetett arcára.
– Még mindig beteg Bernstock úr? – kérdi most Éva.
– Még mindig? – fakad ki keserűen az asszony, – ilyen volt
mindig és ilyen is marad. Itt lóg rajtam, mint a kolonc s amilyen
tehetetlen és nyomorék, még sem elégelte meg a kicsapongásait,
csak lányokon jár az esze.
A béna ember arcán sűrűn nyüzsögtek a ráncok, szeme
mérgesen rávillant a feleségére.
– Hazugság! – rikolgatta – hazudik, hazudik, hazudik! Hanem
féltékeny, mindenkire féltékenykedik s azt akarná, hogy haljak meg.
Ó, ismerlek én… te…
Az asszony odalépett az urához, mire ez nyomban elhallgatott,
csak szuszogott magában, mint a gyerek.
– S maga elhinné, hogy én erre féltékeny volnék? Erre? Akit
utálok, mivel megcsalt. Megházasodott, miután aljas teremtésekkel
tönkretette az egészségét és titkolta a betegségét! Eléggé sajnálom
könnyelműségemet, hogy úgy becsapattam magamat. Nézzen rám,
kisasszony, nem vagyok én elég fiatal és ha akarnék, nem akadna
nekem is férfi? Hanem én becsületes asszony vagyok s még ehhez
a nyomorulthoz is hű akarok maradni. Neki meg egyre máson jár az
esze, – bánnám is én! Hanem az orvos figyelmeztetett és a lelkemre
kötötte, hogy vigyázzak rá.
Az ember nem ágált többé, – amikor ilyen meztelenül beszéltek a
bajáról, megtört a képmutatása. Feje lehanyatlott s félig csukott
szemmel szürkén bámult maga elé. Igen, betegség ez, csúf, átkos,
kínzó betegség, az isten büntetése, amiért visszaélt az egészség
boldogságával.
Éva pedig, aki már ismerte ezt a különös házaséletet,
megborzadt és nem ettől a férfitől, nem ettől az asszonytól, akinek
rideg küzdelmébe az élettel rikítóan bevilágított családi állapotának
az a sivár undoksága, hanem a férfitól, meg a szerelemtől általában.
Úgy érezte, mintha ez az emberrom végső állomása volna minden
férfinak és erre az állomásra az ő és a hozzá hasonlók existenciáin
keresztül jutna. A képzelete elé tárult a Deméndy Miklós képe is, a
szép, nagy, az erős és gazdag Miklósé, aki most egy feleség oldalán
él s ha ő hagyná, ott is maradna nyugodtan, emberségesen és
boldogan. De nem hagyja, vissza csábítja és ilyen emberré teszi
majd, hogy tovább is szép ruhát viselhessen.
És ezzel leült Bernstocknéval és buzgón és behatóan
megvitatták a derék façonját, aprólékosan végignézvén a legújabb
párisi divatlap képeit.
Jó egy órába tartott, amíg végeztek. Holnapután már próbálni
jöhet, az egész ruha pedig kész lesz a jövő hét elején. A béke
teljesen helyreállt, Bernstockné nem beszélt többé pénzről és Éva
búcsúzóra a kezét is nyujtotta neki, amit az asszony csak az ujjai
hegyével fogott meg. Bernstock felé fejével biccentett, hanem a
beteg ember nem hagyta annyiba, nyujtogatta feléje a kezét, hangos
köszönéssel és Éva kénytelen volt neki is kezet adni. A keztyűjén
keresztül is érezte a csontkéz fagyasztó nedvességét, mely
görcsösen markolta és szorongatta, mint a halál, hogy alig tudta
magát kiszabadítani.
Tehát ez a csata is meg van nyerve, legalább egyelőre, amíg a
hazugság ki nem pattan. És bizony ki fog pattanni, talán még a
munka szállítása előtt. Akkor aztán mi lesz? Szüksége van rá,
mindenáron, ragyognia kell, meg kell látszani rajta, hogy most is a
régi, elegáns Éva. Sajátságos lappangó terv volt ebben a
vágyakozásban, nem vallotta be magának, de úgy volt vele: a
kiöltözködéssel vissza fogja hódítani a barátját. Szinte fixa ideává
fejlődött ki benne a remény, hogy mire ez a ruha elkészül, addig
okvetlenül találkozni fog vele s újból meghódítja majd.
Most, amint ismét nekivágott a Ferenciek-terének, ez a
kétségbeesett felbuzdulásban megfogamzott ötlete tartotta fogva, a
pár sorral, mely most ott hever a Bernstockné asztala fiában. Ugyan,
ha Bernstockné elküldte volna neki, nem fizette volna-e ki? Dehogy
is nem, ez bizonyos. És aztán! Hiszen ez volna a legjobb módja az
összeköttetés helyreállításának. Egyszeriben tisztába, rendbe jönne
minden. Ejnye, jó is volna, ha az a cédula útra kelne.
Hátha ezt a kínban fogant ötletet végrehajtaná? Csak el kellene
küldeni, nem a pénz miatt, de az is jól esnék, hanem főképen a
következések miatt. Egyszeribe tisztában volna mindennel. Nem
kellene még vagy tíz keserves napot töltenie, amíg elkészül a ruhája
s megnyitják a képviselőházat, nem kellene ottan is csak remegve
lesni a jó szerencsét és a bizonytalan eredményt: észreveszi-e s ha
igen: fölszól-e hozzá, akarja-e újra kezdeni a régi viszonyt?
Nem követte tovább e gondolatot. A nagy idegmegfeszítés után
fáradtnak és nyomorultnak érezte magát. Semmi reménye, semmi
biztonsága. Most érezte csak, hogy az egész élete mennyire
egyetlen eshetőségre van építve és az az eshetőség milyen gyönge.
Nem olyan férfi ez a Deméndy, mint annyi más. Ő hű volt hozzá, a
kedveséhez, mennyivel inkább lesz majd hű a feleségéhez. Nem,
nem a Bernstockok fajából van faragva ez az ideális ember, akit
csak ő ismer gyöngének és nyomorultnak. Az a Bernstock! Még
emlékszik rá, milyen szép, fiatal ember volt ezelőtt három
esztendővel, amikor elvette a Steiner Annát, a maison Anna
tulajdonosnőjét. Az már vén leány volt akkor, legalább harminc-
harminckét esztendős, szenvedélyes és szép is volt. Vakon ment
ebbe a házasságba, mivel sóvárgott a férjhezmenés után. Szerette
is ezt az embert, aki olyan ügyesen tudott beszélni, olyan szépeket
mondani és aranyhegyeket igérni. Ügynök volt és irtózatos életet élt,
nappal kártyázott és éjszaka leányokkal mulatott. S alig hogy
megházasodott, kiütött rajta a szörnyű baj, a betegség. A
mézeshetek még el sem multak s már oda került a kerekes székbe.
Szegény asszony, mennyi oka lehet a szívtelenségre. És mégsem
mond le arról az emberről, akit tehetetlenségében is egyre gyötör a
szerelmi sóvárgás. Ott tartja magánál és ápolja csikorgó foggal és
hangos szitkokkal, de nem rúgja el magától, amint joga volna hozzá.
A Ferenciek temploma elé ért és nyomorúságában kábult
álmodozásában vágyat érzett, hogy a lelkén könnyítsen. Belépett; a
nagy hajóban csak néhány szál gyertya égett s ő leborult a hideg
kőre és buzgón, kétségbeesetten imádkozott a halálhoz, hogy váltsa
meg ettől az élettől. Nagysokára megkönnyebbülten emelkedett föl,
kisurrant a kétoldalt térdepelő koldusok során át, akiknél semmivel
sem volt gazdagabb s belevetette magát az újból zsibongó utcába, a
vásárra és sétára induló sokaságba, melynek mindenik tagját
boldogabbnak hitte saját magánál. Pedig nagyon sokan a leányok és
asszonyok közül utána fordultak és csodáló irigységgel
mondogatták:
– Milyen szép termete van! Bizonyosan színésznő.
3.
Mint koldus katona mellét a vitézségi érem, úgy ékesíti a

Dermákék szegénységét a nagy faragott könyves szekrény.
Elkerültek a régi, mahagoni üvegszekrények, el a festmények, a
kényelmes bőrkarosszékek, az ezüst nászajándékok, a négy
szobára való kényelem. És elkerültek még a könyves szekrény lakói
is, mind sorba, amint a szükség az antikváriushoz kergette őket.
Kettő maradt csak meg belőle: egy öreg elnyűtt Kant, meg a
Longfellow költeményei. Ezek is kivándoroltak a könyves
szekrényből a Jani fiú iskolás vackába. A könyvek helyét most a
család ruhaneműje foglalja el, Longfellow porosan az iskolás
könyvek aljára van temetve, mivel a Jani fiú nem ért angolul, de
legfelül van Kant, mivel németül tud s egyre bujja ezt a mélységes,
érthetetelen könyvet s érteni véli, amiket kiolvas belőle, mikor este,
dolgai végeztével odaül az asztalhoz és beletemetkezik.
Hét óra felé a könyves szekrénynek még más hivatása is van. A
kiugró párkányra terül egy piros szalvéta, arra meg sorjába három
karaj kenyér kerül. Egy a Janié, egy a Sárikáé és egy az Éváé.
Össze-vissza, a mama porciójával együtt félkilót nyomnak, ára hat
krajcár. Meg van terítve vacsorára. És ezzel ki van tűzve a
fürgeségnek, meg az életrevalóságnak a pályabére is. Aki hamarább
ér haza, a Bulyovszky-utcába, az válogathat. A nagy bérház
harmadik emeletén ilyenkor tavasszal esti homály és csöndes
zsibongás uralkodik. Haza szivárognak a munkás emberek,
asszonyok, az alsóbb emeleteken a kishivatalnokok, itt-ott egy-egy
elkésett gyermekcsapat, melyet a közel városliget lombtalan fái és
korai vurstli mulatságai csábítgattak. Szegény, füstös, piszkos
környezet. Be messze esik a nagyvilágtól! Az a három darab kenyér
azonban kihat a messze távolba. A zsibárús-utcából miért törtet
lelkendezve hazafelé a kis masamódleány? A Ferenc-körútról miért
vágtat lihegve egy nyurga, éhesképű és foltosnadrágú fiú? S az
Andrássy-úton, a terézvárosi templomórára eső tekintet
következtében miért válik sietőssé a gondolataiban elmélyedt, sugár,
úri tartású, elegánsan öltözött szép hölgy járása? Hét óra van, a
kenyér ki van terítve a könyves szekrényen. Siessünk, aki előbb jön,
az kapja a legnagyobb darabot. S nemcsak azt. A kis
masamódleánynak, a Sárinak, keserves tapasztalatai vannak, a
bosszúság könnye tolul a szemébe, mikor rágondol. Neki dolgoznia
kell, neki be kell várnia a hétórai harangszót, ellenben ez az Éva
akkor mehet haza, amikor akar. Most is bizonyára otthon van már és
ma sem volt otthon ebédre. Jó ez, mert ilyenkor a mama sietve
kiosztja az ő porcióját is, de rossz is, mert ilyenkor Éva se nem szól,
se nem kérdez, hanem megeszi a másik kenyérporcióját is. Ha
ugyan éhes. Most azonban délben látta, hogy egy katonatiszt jár
utána, lehet, hogy azzal ebédelt. Be jó volna! Talán a maga kenyerét
is otthagyja, amint néhányszor megesett. De azért siessünk, hátha
nem ebédelt a katonatiszttel!
Ebből az okból, mint már tudjuk, az aggodalma nem volt
alaptalan. Éva a kapuban kissé megpihent, nagyot lélegzett, aztán
nekivágott a három emeletnek, finom szoknyáját könnyedén felfogta,
hogy az előtte járó fejkendős asszonyok és kopott ruhás
munkáslányok félő ihlettel bámultak le reá. Gőgös, rideg teremtés a
kisasszony, nem barátkozik velük úgy, mint az édesanyja. De ha
bántja is őket, természetesnek találják. Teheti: egy államtitkárnak a
szeretője.
Aztán benyit a piszkos konyhába, bal felől az ajtó résén
világosság hatol ki és rekedtes füttyszó hallszik. Haas úr, a technikus
hónapos bérlő, mint mindig, most is idehaza van már. Jobbfelől teljes
a sötétség, az ablak mellett biztos körvonalakban megismeri az
édesanyját, aki nagyobb nálánál, szikár, beesett arcú asszony. Most
is, a vak sötétségben, pápaszemmel az orrán, mélyen a himzés fölé
hajlik, úgy rontja a szemét, hogy petroleumot takarítson.
Éva nem köszön, az anyja föl se néz a munkájából. Itt nem igen
szoktak beszélgetni, hacsak nem veszekednek. Éva leteszi kalapját
s a könyvesszekrényhez lép. Ott van a három darab kenyér. Sorra
kézbe veszi őket s méregeti a súlyukat. Megtalálja a legnagyobbat
és beleharap. Aztán vetkőzni kezd. Az elegáns hölgyből két perc
alatt lompos, perkálruhás szegény leány lesz. Aztán visszadűl a
kopott, széles divánra, melyről lepattogott a bőr fénye s ki-kibújkál a
lószőr és csámcsogva eszik. Csakhamar elfogyasztotta a porcióját.
Ekkor fölkel és elveszi a másik darabot is.
– Nem hagyod?
Élesen rikácsolva, mint a kakadu szava, sivít ez a két szó az
ablak mellől. Az első, melyet reggel óta az anya leányához intézett.
Éva rá se hederít, beleharap a kenyérbe, az egyszer megindult
nyelv pedig rázúdítja a szakadatlan szidalmakat. Hogy egész nap
kószál, isten tudja merre, aztán hazajön és eleszi szegény
testvérhuga elől a kenyeret, aki dolgozik és keres. Hogy nem
szégyelli magát, hogy nem gondolkodik-e, meddig mehet ez így, mi
lesz belőle. Hogy nincs érzése még az anyja iránt sem, aki vakra
dolgozza magát, az öccse iránt, akinek a cipőjébe befolyik a víz, míg
ő selyemben pompázik. Végtelen, keserű és gyűlöletes áradozásban
önti rá édes anyja a szót, amire ő nem válaszol, csak hangosabban
csámcsog s hogy még jobban ingerelje, a kenyér elfogyasztása
után, halkan fütyülni is kezd. Végre pedig föláll, kimegy a konyhába,
ott meggyujtja a kis petroleumlámpát és behozza.
Dermákné feléje ugrik, mint a madár, ha fiókját támadják.
– Nem hagyod a lámpát? Annyi pénzed van? Félnyolckor nem
lehet lámpát gyujtani.
– Olvasni akarok, – mondja Éva kurtán. A gyenge fénynél látni az
arcát, provokáló, gúnyos mosolyra szorult a szája, hosszú, szép
pillája pedig megátalkodottan félig lehunyva.
És nem is törődve többé édes anyja átkozódásával, odaült a kicsi
négyszögletes asztalhoz, felütött egy regényt és úgy tett, mintha
egészen belemerült volna. Dermákné – mit tehetett egyebet,
voltaképpen a lányának igéző hatalma alatt állott – nagymérgesen
fogta a hímző-rámát s a széket lecsapva, kemény szitkok közepette
ő is odatelepedett az asztalhoz.
Ajtócsikorgás és rekedtes füttyszón a kőrösi lány dala hallszik.
Valaki poroszkál a konyhában, aztán a külső ajtó is megnyikordul.
Haas úr ment ki, bizonyára egy pohár vízért. Az anya hímez, a leány
olvas. Néhány perc mulva ismét nyikorog a külső ajtó és most egy
borízű férfihang halk enyelgésére fiatalos, elfojtott kacagás válaszol.
Éva fölüti a fejét, az anyja meg se moccan.
– Sonka, – mondja a férfi.
– Jó, – hallik a leány felelete – de mind megeszem ám.
– Nem bánom, még egy fél almát is adok, csak jőjjön…
Ekkor nyílik az ajtó és beront a kis Sárika. A köszönés ebben a
házban nem szokás, az ajtótól a könyves szekrényig a három lépést
a kis leány egy ugrással megteszi s a szeme körüljár a szobában, az
anyjára, a nénjére s körül az ágyra, a divánra, meg az ajtóba vert
szögekre, ahol ruhadarabok lógnak. Azt nézi, itt van-e már Jani.
Nem látván se őt, se a kalapját, az egyetlen darab kenyérről
megállapítja, hogy ez nem ő rá, hanem Janira vár, ennélfogva le
sem vetkőzve, a kezébe kapja és beleharap.
– Úgy, úgy, – mondja most keserűen Dermákné – te meg fald föl
a bátyád falatját.
– Én se jövök mulatságról, – felesel a kis leány – neki szólj, ne
nekem.
És ezzel egy-kettőre bekapta az egész porciót, aztán lecsapja
vékonyka gallérját, meg ferde kalapját és szintén odatelepszik az
asztalhoz. A két tenyere közé fogja az arcát és szétterpeszkedő
könyökeit odatámasztja az asztalhoz. Inkább unalmában, meg hogy
a nénjét bosszantsa, veszi fel újból a beszéd fonalát.
– Hát mért engeded, hogy Éva két kenyeret egyék?
Éva magában mosolyog és föltekintve olvasmányából, mondja:
– Te is megetted az ebédemet.
– A te ebédedet? – szól gúnyosan a kis leány – mintha bizony te
nem ebédeltél volna.
– Ó igen, – szól Éva – még pedig nagyszerűen, ötféle pecsenyét
és hatféle tésztát.
– Én bizony elhiszem, – szól a kis leány – de csak járj te az ilyen
ebédekre, nekem nem kell.
– Hallgatsz? – szól Éva csöndben.
– Miért? Tán te parancsolnál nekem?
– Igen, én.
– Hát próbáld meg. Még az kellene, hogy ilyennek
engedelmeskedjem.
Sértően, maróan és kárörvendően hangsúlyozta az ilyen szót.
Éva fölemelkedett és feléje ütött. A kis leány fölpattant az asztalról
és szemtelenül vihogva állt meg az ajtóban. Éva egy darabig
gyűlölködve nézett rá, aztán ismét elmerült az olvasásban.
Dermákné nem hederített rájok, amikor a leányok veszekednek, neki
nyugalma van.
A kis leány visszaült az asztalhoz és türelmetlenül izgett-mozgott.
Unatkozott is, meg valami járt a fejében. A Haas úr vacsorája, amire
meghívta. De hát félt Évától, aki soha sem engedi bemenni a
szobaúrhoz. Az imént is csak azért akart veszekedni, hogy oka
legyen kimenni a szobából. De nem sikerült, ez az Éva nagyon
türelmes. Bizonyára vaj van a fején.
Ekkor nyílt harmadszor az ajtó: haza jött a Jani. Egy kicsit liheg a
gyors lépcsőmászástól, a tüdeje nem éppen a legjobb. Bő, nem az ő
testére szabott felöltő van rajta, de a műértő zsibárús hallatlan
kopottsága, meg a bélése teljes feslettsége mellett is megismerhette
az előkelő származást. Valóban, Jani előtt ezt a kabátot egy
államtitkár viselte, persze, nem úgy, mint ő, télen is. Nagy kék szeme
van a nyurga, bibircsókos fiúnak, abban fellobog az ifjúságnak, meg
a magába merengésnek tüze, mely nem mer nyiltan kicsattogni,
mivel a szegény fiú, ebben a környezetben, másutt meg
gyámoltalanságánál fogva gúnyban és elnyomottságban
szemérmetesen és szégyenkezve rejtegeti a lelke gazdagságát,
melyről különben már elhitették vele, hogy csak gyerekes
képzelődés.
A fiú szintén nem köszön, de kezet csókol az édesanyjának.
Aztán csak egy tekintetet vet a könyvesszekrény párkányára és szó
nélkül, csak egy halk sóhajjal törődik bele a ténybe, hogy nincs
vacsora. Az ablak sarkában, a földre tett kis deszkán vannak az irkái,
meg a könyvei. – Jani a hetedik gimnáziumba jár – onnan szedi elő
azt a rejtelmes német könyvet, amelyről hallotta, hogy ebben
foglaltatik az emberi elme legnagyobb bölcsesége és
beletemetkezik. Nem érti ugyan, csak az egyes szókat, hanem
hozzákomponál magának belső tartalmat is. Olvassa Kantot s amit
kiolvas belőle, az a maga ügyefogyott eszének a gyerekes
tákolmánya.
Az édesanyja rajta nyugtatja tekintetét, önfeledten, csak egy
percre s ebben a nézésben nyilatkozik meg az egyetlen érzelmes
fölgerjedés, amit ebben a családban tapasztalhattunk. A fiú megérti
a tekintetet és szíve melegen fölsajog. Gondolja is, hogy mások
ilyenkor megölelik az édesanyjukat s hallanak néhány gyöngéd szót,
de itt csak a mivoltuk durva felét fordítják kifelé. A gyöngédség, a
szeretet meghúzódik belül, mint a vad a barlangjában. Jani meg is
szeretné nyugtatni az édesanyját: ne sajnálja nagyon, mert ma
szerencsére uzsonnát kapott. Kávét és kuglófot. Amiből nem evett
ugyan annyit, mint szeretett volna, de mégis élvezett valamit. A
Ferenc-körúton lakik ugyanis a legjobb leckéje, a Bellágné. Kábítóan
gazdag, szép, fiatal asszony, a saját házában lakik s amikor későn
uzsonnázik, vagy kedve támad másodszor uzsonnázni, akkor őt is
megkinálja egy csésze kávéval.
Bellágnéval a fiú sokat foglalkozik, olykor Kantja mellett is rá
kalandozik az esze. Mert Bellágné is áldozat, meg boldogtalan. Vagy
öt hónappal ezelőtt még szobalánya volt a Bellágéknak, de a gazdag
ember beleszeretett és feleségül vette. Hát mi van ebben, amin fönn
lehetne akadni? Csak azért, mert szegény volt, ne lehessen
tisztességes felesége egy tisztességes embernek? Nincs
műveltsége. De hát azt meg lehet szerezni és a fiatal asszony
törekszik is reá. Ezért tanul most nála írni és olvasni. Későbben majd
egyebet is fog tanulni, hiszen még csak tizennyolc éves. És mégis! A
mostohalányai nem akarják elismerni, a volt szobalányukat nem
akarják anyjuknak fogadni. Istenem, milyen előitéletes a világ. Ezt a
szép és jó asszonyt lenézik és kerülik, mivel szegény leány volt.
Nem is érintkeznek vele, a lakást kétfelé választották, külön
bejáratuk van s éppenséggel nem is látják a mostohaanyjukat. Jani
nem is látta őket soha, pedig négyszer hetenként fordul meg a
házukban. Bellágnétól hallotta, hogy felfuvalkodott hiú teremtések,
öregebbek is nálánál s csak az bántja őket, hogy a mostoha anyjuk
fiatalabb is, szebb is, meg hogy kevesebb vagyon néz majd rájok az
új házasság miatt.
Ez valószínűbb is, mint amivel a lányok rágalmazzák Bellágnét,
hogy elszédítette és fondorlattal behálózta szegény apjukat, aki oly
soká becsületes, szolid öreg ember volt, aki a gyermekei mellett
soha nem érezte még valakinek szükségét. Hát lehet valakit
szerelemre csalni? A szerelem ugyanis magasztos érzelem, mely
úgy fakad a szívben, mint a vadvirág, se beleplántálni, se
beleerőszakolni nem lehet. És Bellág úr – csak egyszer látta a
szürke, bozontos szakállú, testes öreg kocsigyártót – nemes ember,
amikor csak a szíve szavára hallgatott s nem vált rabjává a maga
előitéletének, mely a vagyon szerint különbséget tesz ember és
ember között.
A Jani fiú fölriad.
– Mit akarsz? – kérdi Dermákné Évától, aki hirtelen fölkelt.
Jani csak most vette észre, hogy a huga nincs a szobában.
– Be akarom hozni – szól Éva izgatottan – nem engedem meg,
hogy egyedül legyen bent a szobaúrral.
– Úgy? – mondja csípősen Dermákné – talán irigyled tőle azt a
falat sonkát?

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Journalism and Communication in China and The West A Study of History Education and Regulation Bing Tong Full Chapter PDF

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Journalism and Communication in

China and the West: A Study of History,

The Law of Journalism and Mass Communication Sixth

China and the West: A Pragmatic Confucian's View Yao

Disaster education, communication and engagement Dufty

A History of China in the 20th Century Lü Peng

Gender and Education in England since 1770: A Social

Deculturalization and the Struggle for Equality: A

A History of China in the 20th Century 1st Edition Lü

Data Communication and Computer Networks: A Business

More information about this series at

ISSN 2662-7981 ISSN 2662-799X (electronic)

Jointly published with China Renmin University Press

Translation from the Chinese language edition: 比较新闻传播学 (新闻传播学文库) by Bing

Cover illustration: eStudio Calamar

Being a branch of journalism and communication discipline, the comparative

In 1997, journalism and communication was listed as the first-level dis-

2TongBing, Preface of An Introduction to Theoretical Journalism and Communication, 1st

Only by extensively and carefully comparing and analyzing a great mass of

Shanghai, East China Normal University Press, 1981.

Shanghai, China Bing Tong

Since 1997 when journalism and communication had been upgraded to

embraces an impressive level of journalism and communication education and

Shanghai, China Bing Tong

1 Significance and Method of Studies of Comparative

2 Review of the Journalism and Communication History

3 Analysis of Journalism and Communication

5 The Idea on the News Values 103

4 Differences and Similarities Between the Journalism

5 Regulation and Supervision on Journalism and

6 Practice Views of Chinese and Western Journalism

7 Comparison of Chinese and Western News Education 329

Fig. 17 Chart of the Organizational Structure after Adjustment

Significance and Method of Studies

Our development owes to the inextricable influences of the world, among

1 The Purpose of Studies of Comparative Journalism

Instead of being the purpose, comparison is a means of study. An inscription

© The Author(s) 2020 1

the world. As a saying goes, “nothing can be identified without comparison”,

Beijing, People’s Publishing House, 1995.

comparing and analyzing the journalism and communication phenomena in

comparable aspects) compared to foreign countries.”3 The author strongly

2 The Object of the Studies of Comparative Journalism

Publishing House, 1994.

characteristics, functions and missions of journalism and communication

of different media in different social incidents. Therefore, the attitudes and

3 Research Methodology of Comparative Journalism

The in-depth comparison shall be conducted when seeking commonness

However, what shall be paid attention to is that the method of compar-

The vertical comparison method is applied to compare the development

study may be exposed to sophistry and relativism without static comparison

1. Written literature: the social data recorded in a form of text, such as

2. Statistical information: the social data recorded in a digital form, such

The literature analysis generally observes the following procedure. Firstly,

In the literature analysis, the formalized quantitative analysis is applied

Review of the Journalism and Communication

Generally, a subject often develops from a skill to a kind of knowledge before

© The Author(s) 2020 15

1 Historical Process of Journalism

1.1 Early Communication Activities and Media

of China, Chinese characters had been used by bordering countries to China

1.2 Journalism and Communication Activities

irregular leaflets (newsletters) on the business conditions, sailing dates, for-

1 The Purpose of Studies of Comparative Journalism

1. Written literature: the social data recorded in a form of text, such as

2. Statistical information: the social data recorded in a digital form, such

2.1.1 Development of German Journalism Undertakings Before the World