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i
Speech Science Primer

Physiology, Acoustics, and Perception of Speech
SIXTH EDITION
Lawrence J. Raphael, Ph.D.

Department of Communication Sciences and Disorders
Adelphi University
Emeritus, Department of Speech and Theatre
Lehman College, City University of New York
Bronx, New York
Emeritus, The Graduate School, City University of New York
New York, New York
Gloria J. Borden, Ph.D.

Emerita, Department of Speech
Temple University
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
Katherine S. Harris, Ph.D.

Emerita, Ph.D. Program in Speech-Language-Hearing Sciences
The Graduate Center, City University of New York
New York, New York
Haskins Laboratories
New Haven, Connecticut
i
Acquisitions Editor: Peter Sabatini

Managing Editors: Tiffany Piper, Kristin Royer
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Copyright © 2011 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
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All rights reserved. This book is protected by copyright. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or
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The publisher is not responsible (as a matter of product liability, negligence, or otherwise) for any injury resulting
from any material contained herein. This publication contains information relating to general principles of medical
care that should not be construed as specific instructions for individual patients. Manufacturers’ product
information and package inserts should be reviewed for current information, including contraindications, dosages,
and precautions.
Printed in the United States of America
First Edition, 1980

Second Edition, 1984
Third Edition, 1994
Fourth Edition, 2003
Fifth Edition, 2007
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Raphael, Lawrence J.
Speech science primer : physiology, acoustics, and perception of
speech / Lawrence J. Raphael, Gloria J. Borden, Katherine S. Harris. – 6th ed.
p. ; cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-60831-357-0
1. Speech. I. Borden, Gloria J. II. Harris, Katherine S. III. Title.
[DNLM: 1. Speech–physiology. 2. Speech Acoustics. 3. Speech
Perception. WV 501]
P95.B65 2011
612.7 8–dc22 2010041933
The publishers have made every effort to trace the copyright holders for borrowed material. If they have
inadvertently overlooked any, they will be pleased to make the necessary arrangements at the first opportunity.
To purchase additional copies of this book, call our customer service department at (800) 638-3030 or fax orders
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1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
ii
To our students, past, present, and future.
iii
Preface
Ttheconstant
he purpose of this primer has remained they must be extremely receptive to changes
through six editions: to satisfy that make the text more interesting and eas-
need for a comprehensive but elemen- ier to read for beginning students. Thus, the
tary book on speech science that is easy to reader will find that many sections of the text
understand and that integrates material on have been rewritten for clarity. The reader
the production, acoustics, and perception of who is familiar with the earlier editions of the
speech. We hope that the popularity of the book will undoubtedly notice that the cur-
first five editions and the demand for a sixth rent edition contains a new, separate chap-
is an indication that we have been successful ter on the prosody, a topic which has been,
in meeting that need. perhaps, too long underemphasized in this
A primer in any discipline is, by nature, and other basic books dealing with speech
resistant to certain types of change. Because science.
it is intended to explicate fundamental con- As in the design of the previous edition,
cepts, it will not be likely to discuss either in- we have continued to present subject matter
formation that is too advanced for the begin- in shorter segments to allow readers to iden-
ning student or untested hypotheses, no mat- tify coherent units of information that were
ter how interesting or potentially influential not as evident when they were included in
such information or theories may be. More- longer chapters.
over, the resistance to change is dictated by Students will find information about nor-
the stability of the fundamental concepts and mal communication processes that will serve
data that the primer contains. Basic informa- as a basis for comparison with the disorders
tion concerning acoustics, the acoustic anal- that they will soon be treating in the clinic.
ysis of speech, speech anatomy and physi- Each chapter of the present edition includes
ology, and speech perception, although not a section on some potential clinical applica-
immutable, changes very slowly over time. tions of the material presented. These “Clin-
ical Notes’’ are not intended to be exhaus-
NEW TO THIS EDITION tive. Rather, we hope that they may stimu-
late readers to think about other ways that
Although primers may be resistant to the information in any chapter might be put
changes in basic information, by their nature to work in a clinical setting. The need for
iv
Preface v
such information and the role of speech sci- discussion of instrumentation. Although we
ence in providing it will be made amply clear have placed most of the emphasis on the in-
throughout the text. struments and techniques that may be gener-
ally available to students in most college and
university laboratories, we also describe the
ORGANIZATION instruments and techniques that are found
in larger speech science laboratories as well,
Throughout the text we have tried to retain so that students will be familiar with them
the style of those sections that faculty and stu- when they study the research literature.
dents have found to be clear and easy to read, As we have suggested above, because this
and we have tried to improve the style of sec- book is a primer and serves as an introduc-
tions that some students and instructors have tion to a large body of information, we do
found to be less clear. We continue to pre- not presume to have covered every topic of
serve many of the classic illustrations from importance or to have dealt with the topics
the research literature in their original form included in depth. An updated selected bib-
because we think their presence increases the liography concludes each chapter, however,
value of the book. to encourage the student to pursue each sub-
With one exception, the organization of ject further and to fill in the necessary gaps.
the book remains as it was in previous edi- In an undergraduate course, the text may
tions. Section I now contains only one chap- be used as presented; in a graduate course,
ter, intended to set speech in the larger frame- many of the references might be added as
work of language and thought. The chapter required readings.
on the Pioneers in Speech Science, formerly
in Section I, has been relocated. It is now the
first chapter of Section V, the section that ANCILLARIES
treats instrumentation. Because many of the
accomplishments of the pioneers described We have revised and expanded the selection
in the chapter centered on the development of audio illustrations that can be accessed
and innovative use of instruments for the through the World Wide Web. These audio
study of speech, we feel that it provides a illustrations are referenced in the text: wher-
useful introduction to the description and use ever the reader sees the marker in the mar-
of modern instrumentation in the final two gin, he or she will be able to hear the sounds
chapters of the book. . being described by going online to the book’s
Section II (Chapter 2) contains a discus- Web site. We trust that the updated version
sion of basic acoustics, the foundation on of the audio illustrations will make the book
which the structure of speech science is built. substantially more useful and informative.
Section III (Chapters 3 through 8) deals with Words about sounds are severely limited in
speech acoustics and speech production. The how much they can convey. Technology has
new chapter on prosody is in this section. allowed us to move beyond printed words
We have attempted to integrate physiology so that the Speech Science Primer is no longer
and acoustics, as we have found that the analogous to a book about art history that
physiology of speech production is better un- contains no illustrations of the art being dis-
derstood and remembered when the sound- cussed.
producing mechanisms and processes are Instructors can also access PowerPoint
closely associated with the acoustic output. slides and chapter outlines as aids to the
Section IV (Chapters 9 to 11) treats speech planning and presentation of the material in-
perception, including material on hearing, cluded in the book.
acoustic cues, and models of speech percep- The primary audience to whom this
tion. Section V, as noted above, contains our text is addressed consists of students of
vi Preface
speech and language pathology and audiol- although many of its components have been
ogy. The book will also be of interest to stu- studied for centuries. Acoustics has long
dents of medicine, psychology, education, been an aspect of physics and engineering,
and linguistics, as each of these disciplines speech physiology a part of biology, speech
includes some aspects of the material that perception an outgrowth of both biology and
we have presented. Moreover, the text pro- sensory psychology, and speech in its rela-
vides an opportunity for students in other tion to language in general has long been
disciplines to obtain a comprehensive view of included in the study of phonetics and lin-
speech science. Although this book is clearly guistics. This book embraces each of these
introductory, it can also serve as a gradu- components and attempts to integrate them
ate text for students who never had a sur- into a unified treatment.
vey course in speech science as undergradu-
ates. Lawrence J. Raphael
It is only relatively recently that speech Gloria J. Borden
science has emerged as a unified discipline, Katherine S. Harris
Acknowledgments
Tmerous
he comments and suggestions made by speech perception are viewed as natural com-
many colleagues and students (too nu- plements of one another.
to mention here) who have used this Several people have been of great as-
book in class have been most helpful in its sistance in locating and supplying sound
revision. There is no greater corrective to recordings for use on the Web site that ac-
the mistaken idea that one has written a sen- companies this book. We thank Fredericka
tence or a paragraph as clearly as possible Bell-Berti of St. Johns University, New York;
than the puzzled question of a student who Winifred Strange and James Jenkins, for-
asks what that sentence or paragraph might merly of the Graduate Center of the City
mean. University of New York; Valeriy Shafiro of
The glossary remains largely the work Rush University Medical Center, Chicago;
of Jolie Bookspan, whose efforts in compil- and Alice Faber of Haskins Laboratories,
ing it continue to enrich the text for future New Haven. Without their help, our inven-
students. Throughout the process of revis- tory of audio samples would be far less ex-
ing the text for the fifth and sixth editions, tensive.
the first author received support from Adel- Thank you also to those who helped
phi University in the form of the access to us create the PowerPoint slides: Laura L.
laboratory and computing facilities and from Koenig, Ph.D., Long Island University and
the encouragement and interest of the fac- Senior Scientist at Haskins Laboratories, and
ulty of the Department of Communication Nassima Abdelli-Beruh, Ph.D., C. W. Post
Sciences and Disorders of the School of Ed- Campus of Long Island University.
ucation. We also thank the Ph.D. Program We are grateful to our spouses, chil-
in Speech-Language-Hearing Science of the dren, and grandchildren for cheering us on:
City University of New York for the use of to John, Becky, Julie, Tom, and Sam Bor-
its facilities. We probably would not have den; to George, Maud (White), and Louise
written the text in its present form had we Harris; and to Carolyn Raphael, Melissa,
not had the common experience of work- Frank, Andrew, and Gabriel Zinzi, David,
ing at Haskins Laboratories in New Haven, Nina, and Nathan Raphael. Finally, our
where researches in speech production and many questions have been answered with
vii
viii Acknowledgments
patience by the editor for the first edition, plied for the third, fourth, fifth, and sixth
Ruby Richardson, the editor for the second editions by our managing editors, Linda Na-
edition, William R. Hensyl, the editor for pora and Andrea Klingler, Tiffany Piper,
the third edition, John P. Butler, the editors and Kristin Royer were of value beyond
for the fourth edition, John Butler and Tim measure. We thank them all.
Julet, the editors for the fifth edition, Pamela
Lappies and Peter Sabatini, and, finally, the Lawrence J. Raphael
editor for this edition, Peter Sabatini. The Gloria J. Borden
guidance, advice, and encouragement sup- Katherine S. Harris
Contents
SEC T I O N I Introduction 1
CHAPTER 1 Speech, Language, and Thought 2
SEC T I O N I I Acoustics 16
CHAPTER 2 Acoustics 17
SEC T I O N I I I Speech Production 41

CHAPTER 3 The Raw Materials—Neurology and Respiration 42
CHAPTER 4 The Raw Materials—Phonation 69
CHAPTER 5 The Articulation and Acoustics of Vowels 88
CHAPTER 6 The Articulation and Acoustics of Consonants 114
CHAPTER 7 The Acoustics of Prosody 144
CHAPTER 8 Feedback Mechanisms and Models of Speech Production 155
SEC T I O N I V Speech Perception 186

CHAPTER 9 Hearing: The Gateway to Speech Perception 187
ix
x Contents
CHAPTER 10 The Acoustic Cues 199
CHAPTER 11 Strategies and Models 222
SEC T I O N V Instrumentation 258

CHAPTER 12 Pioneers in Speech Science 259
CHAPTER 13 Research Tools for the Study of Acoustic Analysis and Speech Perception 270
CHAPTER 14 Research Tools in Speech Science for the Study of Speech Physiology 287
APPENDIX A The Phonetic Alphabet for American English: Based on the

International Phonetic Alphabet 306
APPENDIX B Nerves Important for Speech and Hearing: Cranial and Spinal 308
GLOSSARY 309
INDEX 326
LWBK740-01 LWBK740-Raphael-v1.cls October 20, 2010 11:15
SECTION I Introduction
1
Speech, Language, and Thought

1
O chestnut tree, great rooted blossomer,
Are you the leaf, the blossom or the bole?
O body swayed to music, O brightening glance,
How can we know the dancer from the dance?
—W. B. Yeats, “Among School Children,” 1928
This book is about speech. It is about spoken various conditions within and across species.
English in particular. It is not about language For instance, a dog will growl and bare its
or thought. But before we isolate speech and teeth to keep an intruder from entering its ter-
consider it separately from thought and lan- ritory. Or a female ape will assume a sexually
guage, we need to recognize that speech is submissive and presumably inviting posture
the most common way in which we express to indicate that she is willing to mate with
our thoughts and that when we do so, we a male ape. Presumably, communications of
organize our speech by using the rules of this sort reflect thought, but the thoughts are
language. If we were to study wine grapes not expressed in speech and the forms of the
without mentioning vineyards, it would be a messages are not determined by the rules of
little like the study of speech with no recog- language.
nition of its origins in thought and language. Humans also use many other methods
We also need to recognize that speech is of communication that are not classified
only one of the ways in which humans com- as speech. We signal to others by wav-
municate with each other. It is unique to ing flags, by sending messages in Morse
humans. Code, by raising an eyebrow, by sending
The animal kingdom offer many exam- e-mail and text messages, by writing blogs,
ples of nonlinguistic signs that communicate by playing musical instruments, by putting
2
our hands on our hips, by painting pictures, SPEECH

by sticking out our tongues, by kissing, by
blushing, and by dancing. But mostly, we If you have ever been to a foreign country
speak. and heard everyone around you speaking
There are many reasons humans use a language that you do not understand, es-
speech as their primary mode of communica- pecially a language unrelated to your own,
tion. Most of those reasons relate to the fact you are likely to have had three impressions.
that speech was selectively advantageous in The first is that the spoken language seems
the evolution of our species. First, the vocal– like a long stream of complex and constantly
auditory channel of speech permitted com- changing sounds without separations. You
munication under conditions in which a dif- have no way of knowing when one word
ferent channel, such as the gestural–visual, ends and the next begins. The second im-
would fail. Using speech, messages could be pression is that this strange language sounds
sent in the dark, around corners, or when vis- extremely complex. The third impression is
ibility was limited for other reasons. Second, that the speakers, even the young children,
using speech allowed communication to oc- seem to talk much faster than speakers of
cur at the same time that manual tasks, such your language.
as tool making or food gathering, were being These impressions of a foreign language
performed. Third, as we shall see, because are more accurate as a description of speech
of the way speech is produced by the human in general than they are as a description of
vocal tract, it is both efficient and redundant. our own speech. We take our own speech
The efficiency of speech allows conveyance for granted. It seems simple to us, but the
of information more quickly than with other sounds change just as quickly as those spo-
channels of communication; the redundancy ken in a foreign language and require com-
of the speech signal allows listeners to un- plex articulatory gymnastics on the part of
derstand messages even when they are not the speaker. Despite this complexity, chil-
completely heard, because of either external dren are quite good at learning to speak, and
interference or momentary lapses of atten- by 3 or 4 years of age, they have mastered
tion. Fourth, there is evidence that human most of the difficulties of producing speech
beings are genetically equipped to respond in their native language. Although some chil-
to the speech signal. dren eventually encounter problems learn-
The use of speech as a means of convey- ing to read or write, all normal children learn
ing thought and language is thus not acci- to speak and to understand speech. They
dental or arbitrary, and it is not surprising do this with virtually no formal instruction,
that we use speech naturally and with great acquiring speech simply by hearing those
frequency. We speak in our homes, at work, around them speak. And of course, at the
at school, and at play. We speak to our ba- same time, they acquire language.
bies, to our pets, and to ourselves. But what
is speech and how does it relate to language
and to thought? If you have ever known an LANGUAGE
adult with brain damage sufficient to impair
speech, you have probably observed that the The reason we fail to understand the strange
speech impairment is accompanied by some speech of an unknown language is that we
effects on language and on some aspects of do not know the words, the sounds, or the
thought. Speech, language, and thought are rules of that language. Any language is a rule-
closely related, but we can consider them governed communication system composed
separately because they are qualitatively of meaningful elements that can be combined
different. in many ways to produce sentences, many of
4 SPEECH SCIENCE PRIMER
which have never been uttered by a speaker It is our knowledge of a creative communi-
or heard by a listener. Our knowledge of En- cation system, and that knowledge is in our
glish permits us to say and understand some- minds. How is language related to speech?
thing as prosaic as, “I have a headache.” This Noam Chomsky has called this knowledge
sentence has undoubtedly been said many of language linguistic competence to distinguish it
times, but our language also permits us to say from the use of language, linguistic performance.
and understand something completely new, Speech, then, is one of the ways in which
something we have never heard said before, we use language; it is the conversion of lan-
such as the following passage. guage to sound. There are, however, other
Speech–language pathologists and audi- modes of communication into which we can
ologists are trained to provide therapy for convert language. American Sign Language
people who have communication disorders. (Ameslan or ASL), used by the deaf, is an
Sometimes these disorders prevent people example of gestural language.
from producing speech normally; sometimes The syntactic rules of ASL differ from
the problems prevent listeners from under- those of English. Word order is often de-
standing hearing a spoken message. Provid- termined by the chronology of events or by
ing therapy for either type of disorder re- emphasized words. For example, in ASL one
quires professional training in more than one would sign “Sun this morning. I saw. Beau-
specialty and, on occasion, may demand the tiful.” rather than “It was a beautiful sun
services of more than one type of therapist. I saw this morning.” If the word “movies”
Whether we hear these sentences read should have the greatest emphasis in “I like
aloud or read them from the printed page, the movies,” an Ameslan user indicates that
we can understand them, even though have by signing “Movies I like,” with the most
never heard them before, because we share stressed word appearing at the end of the
with the author the knowledge of the rules sentence.
of English. The rules of semantics enable us The semantic rules are also different
to associate words or phrases with mean- from those of English because the ASL user
ings. We and the author have a common associates meanings with signs made by the
understanding of words such as “therapy” hands, face, and arms. The shape of hands
and “disorder.” The rules of syntax enable us making the sign, their movements or how the
to have common expectations of word or- movements change, and their position rela-
der. When we read “Speech language pathol- tive to the rest of the body are all meaningful.
ogists and audiologists,” we realize recog- Again, in the case of ASL, one’s competence
nize the phrase as the potential subject of (knowledge of the system) can be called lan-
the first sentence and so expect a verb to guage, in contrast to the use of it—the physi-
follow. When the verb “are” appeared af- cal production of gestures or signs—which is
ter the end of the phrase, we also expected called performance.
that “train,” the verb immediately after “are” As with speech, performance usually
would have an “-ed” ending to mark it as a falls short of the user’s competence. Signs
past participle. The author and readers know are sometimes indicated quickly and incom-
the same rules; they share a language, as we pletely. Mistakes are made, but the user’s
have seen, they can create and understand competence remains. When we speak, we
sentences never read or heard before. often use fragments of sentences rather than
Speech, as you probably realize, is a phys- complete ones. We think of something else
ical event. As you will discover in follow- in midsentence and start a new sentence be-
ing chapters, we can analyze speech as an fore we have completed the first. Yet when a
acoustic signal and specify its components in teacher says, “Put your answer in a complete
terms of frequencies, amplitudes, and dura- sentence,” the student knows how to do it.
tions. Language, unlike speech, is intangible. He or she knows the language, even though
C LINICAL NOTE
T he distinction between speech and language that we have been drawing is one that is basic
to the classificatio of disorders of communication. Although it is true that certain disorders
are characterized by features that belong to the categories of both language and speech, there is
a generally accepted view that speech disorders are those that affect articulation (the formation
of speech sounds), phonation (the production of voice by the vibrations of the vocal folds),
and fluenc (the smooth sequencing and rhythm of speech sounds). Language disorders, on
the other hand, affect the ability to express thoughts in spoken or written language and the
ability to comprehend the thoughts expressed by other people, either in speech or in writing.
Because this book is about speech, most of what you will read here about normal speech
production will provide insights about what can go wrong with the process. You should be
able, with the aid of your instructor, to make the connections between normal and disordered
speech production. Remember that without accurate descriptions of normal processes, it will
be impossible to describe disorders accurately and to plan strategies for their remediation.
that knowledge may be inconsistently re- which seem to serve as elements in thought are
flected in speech. How does this linguistic certain signs and more or less clear images
knowledge relate to thought? which can be “voluntarily” reproduced and
combined . . . . But taken from a psychological
viewpoint, this combinatory play seems to be the
THOUGHT essential feature in productive thought—before
there is any connection with logical construction
Thought may be defined as an internal or
in words or other kinds of signs which can be
mental representation of experience. Jerome
communicated to others. The above mentioned
Bruner has suggested that the representation
elements are, in my case, of visual and some of
can be in the form of images, action, or lan-
muscular type.
guage. We presumably use all available rep-
—Quoted in Ghiselin, B., The Creative Process.
resentations of our experiences, but some
New York: Mentor Books, 1955, p. 43.
people report the use of some forms more
than others. We may think via internal im- Representation of thought in language
ages, vaguely visual, when we are solving seems to be important in the mental activ-
a problem such as how many suitcases we ities of language users. Although it is appar-
think we can fit into the trunk of a car. Archi- ent that we can think without any formal
tects and artists often think in visual images. language, it is equally apparent that those
Thought can also be represented by inter- who do know a language use it to aid their
nal action or muscle imagery. In solving the thinking. But what if a thinking individual
problem of the direction and force needed to does not have access to a language? Let us
place a tennis shot out of reach of an oppo- consider the ramifications of thought with-
nent, we think in terms of action. Choreog- out language before going on to discuss the
raphers, athletes, and some physicists think more usual situation, thought with language.
this way. Albert Einstein, describing his un-
derstanding of how he thought, wrote:
Thought Without Language
The words of the language, as they are written We have all had an idea that was difficult
or spoken, do not seem to play any role in my to put into words. Indeed, words often seem
mechanism of thought. The psychical entities inadequate. Our ideas, as we express them,
sometimes seem to be only a rough sketch Thought and Language

of our thoughts. People with aphasia (lan-
Vygotsky’s great contribution was his idea
guage impairment caused by brain damage)
of “inner speech.” Although he viewed early
demonstrate that thought is independent of
language as being essentially externally com-
language. Often an aphasic person seems to
municative, he maintained that some early
have an idea to express but lacks the linguis-
language use was egocentric. That is, chil-
tic ability to express the thought.
dren talk to themselves. From approximately
Some deaf children who have not been
3 to 7 years of age, the vocal egocentric
exposed to sign language are quite delayed
speech gradually becomes subvocal inner
in learning the language of their community
speech, a way of talking to oneself. Such a
because of the difficulties they encounter in
process, which obviously involves language,
learning oral speech. Hans Furth has shown,
lies somewhere between thought and speech
however, that the cognitive abilities of these
but is not quite either. When we think by
children develop almost normally. Helen
using language, we think in linguistic frag-
Keller, who was blind and deaf from the age
ments, in abbreviated phrases, the words fad-
of 18 months, wrote that she did not under-
ing quickly or only partly formed.
stand the first important concept of language
Piaget agreed with Vygotsky’s descrip-
learning, that symbols stand for elements of
tion of inner speech, having observed its be-
our experience, until she was 9 years old.
ginnings in the egocentric speech of the chil-
As her teacher, Annie Sullivan, was com-
dren in his studies. Preschool children echo
municating the word “water” by having the
words and phrases they hear around them
child feel her lips and face with one hand
(echolalia) and incorporate them into their
as she spoke the word and having her feel
own monologues. They talk about what they
the water with the other hand, the child
are doing, the toys they are playing with,
suddenly made the association. Keller soon
the pictures they are painting. A roomful of
learned the names of everything in her envi-
kindergarten children can be talking, some-
ronment. Language learning had begun, yet
times taking turns as in conversation, but
Keller surely was not an unthinking child
each one is talking about his or her own
before that experience. Her thoughts must
experiences in a collective monologue. Piaget’s
have been represented by images.
point was that this use of language reflected
The Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget con-
a stage of thinking in which children seldom
cluded from his observations of normal chil-
include the point of view of others. They see
dren that cognition develops on its own.
things primarily from their own viewpoint,
Language interacts with it and certainly re-
hence the egocentric speech. The frequency of
flects the child’s thinking, but language does
the egocentric speech gradually decreases as
not determine the thinking. According to his
the frequency of socialized speech increases.
view, it does no good to train a child in lan-
If in some sense we “speak” to ourselves as
guage to develop cognition. Rather, he held,
well to others, does this inner speech aid in
stages of cognitive development are reflected
thinking?
in the child’s use of language.
Lev Vygotsky, a Russian psychologist,
also observed evidence of nonverbal thought
Language and Speech as Carriers
in children. Infants demonstrate their under-
for Thought
standing of relationships and their problem-
solving abilities independently of their use Thoughts are not always formed in orderly
of language, even while they make speech- sequences. Sometimes a thought is formed
like babbling sounds that seem to lack intel- as a set of associations internally “seen” as
lectual content. Later in the child’s develop- a whole. We necessarily distort it when we
ment, speech and thought unite. string it out on the timeline of language
and speech. Despite this distortion, there are differ from those of another—which explains
many advantages in using language to repre- the differences in vocabulary.
sent thought. For one thing, language helps Instead of comparing languages, one can
make an idea or an experience available. Ex- look at a particular language and observe dif-
pressing a thought verbally allows it to be ferences based on social group membership.
recorded in various forms for analysis. Then, Basil Bernstein, a sociolinguist, used cultural
too, language also aids thinking by provid- differences as an explanation of linguistic dif-
ing a frame to hold information in memory. ferences he observed between middle-class
It enables us to communicate ideas about and working-class children in Great Britain.
people, places, activities, qualities, or things When children were asked to describe a pic-
when they are not present. ture, for example, the typical middle-class
Throughout this discussion, we have child would be fairly explicit, using many
viewed language as a means of expressing nouns. One would not need to see the pic-
thought and as a reflection of thought but ture to imagine it. The typical working-class
not as something that determines thought. child, in describing the same picture, would
The linguists Edward Sapir and his student use far fewer nouns, substituting such words
Benjamin Whorf proposed the theory of lin- as “he,” “it,” or “they,” so that it would be
guistic determinism (also called the Sapir– difficult to imagine the picture from the de-
Whorf hypothesis), which proposes that the scription alone. Bernstein attributed this dif-
way human beings think about their world ference to cultural differences: the hierarchy
is determined, in part, by the particular lan- of relationships in a working-class family in
guage that they speak. In its strongest version England has an authoritarian structure, so
the hypothesis maintains that language deter- that children are expected not to express
mines thinking. It was based on the notion themselves creatively but to listen to the head
that when languages differ in the number of of the family, whereas the middle-class fam-
terms available for categories such as “color” ily is less authoritarian and each member has
and “snow,” the speakers of languages with a say. In addition, the working-class family
more words available to describe such cate- member usually talks about shared experi-
gories will think differently about colors or ences, so the context is understood, whereas
types of snow than people speaking a lan- the middle-class family member is more apt
guage with fewer words for snow and color. to talk about experiences of his or her own
The reasoning was that people who know and not to assume so much knowledge on
many words for “snow” actually perceive the part of the listener. Bernstein’s choice of
distinctions that people with fewer words fail terms, restricted code (in the working-class case)
to perceive. Analogously, people who speak and elaborated code (in the middle-class case)
a language with no color term for “gray” is unfortunate, as it has been used to support
or “blue” will not be able to perceive those the notion that members of the working class
colors. This strong version of the hypothe- suffer from cognitive deficits, an idea that has
sis is not generally accepted today. Steven been generally discredited by more recent re-
Pinker maintains that “. . . there is no sci- search and that Bernstein himself eventually
entific evidence that languages dramatically rejected. His studies, do, however, point out
shape their speakers’ ways of thinking.” A the influence of cultural habits, if not differ-
weaker, less controversial version of linguis- ences in thinking, on language.
tic determinism holds that it may be easier Despite small differences in the use of
for an Eskimo to talk about snow than it is language by different people who share a
for a Guatemalan but that there is no sig- language and despite the larger differences
nificant difference between their abilities to among languages in their structure and vo-
perceive or think about snow. The interests cabularies, there may be some universal fea-
and needs of one language group may simply tures of human languages. To the extent
that this is true, one ought to be able to second birthday, they may be putting two
learn something about the human mind, as words together for rudimentary telegraphic
Chomsky suggests, by studying the rules of sentences, and by the fourth, they have mas-
human language. tered the basic rules of the language of their
elders.
There are any number of questions that might The rapidity and apparent ease with
lead one to undertake a study of language. which children learn language is a phe-
Personally, I am primarily intrigued by the nomenon of childhood that cannot be
possibility of learning something, from the study repeated with such ease by adults. Adults,
of language, that will bring to light inherent especially those who already know several
properties of the human mind. languages, can learn new ones, but the age
—Chomsky, N., Language and Mind of puberty seems to be the dividing line be-
(enlarged edition). New York: Harcourt tween the ability to acquire a new language
Brace Jovanovich, 1972, p. 103. with relative ease and learning a new lan-
guage with more difficulty. In fact, some
If we define language as a set of rules that researchers reserve the term “language ac-
speakers apply to generate an infinite num- quisition” to refer to the critical time period
ber of sentences, using a set of words that during which language is learned easily and
constantly expands to cover all the concepts without formal instruction; they use the term
they may choose to express, then humans “language learning” refer to the methods and
are the only creatures known to have a com- techniques, including formal instruction, that
mand of language. In addition, the ability to speakers must employ if they want to add a
talk about language also seems to be unique second language to their repertoire. There
to humans. Humans may well be the only is, however, considerable controversy about
creatures on Earth who use their brains in the seriousness of the limitations imposed on
an attempt to understand brains and use lan- the language learner who is beyond the so-
guage in an attempt to understand languages. called critical period. Lenneberg and others
The interaction of thinking, language, and who base their arguments on neurobiologic
speech may seem clearer if we look further data suggest that natural language acquisi-
at language development in normal children. tion abilities cease to exist after the “criti-
cal period.” Others, including those who ob-
served Genie, a child who did not begin to
DEVELOPMENT OF LANGUAGE acquire language until after puberty, argue
AND SPEECH that the native ability to learn language is
never completely extinguished.
At birth, normal children have the potential What children universally accomplish
to walk and talk, although as babies, they can with spontaneity and speed, speech scien-
do neither. They are genetically endowed tists, linguists, and psychologists have labo-
with the appropriate neurophysical systems, riously analyzed with only partial success.
but time is needed for these systems to de- The question they ask is, how do children ac-
velop and mature. Their brains are approx- quire language? Theorists on this subject can
imately 40% of the size they will be when be generally divided into two groups. One
they are fully grown; peripheral areas such group of theorists analyzes language devel-
as the vocal tract and the legs must still un- opment in terms of learning principles. The
dergo anatomic change and the development other group analyzes language development
of motor–sensory associations appropriate in terms of an innate ability to acquire lan-
to talking and walking. At 6 months, chil- guage. Perhaps the most popular view is that
dren sit up and babble in meaningless vocal the details or individual items of a particular
play. By the first birthday, they may have language are learned, whereas the rule-
started to walk and name things. By the building abilities that underlie the structure
and meaning of language, and thus the abil- ment or reward may not always produce an
ity to create novel utterances, are innate. observable response but that responses may
occur within the child. In the observable
instance, the association of the utterance
Learning Theory and Language
“mama” with the rewarding presence of the
Learning in the classic sense is the formula- mother with food and comfort establishes
tion of a new bond or association between “mama” as a learned response. In the case
a stimulus and a response. The classic ex- of an internal response, the child finds that
periment performed by Pavlov in Russia in just the word “mama” produces positive
the 1920s resulted in an association or bond feelings or rewards even if the word is not
between the sound of a bell and a dog’s said aloud. In what Mowrer has termed his
salivation. This bond was new and there- autistic theory, words that children have heard
fore considered to be learned, because be- but never uttered are rehearsed subvocally.
fore the experiment, the dog did not salivate This rehearsal evokes internal rewards
at the sound of a bell. The learned behav- that are sufficient for the words to become
ior, or conditioned response, was produced learned or conditioned behavior. Mowrer’s
by pairing an unconditioned stimulus, in theory thus accounts for the sudden pro-
this case, meat powder, with the conditioned duction of new words that children have
stimulus, the bell. Since meat powder reflex- not previously spoken.
ively causes increased salivation (an auto- Learning theories are consistent with
matic physiological response to food), the facts about much of children’s semantic ac-
presentation of meat powder together with quisition, especially the learning of word
the sound of the bell produced a neural bond meanings. They may even explain the ini-
between the two, so that finally the bell alone tial stages of adopting the syntax or word or-
would produce salivation. der of a particular language. The shaping of
In classic conditioning of this type, the the correct sounds of speech may also be de-
unconditioned response (e.g., changes in per- pendent on the reward of being understood
spiration, heart rate, or salivation) is invol- and perhaps obeyed. If a child who has said
untary and its cause is known (e.g., fear /tuti/ (“tootie”) without getting the desired re-
or food). In another model of learning, the sponse but then finds that “cookie” produces
unconditioned response is under voluntary the food that was wanted, he or she is amply
control (the subject pushes a lever or makes rewarded and will say /kuki/ in the future.
a sound) and the cause is not evident. In this
case, the learning is caused not by the pairing
Innateness Theory
of stimuli but by reinforcement or reward, a
method called operant conditioning. If the oper- There is much about language development
ant response is rewarded with food, praise, that learning theories cannot explain. Hu-
or some other positive experience, the be- man language users are creative in their
havior is strengthened, but if it is punished use of the system. Children, after they have
with electric shock, criticism, or some neg- heard sufficient utterances in their language,
ative experience, the behavior is weakened. construct rules governing the generation of
B. F. Skinner, who presented his theory of sentences. Those rules allow them to both
language learning in the book Verbal Behavior, understand and produce sentences that they
developed the operant conditioning model. have never heard before and therefore can-
Skinner proposed that language is learned by not have learned. They may first learn an ir-
selective reinforcement provided to the child regular past tense verb form such as “ran” by
as he or she uses language to operate on the conventional learning methods. However,
environment. once they have figured out the regular past
Another learning theorist, O. H. tense rule of adding /d/ to a present tense
Mowrer, has suggested that the reinforce- form as in “turned,” “hugged,” or “closed,”
they are apt to cease using “ran” and to say tic rule system, vocabulary, and phonology
“runned” instead because their rule-building (sound system) of child language are each
ability leads them to regularize language comparatively undifferentiated. Young chil-
forms and ignore the models that they have dren’s syntactic rules for the negative may
heard and initially learned. Many psycholin- include the use of “no” with an affirmative
guists think that this ability to abstract the sentence, as in “No go home,” despite the fact
rules of the language is innate; some think that they have never heard adults produce a
that certain aspects of linguistic structure are negative sentence in such form. In the vocab-
innate. ulary of children, “doggie” may at first re-
fer to any four-legged animal; only later will
they narrow the meaning of the term. Chil-
Linguistic Competence
dren’s phonological systems may specify the
Noam Chomsky has written most persua- use of stop consonants wherever stops, frica-
sively on this subject. As we have seen, he tives, or consonant clusters appear in adult
is careful to distinguish between one’s com- speech. For example, they might pronounce
petence in a language—the set of rules a per- the words “two,” “Sue,” and “stew” as /tu/
son knows and used to produce and under- (“two”).
stand language—and performance, which is As they develop their language systems,
the speech, however fragmented, that a per- they are enlarging their knowledge of seman-
son utters. One has only to contrast a skilled tics, the meanings associated with words and
speaker with an inarticulate one to realize the phrases. At the same time, they are discov-
differences that can occur in performance. ering the rules by which their particular lan-
Nonetheless, all normal individuals possess guage is governed. The rules are of three
basic linguistic competence. It is this funda- sorts: syntactic rules, which account for the
mental knowledge that many linguists be- structure of sentences, including the relation-
lieve humans have an inborn ability to ac- ships among simple declarative sentences
quire. and questions; morphological rules, which ac-
Eric Lenneberg, Phillip Lieberman, and count for contrasts in meaning caused by
others have presented evidence that certain differences between meaningful sequences of
features of human anatomy and physiology sounds (“cut” vs. “cat” vs. “cats”) or by in-
evolved in such a way that they are now tonation (“Yes!” vs. “Yes?”); and phonological
specialized for the production of speech and rules, which account for the occurrence of
language. If this is so, then the potential to particular sounds in the stream of speech.
acquire language is not only innate but also We can illustrate these various rules by
species specific, as Homo sapiens alone displays inspecting a simple declarative sentence such
such specialized anatomic and physiological as “The eggs are in the basket.” Children,
adaptations. well before they reach adolescence, come to
Thinking provides a foundation for lan- understand that there is a relationship be-
guage; children can talk only about what tween the syntax of this sentence and that of
they know, but they may know more than “Are the eggs in the basket?” They are ev-
they can express with their incompletely de- idently able to construct a rule that enables
veloped language. Psycholinguists find that them to create questions by exchanging the
children are pattern seekers. On the basis of positions of the noun phrase (“the eggs”) and
the language they hear around them, they the verb (are) to create a question. They also
seem to form hypotheses about linguistic learn that the prepositional phrase, “in the
rules and apply them in their own way. The basket,” must stay in its original position so
language of children is not a poor imitation that the anomalous sentence “*Are in the bas-
of adult language but rather a different lan- ket the eggs?” is not produced. (The asterisk,
guage system with its own rules. The syntac- *, is used by linguists to denote anomalous
or unattested utterances.) And, finally, they ing. The fact that “pat” and “bat” differ in
become aware that the rule cannot be applied meaning demonstrates that /p/ and /b/ are dif-
to establish the relationship between just any ferent phonemes in English. A phoneme by
declarative sentence and its associated ques- itself is meaningless. It cannot be described
tion: The interrogative form of “The eggs as a sound, either, for a phoneme can be pro-
simmered in the pan,” is not “*Simmered the duced only as one of several sounds. Thus,
eggs in the pan?” In other words, children the sounds of /p/ in “ pie,” “sp oon,” and
must be able to formulate a variety of rules “to p” differ from one another: the first is
associating questions with statements, rules produced with a vigorous burst of air as the
that are based on the syntactic structure and lips are parted, the second with a minimal
the lexical content of the declarative form of burst of air, and the third often with no burst
the sentence. of air at all if the lips remain in contact as
Children must also construct rules that when the word occurs at the end of an ut-
enable them to manipulate the morphemes terance. These sounds, when they are being
contained in sentences. A morpheme is the discussed as variants of the phoneme, are
smallest linguistic segment that means some- called allophones. The production of specific
thing. The word “cats” comprises two mor- allophones in specific contexts is often, but
phemes, “cat,” the singular form of the noun, not always, rule-governed. Any actual sound
and “-s,” (articulated as /s/), which means discussed without relation to its phonemic
“more than one.” There are two morphemes affiliation is a phone.
in “eggs” for the same reason. When mor- The term “phoneme” is used when one
phemes are combined, as in “cats” or “eggs,” wishes to refer to the function of a sound
the nature of the combination sometimes de- family in the language to signal differences
pends on the sound that occurs at the end in meaning, whereas the term “allophone” or
of the singular. Notice that the form of the “phone” is used when one wishes to refer to a
morpheme meaning “more than one” in cats particular sound that is articulated or heard.
is /s/, whereas in “eggs” it is /z/. If children Slashes are used to enclose symbols intended
wish to make a word such as “wish” plural, to represent phonemes: /p/. Brackets are
they must precede the /z/ by a very weakly used to enclose symbols intended to repre-
stressed vowel. Formal rules can be stated for sent allophones or phones: [p]. Ordinary al-
many such combinations of morphemes, but phabetic characters can be used to symbolize
not for all of them. The structures of some some sounds unambiguously, but there are
combinations are determined on a word-by- many sounds for which this is not possible. In
word basis, and, in such cases, rules will not our sample sentence “The eggs are in the bas-
apply generally. For example, a child who ket,” the last sound, /z/ in the word “eggs,”
has learned to make plurals only by using is represented by the spelling “s,” which is
the rules exemplified above for “cats, eggs,” ambiguous because the same letter is used to
and “wishes,” will not produce the expected represent the final /s/ in the words “cats,”
plural of the word “child,” and might say the medial / / in the word “leisure,” and
“∗ Two childs were playing in the room.” the initial consonant, /ʃ/ in the word “sure.”
And, indeed, children often do produce such Thus, the same alphabetic symbol is being
regularized plurals until they learn the ex- used to represent four different phonemes.
ceptions to the general rules for combining To make the transcription of sounds unam-
morphemes. biguous, phoneticians and linguists have de-
Finally, children who are acquiring lan- vised the International Phonetic Alphabet,
guage must construct rules for dealing with which appears in Appendix A.
the phonemes of their native language. A Spoken language is the end product
phoneme is a family of sounds that functions of a process that connects knowledge of
in a language to signal a difference in mean- meanings (semantics) with formal structures
(syntactic units, morphemes, phonemes) and

that encodes the structures into the sounds
of speech. We conclude this chapter with a
model of this process, as we view it, that links
thought to speech.
FROM THOUGHT TO SPEECH

Two young women in the Philadelphia Mu-
seum of Art pause before a painting by Henri
Matisse, entitled Odalisque Jaune (Fig. 1.1).
One woman says to the second, “Look at this
picture. There’s something about the face
and the patterns that reminds me of some
Japanese prints I saw in a museum in New
York.” We cannot presume to know how
this utterance was derived from the young
woman’s linguistic knowledge and originally
from her thought processes, but we must as-
sume that some reference was made to her
stored visual experiences of Japanese prints
and that associations were made between the
highly patterned areas of the Japanese wood- FIGURE 1.2 Japanese woodcut. Kiyonaga:
cuts (Fig. 1.2) and the arrangement of pat- Shigeyuki Executing Calligraphy, 1783.
terns in the Matisse painting. A sense of plea- Philadelphia Museum of Art: Given by
Mrs. John D. Rockefeller.
sure and a positive attitude toward the effects

produced must have also been a part of the
process.
A model of thought, language, and
speech conversions is presented in Figure
1.3. The circles overlap to suggest both the
interrelationships involved and their simul-
taneity. The young woman’s visual and aes-
thetic experiences, both in the present and
the past, relate to ideas she has about their
similarities and to her feelings about the pic-
tures. The woman chose to represent her
thought in language to communicate her re-
sponse to the pictures to her companion.
There are a number of ways the woman
could have framed her ideas and feelings, but
on the basis of certain semantic, syntactic,
morphological, and phonological decisions,
F IG U RE 1.1 Matisse painting, Odalisque she expressed her thought in words that were
Jaune. Philadelphia Museum of Art: Samuel S. recorded earlier. She was constrained by the
White, III, and Vera White Collection. rules of her language and by the rules of
It seems probable that chunks of the mes-

per iences
Ex At sage were briefly stored in a buffer (tempo-
as T rary storage) ready for output. The chunks
Ide
tit
H
ude
O were perhaps of sentence length or phrase
U
s
G
length. Sentences and phrases can be rel-
H atively lengthy, at least compared with in-
T
dividual words, and we might ask whether
there is any evidence for the storage of such
substantial stretches of planned utterances.
mantics
Such evidence exists in the form of stud-
Se Mo ies of slips of the tongue. Consider Victoria
s L
Fromkin’s example in which the planned ut-
ta c t i c Rul e
A
rp
ho
N
terance “He cut the salami with the knife,” is
phonolog
G
U actually produced as “He cut the knife with
A
the salami.” The timing and other prosodic as-
yn
G
E ca
i
pects (e.g., intonation and stress patterns) of

S
lR
ules
the utterance are viewed in our model (Fig.
1.3) as superimposed on the message as it
TIMING BUFFER PROSODY is converted into speech. For example, the
prosody remains constant despite slips of the
tongue. The heaviest stress in the sentence is
om o t or Ru placed on the last word, whether the speaker
ur
es says “He cut the salami with the KNIFE”
Ne
A
le
s
l
S
r ti
m otor Ru
P or “He cut the knife with the SALAMI.”

culator y R
E This suggests that prosodic features of the

E
C entire sentence or phrase are stored in ad-
yo
H vance of its production and that the instruc-

M
le
tions for intended word order are generated
s
independently of the prosodic instructions.

Consider, also, that the utterance can be said
SOUND at a variety of rates, from fast to slow, which
suggests independent generation of timing
F IG URE 1.3 Model showing contributions of
commands. The timing of articulatory move-
various factors to output at the thought,
language, and speech stages. It is conceived
ments within and across phonetic segments
that thought can be embodied in language that differentiates phonemes (e.g., the timing
and expressed aloud by transforming dynamic of laryngeal vibrations and lip movements
representations of chunks of speech from a that distinguish /p/ from /b/) is thought to be
buffer into audible pressure waves via a stream intrinsic to specifications stored in the buffer.
of coordinated movements. At the level of production, there may be
a transformation from a relatively abstract
her speech-producing mechanism. We shall representation of speech sounds to the actual
make no attempt to suggest how the intended neuromotor activity that controls the mus-
meaning was converted into a form ready cle activity, cavity changes, and air pressure
for speaking. We recognize, too, that the de- modifications heard as speech. The language
livery of the message could have been in conversions are mediated by linguistic rules;
writing or in some gestural language and in the speech conversions (Fig. 1.4), neuro-
in speech. Choosing speech, however, the motor, myomotor, and articulatory rules are
young woman somehow readied the mes- used. The abstract representations of the in-
sage for delivery to her friend. tended phonemes that make up the input
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to the depot steamer, and later, as no men might be available to
discharge them before dark, a working party of men nurses and
stewards was sent to discharge them. Meantime the lumber was got
out, each slingful lashed both ends before lowering over the side;
then six or eight such slingfuls were made up into a raft and towed
by our steam launch to a point about one-third of a mile distant, to
windward of the place on the beach where the lumber was wanted;
then the tow was cast off and it drifted ashore. This was a slow
process, as our steamer was small and unsuited to open water, but
by steady work and no mishaps we finished and left for Messina, the
ship herself towing the last raft of lumber.
PALERMO.
Arriving at Messina about 8.30, we found another telegram from
the Consul at Palermo. After visiting the Illinois again, we sailed for
Palermo at 10.30 P. M.
We arrived at Palermo about 9.30 Saturday morning. The captain
of the port sent an officer on board the Bayern with the following
message:
The captain of the port thanks Captain Belknap for the

sentiments of brotherhood and humanity which have brought
him here, to give aid to those who have just escaped from the
disastrous earthquake.
The American Consul, Mr. Bishop, then took the Committee,

Lieutenant-Commander Belknap, Mr. Hooper, Mr. Gay, Vice-Consul
Cutting, Avvocato Giordana and Mr. Flint to call upon the Prefect,
with whom we found the Commissario Regio. Our remaining
resources were placed at the disposal of the authorities, who
accepted them with warm thanks and appreciation of our coming to
Palermo with assistance. From the prefectura we were then escorted
to the municipal palace by the Commissario Regio, Commandatore
Avvocato Gennaro Bladier, who conducted us to his reception-room,
where the necessary arrangements were made for the transfer of our
remaining supplies. He took steps to have our discharging expedited
so that our intended sailing that evening might not be delayed.
We delivered at Palermo 1,200 mattresses and about 7,000
rations, leaving nothing remaining on board that could be disposed
of; also 20,000 lire to the Municipal Committee and 10,000 for
distribution by the American Consul.
In the afternoon, the Commissario Regio came on board, to return
our visit and inspect our ship, bringing the following letter, to which I
replied orally, stating that I would have the honor to bring it to the
attention of the American Ambassador:
Cabinet of the Commissario Regio,

City of Palermo, January 15, 1909.
In the name of the city of the Committee I have the honor to
represent, I accomplish the duty, heartfelt, of expressing to
you a great many thanks for your generous offer of 20,000 lire
and of food and mattresses, made through you by the
American Ambassador for the benefit of the unfortunate
refugees.
Messina, Sicily and Italy, in this tragic hour of disaster, feel
an infinite sense of emotion before the universal spectacle of
nobility and human kindness, before the common impulse that
moves, in aid of so many sufferers from the reckless violence
of nature, the generous, munificent souls of the world.
I beg, therefore, to ask you to be the bearer of our intense
feeling to the illustrious American Ambassador, and to the
American citizens, to whose magnanimous work will always
be united the undying gratitude of this people.
Please accept, Illustrious Sir, on this solemn occasion, the
highest expression of my consideration.
The Royal Commissioner,
BLADIER.
To Captain Reginald Rowan Belknap, Naval Attachè to the
Embassy of the United States of America.
RETURN OF THE “BAYERN.”

With regret that we might not prolong our stay, we sailed as soon
as the last slingful was over the side, at 7 P. M., arriving at Civita
Vecchia at 4 P. M. the next day, Sunday, January 17, after an
absence of just ten days.
At Civita Vecchia we received a hearty welcome from the Sub-
Prefect; Sindaco, captain of the port: Mr. Page and Mr. Pasigli, of the
Committee; Mr. and Mrs. Billings, of Massachusetts, and Mr. Anniser,
the Lloyd agent. There was time enough to transfer our aged
charges ashore comfortably, with the expedition and baggage, to
take the six o’clock train for Rome.
Drs. Egidi and Alessandrini, two Italian women and two men
nurses remained on board to care for the twenty-four orphans until
they were given over into other hands. Everything of our cargo, and
more besides, taken from the ship, had been distributed, as originally
intended.
Written instructions were given Dr. Egidi, who was left in charge of
our party remaining on board, covering the delivering of children and
return of the doctors and nurses to Rome. Written instructions were
also given to the captain of the Bayern to proceed to Genoa, and
releasing the vessel there upon the delivery of the children into
proper hands. Telegrams were sent to the American Consul-General
and to the Quæstor at Genoa, informing of the coming of the ship
with persons for them to receive. The American Ensign and the Red
Cross were then hauled down, at 5.15 P. M., and I came ashore with
the captain of the port.
The party were greeted at the landing by Mr. and Mrs. Griscom,
accompanied by Mr. Dodge, while a large crowd of the people of
Civita Vecchia were gathered outside the gates. Carriages were
provided by the municipality to convey the party to the station, with
free passage by rail to Rome, the Italian officials and people favoring
us with every kind wish. The trip to Rome was without incident.
Tuesday afternoon, the 19th inst., Drs. Egidi and Alessandrini
reported their return in person and their duty completed, bringing a
receipt from the Quæstor in Genoa for the twenty-four orphans. This
receipt was turned over by me to the secretary. Dr. Egidi also
reported that the American Consul-General at Genoa had taken
charge of the woman with three children, bound for America to join
her husband. A letter concerning her case had been written the
Consul-General by Mr. Cutting. The active work of the relief ship may
therefore be regarded as completed.
Ambulance of Italian Red Cross in Naples.
(Photo by S. H. Chapman.)
Before closing this report I take the opportunity as executive head
of the expedition to express my appreciation of the admirable
manner in which the members, individually and collectively,
performed their duties. Perfect harmony prevailed throughout; there
were no complaints, no questioning of orders, no difficulties of any
kind. If fatigue was felt by anyone, it was not mentioned until after
working hours.
DISTRIBUTION OF SUPPLIES AND MONEY BY

“BAYERN.”
The American Red Cross Relief Ship Bayern, leaving Civita
Vecchia on January 7 and returning to that port on the 17th,
distributed 115,500 lire in cash, and supplies to the value of 230,000
lire.
DISTRIBUTION OF CASH.
30,000 lire to the Prefect of Catania (5,000 to be distributed at the
discretion of Madame Ferri), 30,000 to the hospitals of Catania,
1,000 to the Little Sisters of the Poor of Catania, 35,000 to Syracuse,
5,000 to Acireale, 4,000 to Taormina, 6,000 to Giardini, 10,000 for
distribution among small villages outside of Taormina du Giardini,
towards Messina, 1,000 to Archbishop of Messina, 20,500 to
Palermo.
KIND AND QUANTITY OF SUPPLIES.

2,000 metres tent canvas, 4,500 woolen blankets, 250 sheets,
1,400 metres of sheeting, 1,230 woolen shawls, 2,130 overcoats,
ulsters and capes, 1,570 pairs of shoes, 2,100 suits of clothes for
men and boys, 3,500 pairs of stockings, 350 skirts, 5,200 metres of
dress goods and other cloth, 5,000 pieces of underwear, 700 shirts
and blouses, 300 pairs pantaloons, 1,400 hats and caps, 5,000
kilograms flour, 20,000 galletti (hard biscuit), 8,000 kilograms
potatoes, 6,800 kilograms macaroni, 3,180 tins of preserved meat,
60 cases of sterilized milk (50 quarts per case), 1,200 litres olive oil,
530 litres marsala, 210 litres cognac, etc., 1,350 kilograms cheese,
1,000 kilograms dried fish, 351 kilograms tobacco, 530 kilograms
sausage, 1,225 kilograms of sardines, etc., 550 kilograms lard, 4,000
kilograms beans, 700 shovels, 700 picks, 300 galvanized iron
buckets, 1,700 kilograms of rope, assorted size, 100 saws, 10
petroleum stoves, 50 cases petroleum, 1 ton candles, 2,000 cakes
soap, cooking utensils, tableware, miscellaneous tools, matches in
large quantities, 27 cases of medical supplies, 1,200 mattresses
stripped from the bunks of the Bayern, 350 sheets and pillow cases,
230 coverlets.
At Catania lumber sufficient for the construction of 25 houses (13
× 13 feet, including flooring) was purchased, loaded on board the
Bayern, and delivered to the Italian authorities at Reggio.
Lieutenant-Commander Belknap commends in the highest terms

the work done by all the members of this Red Cross Relief
Expedition, including Drs. Bastinelli, Scelba, Egidi and Alessandrini,
the nurses, Avvocato Girodana, Messrs. Hooper, Gay, Cutting, Flint,
Captain Mitzlaff, the other officers and the crew of the Bayern and
Mr. Anniser, the North German Lloyd agent at Rome, for his personal
assistance. The Navigazione Generale Italiana also rendered much
assistance at Civita Vecchia. To all of these the American Red Cross
extends its hearty thanks and appreciation of their valuable aid in
this relief expedition.—Editor.
OTHER MEASURES OF AMERICAN
RED CROSS RELIEF
Besides the contributions to the Italian Red Cross, the sending of
a Special Representative—Mr. Bayard Cutting—the providing of the
Relief Ship, the maintenance of the Agricultural Orphanage Colony,
the purchase of materials for some six hundred houses and the
construction of these houses and those furnished by the United
States Government, the American Red Cross has sent to Mr.
Griscom, our Ambassador at Rome, $20,000 for Calabrian relief and
$50,000 to be used at his discretion in conjunction with the Minister
of Foreign Affairs. Mr. Griscom says:
“After consultation, I asked him to appoint an Italian Committee to
do rehabilitation work on the lines we adopted at Chelsea. He
appointed his wife Chairman, and with her Countess Taverna, wife of
the President of the Italian Red Cross; the Duke of Teuanova, one of
the largest land owners in Sicily; the Marquis of San Fernando, one
of the largest land owners in Calabria, and Mr. Teneraani, the head
of the principal charities of Rome. This is a very strong Committee,
and they are doing splendid work—acting rapidly and efficiently. The
Committee calls itself ‘Comitato Offerto Americano,’ a ‘Committee of
American Offerings.’ This Committee operates wherever they find or
hear of deserving refugees, particularly professional men, and a
considerable portion of this money is spent at the scene of the
disaster as well as in Rome, Naples, etc.”
From the Calabrian mountain villages came urgent appeals for
help, so Mr. Griscom—
“Sent Mr. Nelson Gay, who has lived in Italy for some years, to
make a tour of Calabria, and he was accompanied by an officer of
the General Staff. He had a wonderful trip and his report is the basis
of our present operations. As he went along he telegraphed me his
needs and his requisitions were filled in Rome or from France. The
majority of his requests were complied with and the goods delivered
to him and to the Generals indicated by him in Calabria within forty-
eight hours after the receipt of his telegram. This includes the
twenty-four hour railway haul, so you see we have our system of
operations fairly perfected. The Director-General of Italian Railways
gives our shipments the right of way over everything. After Mr. Gay
had been there a few days with General Parditi at Palmi, Calabria,
the General telegraphed his appreciation of what had been done
there to the Prime Minister and the Secretary of War. Mr. Gay visited
about forty towns in Calabria, including the highest and most
inaccessible villages. To some he brought the first succor since the
earthquake.
“I am now sending Mr. Winthrop Chanler, who is accompanied by
four or five young Italian noblemen, to Calabria to carry out the most
elaborate piece of work yet projected. We are to rebuild one whole
town—Gallina. Calabria—about three hundred wooden houses, and
to deliver and build three hundred other houses of lighter
construction in the highest towns of the Calabrian Mountains. We
work through the military authorities and at their request, but we
conduct the work ourselves. In the meantime our young Italians will
use our money to rehabilitate the inhabitants in their trades and
professions, under Mr. Chanter’s direction. We are buying a shipload
of lumber very cheaply in Naples and sending it ourselves to the
spot. This is the use I am making of the last $20,000 the Red Cross
has entrusted to me. From Gay’s report three hundred houses are
needed, at about $100 a house, which will make $30,000. I have the
recent grant of $20,000 and the unexpended balance from the Relief
Ship appropriation is $17,000, making a total of $37,000. This leaves
$7,000 for expenses of hospitals, etc. These operations will all be
done in the name of the American Red Cross. Mr. Chanler will lay
out the town, establish police and sanitary regulations and hurry the
building in accordance with a plan I have outlined. I am sending
down a young Italian doctor to establish a little hospital and keep the
place sanitary. We work through the military authorities, who supply
the carpenters and laborers except when we employ people for the
sake of giving them work. The rehabilitation is to go on while the
houses go up and the young Italians, with Mr. Chanler, are especially
to do this work. They are to search out the most deserving
merchants and give them a start. I sincerely hope this project of mine
will appeal to the Red Cross as it does to the Italian people. If a
small part of my expectations are realized the money will be well
spent. I may say here that the people in the earthquake zone have
now plenty to eat and are clothed so that the greatest remaining
need is shelter. They are dying from cold and its consequences—
pneumonia, bronchitis, consumption, etc. The wood we are sending
from America is a drop in a bucket. Mr. Gay reports that the military
estimates of 600,000 homeless people are not exaggerated. It would
take $12,000,000 to provide them with cheapest temporary houses,
and the Italians have not this amount to dispose of. In the meantime
people are living in half-ruined homes in imminent peril of being
killed by any little earthquake, and the earth continues to quake
frequently. Our new work begins in two days and will take a month or
two.”
This letter was written February 21st. In referring to the
Orphanage Colony, Mr. Griscom says:
“Yesterday the Queen sent for me a second time to reiterate her
thanks.”
She expressed her deep interest in the American Red Cross and
desired to learn more about the Society.
In a previous letter Mr. Griscom, whose splendid work has done so
much to render Red Cross contributions of use, says in conclusion:
“I may say personally, I have had the most valuable and
interesting experience of my lifetime; and when I return to the United
States I will become one of the most loyal supporters in the Red
Cross work in America.”
ITALIAN RELIEF NOTES
MISS DAVIS AT SYRACUSE.
All reports and private letters received by the American Red Cross
from the scene of disaster speak in the very highest terms of the
work done at Syracuse by Miss Katherine B. Davis, who happened
to be in Sicily at the time of the earthquake. Speaking of her work in
private letters, Miss Davis says:
“Of course, you know what the papers have told of the terrible
disaster to the towns along the Straits of Messina. I was at Girgenti
the morning of the shock. It was strong enough to wake me, but it
was not till thirty hours later that I, with the English ladies with whom
I was traveling, heard of the disaster. A priest with the Red Cross
badge got into a compartment on the train and told us.
“Yesterday and today a Russian and an English warship have
brought here six hundred of the wounded and more are expected
tomorrow. It is like what it must be after a battle. Many of them are
horribly mutilated. There are no hospital accommodations, and you
cannot buy a ready-made garment in the town. There is only one
trained nurse in town—an English girl, who escaped in her night
dress from Messina. She is a heroine and is working day and night
assisting with the amputations. I am afraid she will break down. I was
with an English woman last night who had to have both legs
amputated at one o’clock this morning. Her husband, two children, a
brother and a sister were killed. But I cannot stop to write you tonight
of the many pathetic cases I have seen. We have four thousand
refugees, one thousand of whom are seriously wounded. The
German Red Cross, of Berlin, and the Italian, from Brescia, got here
on Monday of this week, the 11th. They have taken over the
barracks hospital, the worst of all, and such a transformation! They
are doing fine work, with splendid fellows in charge. It was
unspeakably horrible until they came. After the first few days in the
hospitals I found I could do better work in helping the refugees to
help themselves, and soon started the women from Messina to
making clothing.
“Fortunately, there is a sewing machine agency here, and the
Mayor of the town is of the right sort. He placed a room in the
Municipio at my disposal, and an alderman—or whatever
corresponds to alderman—who speaks some English, selected the
women for me, and I pay them a franc and a half a day. We now
have sixty-eight employed, in three different places. No ready-made
garments could be purchased in the town, and the need for clothing
was extreme. I soon used up my own money and what I could collect
from people at the hotel, but, fortunately, Bayard Cutting, Jr., came
on Wednesday, and liked the work so much that he gave me $600
from the relief funds to pay wages, and has had me appointed the
Red Cross representative here.
“I have persuaded the Mayor to start relief work for the men, road
building or what not, he to furnish the tools and oversight, and we
(the American Red Cross) will pay the wages. We begin tomorrow. In
short, I am organizing all I can on the good Charity Organization
Society plan of making the able-bodied needy work for what they
get.
“My personal impression of the situation is that the worst is yet to
come, when the temporary relief ceases.
“I shall never forget the horrors I have seen and heard, and I was
not at Messina!”
DR. METCALF AT MESSINA.

Dr. Francis Metcalf, formerly of the United States Army, who,
during the Spanish War was a surgeon on the U. S. A. Hospital Ship
Relief, in a personal letter written January 15th from Capii to
Surgeon-General Torney, U. S. A., says:
Embarking the Injured.
Dr. Metcalf at Messina.
“Of course, I volunteered immediately to go to Reggio and

Messina and stated my former service on the Relief. I was accepted
and was the only American there, excepting a couple of
correspondents and the vice-consul. To avoid red tape and the
questioning of orders I stuck the old insignia (the Red Cross) on a
riding suit. Technically I suppose that violated the proprieties, but it
wasn’t much of a time for technicalities and it avoided a lot of
palaver. At any rate, I didn’t discredit the corps of which you are the
head.
“Unfortunately, I was not able to do as much as I should have liked
to do. I did accomplish a little, though, more especially in the
embarcation of the wounded. They were all being carried up the
longest and narrowest sidestairs I have ever seen alongside a ship,
sometimes head first, more often with the head down and banged
and jostled unmercifully. They were lying alongside for hours,
seasick and unhappy, until I tried the old Relief trick. I enlisted the
aid of the ships’ officers and used a boat fall, clearing out the small
boats in short order and sending the patients up without suffering
until I had every gangway crowded. Nothing you have read in the
papers nor experienced in San Francisco can give you an adequate
idea of the situation down there. It was just one infernal smash and
not less than a hundred thousand dead at Messina alone. The
wounded were in horrible condition, as gangrene was almost
universal.”
MISS BROCKIUS AT TAORMINA.

Miss Brockius, in a letter to a friend in this country, writes:
“If I wrote for hours I could not tell you of the horrors we have seen
in the last three days. During the first the long trains came in perhaps
every hour with the wounded and the dying, huddled together with
the refugees, all with that frightened look of horror in their faces.
When they thought the people were dying they would be taken off at
our station and we had arranged the waiting room into a place to
receive them. When the tables were all full they would have to go on
the floor—poor, poor people, sometimes you could hardly see for the
blood that they were human beings, and they were mangled beyond
words. Some had both legs and both arms broken, and many had
not eaten for days, and their thirst was terrible.
“We worked over one poor thing for hours, for the doctor said she
had no bones broken, and she seemed very young and strong, but
she must have been injured internally, for she died without becoming
conscious. One man was taken off here who had been in the ruins
for four days, of course with nothing to eat. He had to be fed at first
with a drop of milk at a time, and in several hours he was able to
walk to the carriage. One young fellow’s eyes were glassy with
hunger, and after we had given him some hot broth we could see
that awful look go away, but, poor thing, he had lost his memory
entirely, and did not even know where he had been.
“It is so hard for us, not knowing much of the language, to tell what
they want. A poor dying soldier was begging me to let him kiss
something that was around his neck in a bag, and I couldn’t
understand until a priest told me what he wanted.
“Many were in open coal cars and, as it has rained almost
constantly since the catastrophe, the suffering must have been
frightful.
“One man who went to Messina to help dig out the people told us
it was much worse than a field of battle, for there were so many
children lying there injured.”
APPRECIATION OF ITALIAN OFFICIALS.

Premier Giolitti, in speaking of the American people’s generosity,
said:
“What the United States has done on this occasion is magnificent,
and shall not be forgotten. The United States stands first,
outdistancing all others in sympathy and generosity.
“Our gratitude is so great that we cannot find words in which to
express it. Besides, appreciation on our part is heightened by the
fact that so many of our compatriots have found hospitality in
America.
“With us it is traditional to consider Americans, who visit Italy in
such great numbers, as our best friends, since we love their country
and their race, because of its liberal organization and its progressive
principles.”
Signor Tittoni, the foreign minister, said: “Never before on any
occasion has occurred such a demonstration of sympathy as that of
America. It includes all classes and conditions from the President to
the humblest citizen. Nothing could more tightly bind together the
two countries or render their friendship closer.”
SOLIDARITY OF RED CROSS SOCIETIES.

In a letter of February 2nd to the Central Committee of the
American Red Cross from M. Ador, Vice-President of the
International Red Cross Committee of Geneva, he says:
“The large contributions received by you for the victims of the
earthquake in Sicily and Calabria are a splendid testimony of your
benevolent activity and the solidarity which unites our Societies of
the Red Cross in times of peace as in times of war.”
THE POPE’S BLESSING AND THANKS.
The following is a copy of a newspaper clipping relative to the
disbanding of the American Relief Committee, at a meeting of which
Mr. Samuel L. Parrish stated that the Pope had bestowed his
blessing upon the American Society:
RELIEF COMMITTEE DISBANDS.

At 4 o’clock this afternoon there was a strong shock at
Reggio. Shocks are still occurring at Reggio and Messina.
The American relief committee, which was organized for
the purpose of directing the American charities in connection
with the earthquake sufferers, has been dissolved. The Italian
authorities have now everything well in hand.
In cash alone the relief committee on the steamer Bayern
distributed $30,000. The vast supply of provisions on board
the steamer proved all too small for the innumerable calls
made upon the relief party’s resources, but the distribution
was made as widespread as possible.
During the sitting of the committee today Samuel L. Parrish
informed the other members that he had been received in
private audience by the Pope, who said that he admired
especially the exemplary generosity of the American Red
Cross, and wished to have these sentiments conveyed to that
noble institution.
Mr. Parrish also said that, wishing to satisfy the desire of
the Pope, he had written President-elect Taft, the President of
the American Red Cross Society, reporting the result of the
audience, and adding:
“The Pope gave his blessing to the American Red Cross,
expressing his gratitude and high appreciation of the work of
that association.”
Mr. Parrish’s letter to the President follows:
Rome, January 15, 1909.

Hotel d’Europe.
HONORABLE WILLIAM H. TAFT,
President Red Cross,
Washington, D. C.
My Dear Mr. Taft:
I was this morning received in audience by the Pope, to
whom my sponsor, Monsignor Ugolini, explained in succinct
form the generous activity of the American Red Cross in
connection with the sufferers in the recent earthquake in
Calabria and Sicily. The Pope then gave his blessing to the
American Red Cross, and while expressing his gratitude and
high appreciation of the work of the Association, desired that
his benediction might be known to its members. In seeking to
fulfill this request, I know of no better method than to thus
simply state the fact to you.
Yours sincerely,
(Signed) SAMUEL L. PARRISH.
AMERICAN RED CROSS RECEIPTS
BY STATES
For Italian Earthquake Relief to March 13, 1909, with Per
Capita Contributions According to Census of 1909.
Attention is particularly invited to the remarkably generous contribution of
California.
Mills per
capita
New York $316,836.57 43.53
California 200,996.82 135.34
Illinois 97,475.04 20.21
Missouri 40,809.42 13.13
Connecticut 39,459.66 43.43
Massachusetts 37,061.45 13.21
New Jersey 31,417.38 16.67
Wisconsin 26,934.83 13.01
Rhode Island 24,048.65 56.11
Pennsylvania 19,416.51 3.08
District of Columbia 16,538.90 59.33
Maryland 16,496.16 13.88
Ohio 14,343.97 3.45
Washington 13,734.76 26.50
Michigan 12,450.49 5.10
Iowa 10,749.98 4.81
Indiana 9,285.00 3.68
Utah 6,506.00 23.50
Virginia 5,892.95 3.17
Maine 4,269.75 6.14
New Hampshire 4,054.84 9.85
Alabama 3,907.77 2.13
South Carolina 3,902.32 2.91
Texas 2,109.68 .69
Nebraska 2,002.30 1.87
Nevada 1,955.92 46.20
Louisiana 1,864.00 1.34
Montana 1,781.71 7.32
Minnesota 1,777.16 1.01
Kansas 1,652.00 1.12
West Virginia 1,222.59 1.27
Vermont 1,153.90 3.35
North Carolina 1,148.35 .60
Delaware 1,076.00 5.82
Arizona 794.27 6.46
South Dakota 778.82 1.93
Colorado 653.95 1.21
Kentucky 407.90 .18
Tennessee 395.57 .19
Oregon 381.67 .92
New Mexico 309.75 1.58
Oklahoma 238.00 .59
Florida 222.48 .42
Georgia 205.86 .09
Mississippi 123.36 .07
Arkansas 83.04 .06
North Dakota 77.00 .24
Idaho 19.73 .12
Wyoming 16.26 .17
Porto Rico 5.00
“Anonymous,” not credited to States 11.25
Quebec 10.00
Mexico 5.00
British Columbia 1.00

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Speech Science Primer: Physiology,

Acoustics, and Perception of Speech

Anatomy and Physiology of Speech and Hearing 1st

Anatomy & Physiology for Speech, Language, and Hearing

Anatomy & Physiology for Speech, Language, and Hearing,

Applied Anatomy and Physiology for Speech Language

Anatomy & Physiology for Speech, Language, and Hearing,

The Reign of Speech

Speech Sound Disorders First Edition – Ebook PDF

The Handbook of Language and Speech Disorders 2nd

Speech Science Primer

Lawrence J. Raphael, Ph.D.

Gloria J. Borden, Ph.D.

Katherine S. Harris, Ph.D.

Acquisitions Editor: Peter Sabatini

Copyright © 2011 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins

351 West Camden Street

Two Commerce Square

Printed in the United States of America

First Edition, 1980

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Visit Lippincott Williams & Wilkins on the Internet: http://www.LWW.com. Lippincott

To our students, past, present, and future.

SEC T I O N I I I Speech Production 41

CHAPTER 4 The Raw Materials—Phonation 69

CHAPTER 5 The Articulation and Acoustics of Vowels 88

CHAPTER 6 The Articulation and Acoustics of Consonants 114

CHAPTER 7 The Acoustics of Prosody 144

CHAPTER 8 Feedback Mechanisms and Models of Speech Production 155

SEC T I O N I V Speech Perception 186

CHAPTER 10 The Acoustic Cues 199

CHAPTER 11 Strategies and Models 222

SEC T I O N V Instrumentation 258

APPENDIX A The Phonetic Alphabet for American English: Based on the

Speech, Language, and Thought

CHAPTER 1 Speech, Language, and Thought 3

our hands on our hips, by painting pictures, SPEECH

4 SPEECH SCIENCE PRIMER

CHAPTER 1 Speech, Language, and Thought 5

6 SPEECH SCIENCE PRIMER

sometimes seem to be only a rough sketch Thought and Language

CHAPTER 1 Speech, Language, and Thought 7

8 SPEECH SCIENCE PRIMER

CHAPTER 1 Speech, Language, and Thought 9

10 SPEECH SCIENCE PRIMER

CHAPTER 1 Speech, Language, and Thought 11

12 SPEECH SCIENCE PRIMER

(syntactic units, morphemes, phonemes) and

FROM THOUGHT TO SPEECH

sure and a positive attitude toward the effects

CHAPTER 1 Speech, Language, and Thought 13

It seems probable that chunks of the mes-

pects (e.g., intonation and stress patterns) of

P or “He cut the knife with the SALAMI.”

E This suggests that prosodic features of the

H vance of its production and that the instruc-

independently of the prosodic instructions.

The captain of the port thanks Captain Belknap for the

The American Consul, Mr. Bishop, then took the Committee,

Cabinet of the Commissario Regio,

RETURN OF THE “BAYERN.”

Ambulance of Italian Red Cross in Naples.

DISTRIBUTION OF SUPPLIES AND MONEY BY