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Elsevier Series on Tribology and Surface
Engineering
Machining and Tribology

Processes, Surfaces, Coolants, and
Modeling
Edited by
Alokesh Pramanik
School of Civil and Mechanical Engineering
Curtin University
Bentley, WA
Australia
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Contributors
Zafar Alam Department of Mechanical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology

(Indian School of Mines), Dhanbad, Jharkhand, India
P.P. Bandyopadhyay Mechanical Engineering Department, Indian Institute of
Technology Kharagpur, Kharagpur, West Bengal, India
A.K. Basak Adelaide Microscopy, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA,
Australia; Adelaide Microscopy, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, Australia
Bikash Chandra Behera Department of Mechanical Engineering, C. V. Raman
Global University, Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India; Department of Mechanical Engineer-
ing, Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, New Delhi, India
Marta Bogdan-Chudy Opole University of Technology, Faculty of Mechanical
Engineering, Opole, Mikolajczyka, Poland
Akshay Chaudhari Department of Mechanical Engineering, National University of
Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
Pei Chen Institute of Electronics Packaging Technology & Reliability, College of
Mechanical Engineering & Applied Electronics Technology, Beijing University of
Technology, Beijing, Hebei, PR China
Chetan Department of Mechanical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology
Bhubaneswar, Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India
Mohd Danish Department of Mechanical and Materials Engineering, University of
Jeddah, Jeddah, Makkah, Saudi Arabia
A.R. Dixit Department of Mechanical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology
(Indian School of Mines), Dhanbad, Jharkhand, India
Qihong Fang College of Mechanical and Vehicle Engineering, Hunan University,
Changsha, Hunan, People’s Republic of China
Gourhari Ghosh Mechanical Engineering Department, Indian Institute of Technol-
ogy Kharagpur, Kharagpur, West Bengal, India
Sudarsan Ghosh Department of Mechanical Engineering, Indian Institute of
Technology Delhi, New Delhi, India
x Contributors
Munish Kumar Gupta Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Opole University of

Technology, Opole, Poland
Faiz Iqbal Institute for Integrated Micro and Nano Systems, School of Engineering,
University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, Scotland, United Kingdom
Sunil Jha Department of Mechanical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology,
New Delhi, India
Grzegorz Kr olczyk Opole University of Technology, Faculty of Mechanical Engi-
neering, Opole, Mikolajczyka, Poland
Mayank Kumar Mechanical Engineering Department, Indian Institute of Technol-
A. Senthil Kumar Department of Mechanical Engineering, National University of
Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
Jia Li College of Mechanical and Vehicle Engineering, Hunan University, Chang-
sha, Hunan, People’s Republic of China
Chenshuo Liu Institute of Electronics Packaging Technology & Reliability, College
of Mechanical Engineering & Applied Electronics Technology, Beijing University of
Technology, Beijing, Hebei, PR China
K. Bimla Mardi Department of Mechanical Engineering, Indian Institute of Tech-
nology (Indian School of Mines), Dhanbad, Jharkhand, India
Mozammel Mia Department of Mechanical and Production Engineering, Ahsanul-
lah University of Science and Technology, Dhaka, Bangladesh
Piotr Niesłony Opole University of Technology, Faculty of Mechanical Engineer-
ing, Opole, Mikolajczyka, Poland
Chander Prakash School of Mechanical Engineering, Lovely Professional Univer-
sity, Phagwara, Punjab, India
Alokesh Pramanik School of Civil and Mechanical Engineering, Curtin University,
Bentley, WA, Australia; Department of Mechanical Engineering, Curtin University,
Bentley, WA, Australia
Muhommad Azizur Rahman Department of Mechanical and Production Engineer-
ing, Ahsanullah University of Science and Technology, Dhaka, Bangladesh
P. Venkateswara Rao Department of Mechanical Engineering, Indian Institute of
Technology Delhi, New Delhi, India
Malarvizhi Sankaranarayanasamy Department of Mechanical Engineering,
National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
Contributors xi
Neeraj Sharma Department of Mechanical Engineering, Maharishi Markandeshwar

(Deemed to Be University), Ambala, Haryana, India
Ajay M. Sidpara Mechanical Engineering Department, Indian Institute of Technol-
Yuanyuan Tian College of Mechanical and Vehicle Engineering, Hunan Univer-
sity, Changsha, Hunan, People’s Republic of China
Zhiwei Zhang State Key Laboratory of Nonlinear Mechanics (LNM), Institute of
Mechanics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, Hebei, PR China; School of Engi-
neering Science, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, Hebei, PR
China
Preface
Material removal during the machining processes occurs at high stress, strain, strain
rate, and temperature; therefore, the tribology in the cutting tooleworkpiece and toole
chip interfaces plays an important role on the quality of the machined product. The
tribology in the machining zone is very complex as multiple factors simultaneously
contribute to the outcomes of the machining processes. Those parameters include
(a) types of machining such as, turning, milling, and grinding; (b) machining strategy;
(c) machining variables such as, feed, depth of cut, and cutting speed; (d) cutting tool
material and coating; (e) cutting tool geometry; (f) properties of workpiece material;
and (g) type of cooling and technique of its application. Wear mechanisms such as
abrasion, adhesion, diffusion, and attrition combine to form distinct wear
topographies such as flank, crater, and notch wear on the cutting tool surfaces. Gener-
ally, a single wear type dominates for a specific machining arrangement though all
might appear concurrently. This book consists of 10 chapters covering the different
aspects of machining tribology as well as producing machined surface with tribolog-
ical properties.
Chapter 1 presents the current state of knowledge on tribological phenomena in
cutting. The focus is on the presentation of design solutions of tribometers reflecting
the frictional conditions during cutting proposed by various scientists. The analysis
of the scope of research by various groups of scientists was conducted mainly in the
context of tribological research carried out on hard-to-cut materials. The methods of
evaluation of the dynamic phenomena recorded during frictional tests based on vibra-
tion sensors are discussed. The subject of problems of frictional testing is approached
in a complex way, combining a number of results into coherent information about the
process and tribological conditions in the evaluated tribological pairs.
Chapter 2 deals with the tribological and thermal aspects of various lubricoolant
techniques such as high-pressure jet (HPJ), minimum quantity lubrication (MQL),
nanoparticles-based MQL, and cryogenic cooling. All the techniques are compared
to highlight the benefits and their sustainability in metal cutting by conducting a
case study on the machining of nickel-based Inconel 718 alloy. Cryogenic and
nanoparticles-based MQL are presented as the most promising cooling and lubrication
techniques. A 23.5% reduction of cutting force is recorded for nanoparticle-based
MQL and 16.75% reduction of cutting force is obtained in cryogenic cooling.
Chapter 3 investigates the fundamental understandings of the effects of cooling
and lubrication on the toolework interfaces in machining. The parameters of interest
xiv Preface
for different techniques are presented along with state-of-the-art scientific advance-
ments in turning, milling, drilling, and grinding processes. Considering the widespread
application of coolants that work as lubricants too, the advanced application method-
ologies are presented and analyzed in detail from modeling, simulation, and experi-
mental perspectives. Different cooling-lubrication agents are categorized from
tribological perspective. Key performance indicators such as cutting temperature, sur-
face quality, and microstructure, residual stress, tool wear, tool life, chip morphology,
cutting force, energy, and frictional behavior are covered.
Chapter 4 investigates the effects of abrasive wear by simulating the conditions
that take place during machining in sand abrasion test instruments. Hard nanostruc-
tured cermet coatings, namely nanostructured WC-Co and FeCu/Al2O3/Al, with about
250 mm thickness, were deposited by high-velocity oxy-fuel (HVOF) and atmospheric
plasma spraying (APS) techniques on stainless steel 304 substrate. Experimental data
on abrasive wear of such coatings were reported under both dry and wet abrasion con-
ditions. The relatively higher abrasion resistance of such coatings when compared with
reference metallic materials is due to the formation of small debris that roll between the
moving surfaces and thus limit the wear of the workpiece materials. Another aspect of
higher abrasive wear resistance is homogeneous distribution of hard (WC and Al2O3)
particles within the relatively soft matrix (Co and FeCu) as revealed by SEM investi-
gation on wear scars of the samples after abrasion tests. Different types of water jet
machining are now commonly used in many industries.
Chapter 5 investigates the tribology of water jet machining. The process removes
materials by abrasion and erosion. However, the erosion process also affects the
machining system causing changes in the nozzle bore profile and diameter. The
wear of nozzle affects the performance and precision of the machining process. The
effects of nozzle length, inlet angle, nozzle diameter, water pressure, and abrasive
properties on the nozzle wear are discussed. In addition, wear test procedures and
wear monitoring process of nozzle wear are also outlined.
Chapter 6 investigates ball-end magnetorheological finishing (BEMRF), which is
a nanofinishing process for processing 3D surfaces of a large variety of materials such
as glass, steel, copper, polycarbonates, silicon, etc. Under the influence of magnetic
field, abrasive-laden balls of magnetorheological polishing fluid present at the tip of
the tool remove material from the workpiece surface. The knowledge of forces asso-
ciated with the process aids in understanding the material removal mechanism and the
process physics. Also, the prediction of finishing spot plays a vital role in increasing
the process capabilities of BEMRF process in the area of localized/selective finishing.
In this chapter, a theoretical model of finishing forces is presented that helps in the in-
depth understanding of the nanofinishing process. In addition, a theoretical model of
finishing spot size is also proposed. Depending upon the area of workpiece to be
finished locally/selectively, the finishing spot model provides a deterministic way to
alter the size of the finishing spot of BEMRF process by changing the finishing
parameters.
Chapter 7 uses molecular dynamics (MD) to investigate tribology of precision
machining. In case of precision machining, there are limitations of existing measure-
ment technique on observation of nanoscale materials removal mechanism. Therefore,
Preface xv
a numerical simulation method is needed to observe various physical phenomena at the

nanoscale and carry out microscopic interpretations. Microcosmic interpretation can
guide the manufacturing process and predict possible problems. MD is considered
to be one of the most suitable numerical simulation methods. MD method is used to
simulate the whole machining process and analyze the changes of various machining
parameters in the process, so as to predict and guide the machining process. In this
chapter, the application of MD in tribology is systematically described by presenting
the important parameters in modeling and machining. Potential energy function, model
size effect, boundary condition, machining parameters, and tool geometry parameters
in MD machining model are discussed. Materials removal is related to the cutting
force, energy, and frictional coefficient in MD model. Residual stress and surface
and subsurface damage can also be evaluated by MD machining process.
Chapter 8 reviews recent works on nanometric machining to help understand tribo-
logical behavior. The fundamentals of nanometric machining in terms of friction, ma-
terial removal, tool wear, and lubrication are discussed for deep understanding of the
physical mechanisms of nanomachining-induced tribological behavior.
Chapter 9 presents an extended overview of typical topographies produced by
various machining processes such as turning, milling, grinding, lapping, and honing.
The functional performances of different machined surfaces are compared based on
their topographical features for both dry and lubricated conditions. Few advanced sur-
face texture parameters are employed for the better assessment of the functional
behaviors. It is perceived that in addition to surface roughness, bearing area ratio,
density and sharpness of the peaks, peaks height distributions, fluid retainability,
surface texture pattern, and texture direction are also important parameters to
understand surface characteristics. A few micromachining processes that are used
for microscale surface texturing are reported. It is found that tribological properties
of the components can be considerably improved by optimizing the texture patterns.
A comparison of tribological behaviors among as-sprayed, ground, and nanofinished
WC-Co coatings is presented, and it is found that the wear resistance of the coating can
be significantly improved upon nanofinishing.
Chapter 10 employs a single-lip deep hole drilling process to fabricate high-aspect-
ratio holes; however, its performance is severely affected when it is used to machine
Inconel 718. Excessive tool wear, chip clogging, and out-of-tolerance holes were
observed during the process. Due to its unique unsymmetrical geometry, single-lip
drill experiences high wear rate at the bearing pads despite high-pressure coolant sup-
ply during drilling. In this chapter, microtextures are introduced on the bearing pad sur-
faces to address the tool wear issues in deep hole drilling. The most effective
microstructure geometries were identified based on the experimental studies, which
led to improved tool life, machined surface quality, and drill stability.
The editor would like to acknowledge the fine contributions of all the authors who
participated to this book.
Alokesh Pramanik
Contents
Contributors ix
Preface xiii
1 An introduction to machining tribology 1

Marta Bogdan-Chudy, Piotr Niesłony, and Grzegorz Krolczyk
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Friction 2
1.3 Construction designs for tribometers 4
1.4 Determination of friction conditions 13
1.5 Tribological studies 15
1.6 Summary 34
References 35
2 The underlying mechanisms of coolant contribution in the machining

process 37
Bikash Chandra Behera, Chetan, Sudarsan Ghosh, and
P. Venkateswara Rao
2.1 Introduction 37
2.2 Machining difficulties 39
2.3 Tool wear 39
2.4 Machining forces 42
2.5 Surface integrity 43
2.6 Conventional coolant and tribology 48
2.7 High-pressure jet cooling and tribology 49
2.8 Cryogenic cooling and tribology 50
2.9 Minimum quantity lubrication cooling and tribology 52
2.10 Nano cutting fluid in MQL mode and tribology 54
2.11 Machining of Inconel 718: A case study 54
2.12 Summary 62
References 62
3 Advanced cooling-lubrication technologies in metal machining 67

Mozammel Mia, Muhommad Azizur Rahman, Munish Kumar Gupta,
Neeraj Sharma, Mohd Danish, and Chander Prakash
3.1 Introduction 67
3.2 Advanced cooling and lubrication technologies 70
vi Contents
3.3 Control parameters 75

3.4 Effects on process performance indicators 80
3.5 Considerations for cutting fluid selection 88
3.6 Conclusion 89
References 89
4 Abrasive wear during machining of hard nanostructured cermet

coatings 93
A.K. Basak and Alokesh Pramanik
4.1 Introduction 93
4.2 Friction and wear 96
4.3 Materials and methodology 98
4.4 Results and discussion 102
4.5 Failure mechanisms 109
4.6 Conclusions 111
References 111
5 Tribology in (abrasive) water jet machining: A review 113

K. Bimla Mardi, A.R. Dixit, Alokesh Pramanik, and A.K. Basak
5.1 Introduction 113
5.2 Nozzle wear test procedure 115
5.3 Influence of parameters on nozzle wear 119
5.4 Nozzle wear monitoring 122
5.5 Conclusion 123
References 123
6 Modeling and analysis of forces and finishing spot size in the ball
end magnetorheological finishing (BEMRF) process 127
Zafar Alam, Faiz Iqbal, and Sunil Jha
6.2 Mechanism of material removal in the BEMRF process 133
6.3 Modeling of forces 135
6.4 Parametric analysis of forces in the BEMRF process 143
6.5 Modeling of finishing spot size in the BEMRF process 148
6.6 Parametric analysis of finishing spot size in the BEMRF process 153
6.7 Conclusion 159
Exercises 159
References 160
7 Simulation of force, energy, and surface integrity during nanometric

machining by molecular dynamics (MD) 163
Chenshuo Liu, Pei Chen, and Zhiwei Zhang
7.2 Modeling and simulation methods at an atomistic level 164
7.3 Tribological behavior of machining processes 171
Contents vii
7.4 Surface generation and subsurface damage 177

7.5 Conclusions 182
References 182
8 Molecular dynamics simulation of friction, lubrication, and tool

wear during nanometric machining 187
Jia Li, Yuanyuan Tian, and Qihong Fang
8.2 Models and methods 188
8.3 Key parameters induced by friction in machining processes 190
8.4 Tribological behavior 193
8.5 Summary 206
Acknowledgments 207
References 207
9 Tribological aspects of different machining processes 213

Gourhari Ghosh, Mayank Kumar, Ajay M. Sidpara, and
P.P. Bandyopadhyay
9.2 Advanced surface texture parameters for tribological aspects 216
9.3 Tribological performances in relation to machining processes 219
9.4 Surface texturing using micromachining processes 227
9.5 Tribological behaviors of WC-Co coating 230
9.6 Summary 233
Acknowledgments 235
References 235
10 Surface texturing for improved tribological performance in

deep hole drilling 239
Akshay Chaudhari, Malarvizhi Sankaranarayanasamy, and
A. Senthil Kumar
10.2 Application of microstructures in machining 243
10.3 Application of textures in DHD 247
10.4 Experimental results and discussion 248
10.5 Summary 255
References 256
Index 259
An introduction to machining
tribology 1
Marta Bogdan-Chudy, Piotr Niesłony, Grzegorz Kro lczyk
Opole University of Technology, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Opole, Mikolajczyka,
Poland
1.1 Introduction
The development of modern structural and tooling materials forces intensive research
work to be carried out in order to implement these modern materials rationally into the
mechanical engineering and modern machining industry.
For this reason, issues related to friction and wear of tool materials remain signif-
icant areas of research in machining and process modeling. Unfortunately, current
knowledge is still insufficient for the correct and accurate modeling of mechanical,
thermal, and tribological phenomena in machining. Although mechanical or thermal
interactions can be modeled numerically or even empirically quite accurately, the
tribological interactions in the cutting process, especially with the use of modern
tool materials, are very poorly researched.
For example, current methods for determining the relevant friction coefficient
values are based on unacceptable simplifications, which are related, for example, to
the use of an orthogonal cutting model or are based only on basic correlations within
Coulomb’s law. It is generally accepted that the constant Coulomb friction coefficient,
still most often used in FEM simulations, cannot correctly reflect the contact condi-
tions at the chipetool edgeeworkpiece contact point without taking into account
the actual mechanical loads and the change in thermal conditions under varying, dy-
namic cutting-edge loading. Therefore, it is important and advisable to conduct tribo-
logical studies in order to learn about the phenomena occurring in cutting. In addition,
there is a lack of information on changes in the frictional and thermal characteristics as
the function of the sliding distance/time, which does not allow for rational modeling of
tool wear with consideration of thermal impact over a longer period of time.
The extended and multicriteria analysis of causeeeffect phenomena, which are
related to the tribology of the tested material pairs, contributes to a better understand-
ing of the contact interaction that occurs in these material pairs under conditions
similar to high-speed cutting (HSC). Aiming to achieve, in tribological bench tests,
real frictional conditions observed in the machining of hard-to-machine materials
for cases of HSC may influence the development of this field of science and the acqui-
sition of reliable information for further analyses and numerical analyses, forming the
foundation for multicriteria optimization of machining processes in the modern
machining industry.
Machining and Tribology. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-819889-6.00009-5

Copyright © 2022 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
2 Machining and Tribology
1.2 Friction
Friction is a set of phenomena occurring in the area of contact between two moving
bodies, resulting in resistance to movement [1,2]. Friction is a common phenomenon
in nature, and it is the primary cause of wear and tear on machine parts and loss of
functional properties. Friction causes material loss on the surface and changes in the
surface layer. Friction can be divided into different types, depending on the criterion
adopted. The basic division of friction and its types are shown in Fig. 1.1.
Friction is one of the basic issues of analysis and assessment in the machining pro-
cess. The phenomena of plastic strain, decohesion, and friction occurring during cut-
ting are the result of the impact of the tool on the workpiece. As a result, the removed
material layer of the workpiece is permanently separated, and the technological surface
layer is formed with a specified geometric surface structure and physicomechanical
properties.
The basic friction characteristics of the cutting process are as follows:
• changes in the physicalemechanical state of the contact surface,
• cold weld junction of the workpiece material with the tool material,
• the complex nature of the distribution of normal and tangential stresses on the contact surfaces
and the very short contact time between tool, chip, and workpiece during continuous
refreshing of the contact zone.
Friction depends to a large extent on the mechanical and physical properties of
tribological pair materials. In relation to the cutting process, the factors influencing
the friction coefficient value, in addition to the rake angle of the insert, include the
fricon
criterion:
area internal external
wear wear fricon fricon without wearing
state
stac kinec
moon
dry lubricated
contact
dry physical technical dry fliud boundary mixed
type
rolling sliding
moon
Figure 1.1 Friction types.

An introduction to machining tribology 3
temperature in the cutting zone, the unit pressure value, and the lubricating properties
of the machining fluids, that is, generally speaking, the conditions in which cutting
takes place.
Friction has a major impact on the plastic strain in the chip formation zone and thus
on the component values of the cutting force or the cutting temperature. A key feature
of the cutting process is the close relationship between the plastic strain in the chip for-
mation zone and the course of tribological phenomena in the contact zone between the
material being machined and the insert edge. As a result of the impact of the cutting
edge on the workpiece material, external friction in the contact zones results in wear
of the cutting edge of the tool.
The tribological model of the cutting zone shown in Fig. 1.2 assumes the identity of
tribological actions on the rake face and the flank face [3].
The friction in the toolechip zone is complex. Physically dry (A) and technologi-
cally dry (B) friction zones may be distinguished on the nonlubricated surfaces of the
insert. If the cooling lubricants are supplied, mixed friction will occur. In the zone (C),
the chip loses contact with the rake face [3]. The distinction of (A) and (B) zones is
difficult to achieve in practice, therefore transitional zones are introduced. In the sub-
zone (A), the tribological pair of cutting edgeeworkpiece material reaches close con-
tact. There is also the effect of seizure due to the braking of the movement of the
peripheral chip particles. Characteristic phenomena for this subzone are adhesion
and diffusion. In the zone adjacent directly to the cutting edge, the tangential stresses
exceed the shear yield point of the chip material and therefore an internal flow of the
material is possible [3].
cutting movement
zone A zone A-B zone B zone C
chip and workpiece
tool
chip
tool
C
B
A B
workpiece
Figure 1.2 Tribological characteristics of the cutting zone: (a) physically dry friction zone,
(b) technologically dry friction zone, aeb, transition zone with strong adhesive effect, (c), zone
of chip separation from the rake face.
In the subzone (AeB), as a result of high contact stresses in the contact zone of ir-
regularities occurring on the surface of newly shaped chip and the rake face, adhesion
joints are formed [3].
In subzone (B) the interaction of tribological pair elements (chiperake face) is of
elastic nature. In this subzone, which is far from the cutting edge, chip displacement
occurs due to external slip on the rake face, which is equivalent to a pure sliding fric-
tion process.
Physically dry friction occurs when the cooperating friction pairs are not separated
by a third object. Such friction can be observed only in the zone (A). In practice, it is
difficult to obtain such conditions because on the surfaces of the bodies in contact,
there are gas particles adsorbed from the air and the products of their reaction with
components of the friction surface, where oxides, hydroxides, nitrides, and other com-
pounds are formed. Therefore, despite dry machining, friction is technologically dry
rather than physically dry. Technologically dry friction, in terms of machining, is high-
ly dependent on tribological pair materials, their mechanical and physical properties,
the type of machining and surface roughness.
It is assumed that the friction occurring in the cutting zone is caused by three domi-
nant physical phenomena. The first one is adhesion, which causes welding and
shearing of microjoints formed by the contacting peaks of microasperities at appro-
priate pressures and temperatures. The second phenomenon is the plastic strain of
microasperities causing the plastic flow of the material if two objects of the tribological
pair move relative to each other. This phenomenon is the basis for the determination of
the static friction coefficient. Another physical phenomenon occurring in the cutting
zone is grooving, otherwise known as furrowing. The grooving of the material by
the rounded cutting edge causes the material to flow sideways without separating it.
1.3 Construction designs for tribometers

Friction is one of the fundamental problems in scientific research on the modeling of
the machining process. Friction is a complex, heterogeneous process determined by
many phenomena depending on many parameters and conditions. The current knowl-
edge of friction in the machining is based on the orthogonal cutting model and the
Coulomb law [4]. Many eminent scientists, such as Leonardo da Vinci, Amontos,
Coulomb, and Bowden, conducted research into the friction process and formulated
better and better correlations from which the value of the friction coefficient could
be calculated. As a result, however, there is no sufficiently accurate mechanical, ther-
mal, and tribological model covering all the features of phenomena occurring in the
friction process.
Scientists use two approaches to investigate tribological phenomena between the
tool and the workpiece. The first approach is to analyze the machining process, while
the second approach is to conduct dedicated tribological tests in laboratory conditions
[5]. Improved test methods and tribometer designs provide a more detailed understand-
ing of the friction phenomenon in the cutting process.
In the first approach, research is usually based solely on the analysis of the cutting pro-
cess. During the tests, the components of the cutting force and temperature are measured
[5]. After experimental tests, tool geometry and chip microstructure are analyzed. Based
on the known geometry of the cutting edge, registered components of the cutting force Fc,
Ff, chip upset cracking measurements and appropriate trigonometric correlations, the
value of the friction angle, the friction force and the normal force on the flank face, and
consequently the value of the friction coefficient at the contact between the chip and
the cutting edge (on the rake face) can be determined. In this case, the mean coefficient
of friction of the chip against the rake face mgn can be determined as follows (1.1) [3,6]:
Fgn Fn
mgn ¼ n ¼ (1.1)
FgN Fm
where: Fgn is the friction force, and FgNn is the normal force acting on the rake face.
In the literature there are many papers on friction modeling, based on trigonometric
analyses [7,8] or FEM modeling [9,10]. Of course, this type of test is a kind of simpli-
fication, giving good results for selected, special friction conditions. It is still difficult
to obtain reliable and detailed information on local pressures and contact temperatures.
Therefore, there are also many papers in the literature [11e18] devoted to the second
approach consisting of the determination of the coefficient of friction using tribological
tests based on various types of tribometers.
The construction of tribometers, depending on their purpose and conditions of coop-
eration in a tribological pair, can be divided into two types: devices in open and closed
systems [14]. The open-system tribometer allows the pin to slide against the surface of a
roller or pipe always on fresh material, thanks to a renovating tool in front of or behind
the pin, which refreshes the surface on which it moves. In the case of closed systems, the
pin moves on the disc without refreshing the surface on which it moves.
Olsson et al. [19] presented a tribometer configuration (Fig. 1.3a) in which the pin is
placed just behind the cutting tool during machining. In this case, the pin always moves
on the refreshed surface. The sliding velocity and contact temperature are similar to
those of dry machining, but the contact pressure remains low (about 15 MPa) due to
the lack of adequate rigidity of the system and the risk of chip formation before the pin.
The device proposed by Zemzemi et al. [20] enables a higher contact pressure (up to
3 GPa) at high sliding velocities (up to 400 m/min). The construction (Fig. 1.3b) re-
quires fixing in the lathe holder the workpiece in the form of a pipe. The cutting
tool refreshes the surface on one side of the pipe, while the pin contacts the refreshed
surface on the other side. However, the friction time is limited to about 10 s, which
does not allow for long wear tests.
In the construction of the tribometer, proposed by Hedenqvist at al [21]. (Fig. 1.3c),
the friction pin against the roller surface moves in the screw line always on fresh track,
uncontaminated with residues of worn particles. The device mounted on a lathe allows
to obtain a sliding velocity of up to 3 m/s and a contact pressure of up to 15 MPa,
which is insufficient in comparison to the pressure that occurs during machining. In
addition, the device has a limited frictional path, and it is not possible to simulate actual
contact conditions during machining.
a) b)
cutting insert
thin-walled spheroidal pin
pipe
workpiece
pin Cutting insert

c)
workpiece
pin
Figure 1.3 Configuration of tribometers in an open system according to (a) Olsson, (b)
Zemzemi, (c) Hedenqvist.
Redrawn from F. Zemzemi, et al., New tribometer designed for the characterisation of the
friction properties at the tool/chip/workpiece interfaces in machining, Tribotest 14 (1) (2008)
11e25.
The changed configuration of the tribometer (Fig. 1.4) based on Hedenqvist’s

concept was proposed by Rech at el. [22], Bonnet at al. [11], Courbon at al. [24], Clau-
din at al. [23], Ega~
na at al. [25], and Zemzemi at al [18]. The test was carried out on a
cylindrical roller mounted in the lathe holder. The spherical pin was pressed against the
Figure 1.4 Configuration of the tribometer.

Redrawn from Refs. [11,18,22e25].
roller surface by means of a pneumatic actuator. The axial movement combined with
the rotary movement of the roller caused the spiral movement of the pin on the roller.
The kinematics of the lathe provided a wide range of sliding velocities. After each fric-
tion test, the cutting insert refreshed the roller surface. The construction of the tribom-
eter, according to these authors, allows to simulate the contact conditions between the
tool, the chip, and the workpiece during machining. Testing is possible at a contact
pressure of 1 O 3 GPa and a sliding velocity of 75 O 150 m/min.
Another concept of the tribometer (Fig. 1.5) was proposed by Krajnik et al. [15].
The advantage of this solution is the use of cutting inserts instead of a pin, as suggested
by Rech and others. A dynamometer installed in the lathe allows the measurement of
friction forces, a pneumatic piston provides the desired normal force (pressure), and
the feed of the tool provides a spiral contact path. The authors of this solution conduct-
ed tests for a force of 10 N, which for the contact obtained corresponds to a contact
pressure of about 1 GPa and a sliding velocity of 70e150 m/min.
Smolenicki et al. [16] suggested an interesting way of measuring the friction coef-
ficient with a tribometer in an orthogonal turning system, directly on a lathe. In this
design (Fig. 1.6), a spherical pin is mounted behind the cutting insert, so that friction
takes place on the fresh surface. The pin is positioned close to the contact zone
(14 mm), ensuring a short distance between the material to be machined by the cutting
edge and the friction element. Such location of the pin prevented oxidation of the
freshly formed surface. The pin was pressed against the frictional surface by means
of a spring. The pressure value was determined on the basis of previous measurements
of the cutting force. The friction was measured with the Kistler piezoelectric dyna-
mometer. The tests were carried out for contact pressure of about 1e3 GPa and sliding
velocity of 20e300 m/min.
Figure 1.5 Configuration of the tribometer.

Redrawn from P. Krajnik, et al., Transitioning to sustainable production - part III: developments
and possibilities for integration of nanotechnology into material processing technologies, J.
Clean. Prod. 112 (2015) 1156e1164.
a)
dynamometer
contact
zone b)
workpiece
tool holder
ring
A Fy A
pin
Ft Fz
pyrometer
cung edge cung insert
A:A pin
dynamometer
spring
rotaon workpiece (ring)
Figure 1.6 Tribometer setting during orthogonal turning on lathe (a), diagram and geometric
cutting conditions (b).
(a) Redrawn from D. Smolenicki, et al., In-process measurement of friction coefficient in
orthogonal cutting. CIRP Ann. - Manuf. Technol. 63 (1) (2014) 97e100, (b) Redrawn from R.
Voss, et al., Cutting process tribometer experiments for evaluation of friction coefficient close to
a CFRP machining operation, Procedia CIRP 66 (2017) 204e209.
The construction of the tribometer proposed by Smolenicki for tribological research

was used in a publication by Voss at al [17]. and Meier at al [26]. (Fig. 1.7a). The trib-
ometer elements were miniaturized to achieve high rigidity. In contrast to the previous
solutions, the workpiece was a cylindrical shaft, which did not require prior prepara-
tion [16,18]. The tribometer allows to measure the friction coefficient during the cut-
ting process (Fig. 1.7a), as well as to measure the friction on a closed track (pin-on-disc
measurement, Fig. 1.7b) and on an Archimedean spiral, on a fresh surface (Fig. 1.7c).
Such design of the tribological system enables comparison of the results of friction co-
efficient measurement carried out in different configurations.
a) b) c)
cutting tool
workpiece vf
workpiece ece
workpiece
pin Fn pin Fn pin Fn
vc vc
vc
Figure 1.7 Schematic diagrams of the three tribometer configurations used to carry out
measurement: during machining (a), pin-on-disc (b), Archimedean spiral (c). Workpiece (1),
tungsten carbide pin mounted on a three-component dynamometer (2), cutting tool (3).
Redrawn from L. Meier, et al., In-process measurement of the coefficient of friction on titanium,
Procedia CIRP 58 (2017) 163e168.
Grzesik, Zalisz, and Niesłony [12] proposed a closed tribosystem configuration of

the tribometer. The design of the device enables testing for a long friction path and
measurement of the friction force and linear wear of tribological pair. In this system,
the sample (cutting insert) moves on the countersample (disc) on a closed track without
any additional tool to refresh the surface of the disc (Fig. 1.8).
This tribometer, whose schematic structure is shown in Fig. 1.9, was used to test the
abrasion resistance of some coatings on cutting tools using high sliding velocities of up
to 3 m/s and long friction times of up to 1200 s. According to the authors, the pressing
force of the cutting insert to the disc allowed to achieve a contact pressure of 10 MPa,
which seems to be insufficient to simulate the contact conditions at the point of chip
contact with the tool’s rake face.
cutting insert
Figure 1.8 Configuration of a closed-circuit tribometer.
Redrawn from W. Grzesik, et al., Friction and wear testing of multilayer coatings on carbide
substrates for dry machining applications, Surf. Coatings Technol. 155 (1) (2002) 37e45.
dynamometer pin disc

inductive sensor
Figure 1.9 Diagram of the pin-on-disc tribometer.

Redrawn from W. Grzesik, et al., Friction and wear testing of multilayer coatings on carbide
substrates for dry machining applications, Surf. Coatings Technol. 155 (1) (2002) 37e45.
In a publication Zanger et al. [27] carried out tribological tests on a tribometer CETR
UMT 3 by Bruker in a closed-circuit system of insert-on-disc type (Fig. 1.10). The
design of the tribometer allows the use of cutting inserts instead of a pin, resulting in
a contact geometry similar to that of a cutting machine. The tests were carried out for
normal force 10, 20, and 40 N and sliding velocity from 0.2 to 10 m/s.
On the basis of the tribometer concept of Meier and Zalisz, the author’s tribometer
construction based on the principle of closed tribological systems was presented.
Tribological tests are performed on a research device comparable to pin-on-disc trib-
ometers, which enables cooperation of tribological pair in the sampleecountersample
system. The general visualization of the test stand is shown in Fig. 1.11, whereas the
diagram of the measuring track used during tribological tests is presented in Fig. 1.12.
Figure 1.10 Tribometer CETR UMT 3 of insert-on-disc type.

Redrawn from F. Zanger, et al., Simulative investigations on different friction coefficient
models. Procedia CIRP 58 (2017) 140e145.
a)
b)
pin (insert)
disc
an-samlpe
holder
engine
guided
cylinder
sample holder
base
base plate
dynamometer
dynamometer engine plate

guideways strollers
guideways
Figure 1.11 Tribological test stand: (a) real view, (b) CAD model.
The construction of the tribometer allows for:

• uniformly rotating countersample movement,
• stepless sliding velocity adjustment for fixed sample dimensions in the range of
0.3e800 m/min,
• stepless adjustment of sample normal load in the range of 50e300 N,
• continuous contact of the sample with the disc thanks to the pneumatic pressure system,
• measurement and rotational speed control using an encoder,
• measurement of normal and friction force using Kistler 9129AAA piezoelectric dynamometer
in configuration with Kistler 5070A10100 signal amplifier,
• temperature measurement in the natural thermocouple system,
• vibration measurement using the IMI 603C01 single-axis accelerometer with a sensitivity of
100 mV/g,
Dynamometer
Kistler model
9129AA
Pneumatic
cylinder
Signal
conditioning
Motor Inverter
Kistler
5070A10100
Encoder
E6B2-CWZ5B
Accelerometer
IMI 603C01
Sliding Friction Temperature in
Normal force Acceleration
veelocity force the contact area
Terminal cDAQ
NI 9375 Computer with
data acquisition
software LabVIEW
NI9234
NI9215
Terminal Block
NI 9214
Figure 1.12 Scheme of the measurement track used for tribological tests.
• smooth and free approach of the countersample to the sample by using a linear guide (consist-
ing of a rolling carriage and an HIWIN profile rail) mounted between the base plate and the
motor base,
• recording and archiving measurement data from all sensors in real time in LabVIEW software.
The test stand for tribological tests is equipped with:
• a computer connected to the test stand by means of National Instruments measurement
modules,
• a three-phase electric motor with a power of 2.2 kW and a nominal speed of 1400 rpm with a
frequency converter,
• dedicated elements for mounting the piezoelectric dynamometer together with the sample
holder,
• pneumatic clamping system of the countersample to the stationary sample (double piston
pneumatic actuator),
• encoder for measuring and stabilizing the rotational speed of a sample.
The speed of the countersample (disc) is measured with the E6B2-CWZ5B encoder,
supplied with 12e24 V DC, with a resolution of 2000 pulses per revolution (PPR) and
a maximum operating speed of 6000 rpm and a maximum sampling frequency of
20 kHz. The applied three-phase electric motor with power of 2.2 kW and nominal
rotational speed of 1400 rpm drives the countersample. The AC motor rotational speed
is controlled by a frequency inverter.
Directly on the motor spindle, the holder of the disc was seated, which is the anti-
sample in the friction pair tested. The second element of the tribological pair, the sam-
ple, is the cutting insert. The sample is positioned and fixed to a special holder, which
is directly attached to the piezoelectric dynamometer.
The Kistler piezoelectric dynamometer model 9129AAAA with a 10 kN
measuring range was used to measure friction and normal force (pressure). It is a
three-component piezoelectric dynamometer, which is used, among other things, for
measuring the force components in the cutting process. The signal from the dynamom-
eter was transmitted to the Kistler 5070A10100 load amplifier and transmitted to the
computer via the RJ45 interface, using a 16-bit NI9215 temperature input module from
National Instrument with a measuring range of 10 V. The visualization, processing,
and recording of the signal were carried out with the use of a proprietary program
developed in the LabVIEW environment. The signal sampling rate is set at 6 kHz.
The displacement was measured using a single-axis piezoelectric accelerometer
IMI Sensors 603C01 mounted in the sample holder. The signal from the sensor was
transmitted through the temperature input module NI9234 to the computer. Data acqui-
sition took place in LabVIEW software.
With the real acceleration signal obtained from this sensor, after a number of cal-
culations, it is possible to determine the dynamic displacement of a stationary spec-
imen (cutting insert) as a function of time/friction path. Fig. 1.11a shows the
location of the displacement sensor during tribological tests.
1.4 Determination of friction conditions

The tribology distinguishes between two types of body contact: a distributed contact
characterized by pressure, as a quotient of the normal force and the area of the contact
plane, and a concentrated contact (Hertzian) of two half-spaces with a large difference
in curvature at the point of contact [28]. Hertz’s theory assumes perfectly resilient, ho-
mogeneous, and isotropic materials, perfectly smooth surfaces, no relative movement
of contacting bodies, and no external contact forces [29]. Although in real life most of
the assumptions of Hertz’s theory are not fulfilled, it was used to determine the pres-
sure within the area of contact of a tribological pair.
Knowing the Poisson number and Young’s modulus of tribological pair materials, it
is possible to determine, based on Hertz’s formulas, the distribution of stresses occur-
ring in the contact points of these elements depending on their shape. In the case of
friction between the rake face of the insert (sample) and the spherical surface of the
countersample, the formula taking into account two cylinders with mutually perpen-
dicular axes and radii is used r1 , r2 where r1 < r2 . Fig. 1.13 shows a diagram of the
contacted parts.
Figure 1.13 Diagram of the pressed parts for the stress calculation sdH .
Numerical values of maximum load stresses (contact stresses) sdH , which achieve
the highest values at the center of the contact area, can be calculated from Formulae
(1.2) and (1.3) [29]:
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi

3 r1 þ r2 2
sdH ¼ 0; 365h F (1.2)
jr1 r2
whereby the letter j denotes the expression
1 v21 1 v22
j¼ þ (1.3)
E1 E2
where:
v1 , E1 - Poisson’s number and Young’s modulus of the roller with the radius r1 (sample),
MPa
v2 , E2 - Poisson’s number and Young’s modulus of the roller with the radius r2 (path on the
countersample), MPa
F- the force that presses the rollers, N.
Numerical values of the coefficient h are determined on the basis of the ratio b= a
where the coefficients b and a are calculated from Formulae (1.4) and (1.5):

1 1 1
a¼ þ (1.4)
2 r1 r2

1 1 1
b¼ (1.5)
2 r1 r2
1.5 Tribological studies

1.5.1 Coefficient of friction
The general friction theory should include a relationship to determine the value of the
friction coefficient, confirmed experimentally under any test conditions.
There are many hypotheses explaining the friction mechanism. The current state of
knowledge on friction is based on many theories [30]. According to Leonardo da Vin-
ci’s mechanical theory, the frictional force is independent of the contact surface, and a
body with a smoother surface has less frictional resistance than a rough body.
In the adhesion-mechanical theory by Kregielski, friction is a result of cold welding
of surface asperities on real contact surfaces and molecular attraction. In Tomlinson’s
theory, friction is the result of the adhesive interaction of the surfaces of the solid
bodies moving relative to each other. According to Dieriagin’s theory, friction is
dependent on molecular roughness of the body, i.e., on the structure of the material,
but it does not take into account the physical properties of the materials of the sliding
surfaces. Bowden’s theory is based on the formation and destruction of cold weld junc-
tions. It is based on a hypothesis that takes into account the plastic nature of the defor-
mations of the actual contact surface of the moving bodies, without taking into account
the molecular impact of the surface or the effect of roughness. Empifan theory is based
on the assumption that the shear surface at friction is much larger than the total surface
of metallic joints. According to this theory, an increase in the friction force occurs until
the actual contact area increases, i.e., as long as the unit load increases.
Regardless of the friction mechanism adopted, sliding friction between two bodies
is assumed:
• to be independent of the size of the adjacent surfaces,
• to be proportional to the contact pressure, depending on the materials and the condition of the
surfaces moving relative to each other,
• for low relative speeds, the friction force is independent on the speed,
• the friction force direction is the same as the velocity vector but has the opposite orientation.
These observations are summed up in the AmontonseCoulomb law, which binds
the friction force T and the load N to the following Formula (1.6):
T ¼ mN (1.6)
It follows that the value of the friction coefficient is given by Formula (1.7):
Ft
m¼ (1.7)
Fn
On the basis of measurements from piezoelectric dynamometer, the friction force Ft

and normal force Fn are measured (pressing force of the sample to the countersample).
The actual distribution of forces during friction tests is shown in Fig. 1.14. On the basis
of these results, it is difficult to conduct a reliable analysis. The signal should be prop-
erly filtered, e.g., by using the Hamming window smoothing method (Fig. 1.15).
Figure 1.14 Actual frictional forces (real measurement signal for sampling frequency of 6 kHz).
Figure 1.15 Actual friction force obtained from piezoelectric dynamometer and the force
distribution including Hamming window with range of 100 measurement points.
Depending on how much we want to smooth out the real signal waveform, we
should use the appropriate size of the Hamming window (e.g., 100, 500, 1000 mea-
surement points). An example of a graph with friction and normal force using a Ham-
ming window with a range of 100 measuring points is shown in Fig. 1.16.
By calculating the friction and normal forces from Formula (1.7), we obtain a graph
of the friction coefficient waveform. The higher the value of the Hamming window,
the more averaged the graph is (Fig. 1.17).
The value of the friction coefficient is related to the friction path, therefore it is
necessary to convert time into path. An example of the progress of the coefficient of
friction depending on the friction path is shown in Fig. 1.18.
By analyzing the course of the friction coefficient, it is also possible to perform a
linear approximation function and evaluate the changes in the friction coefficient value
for the sliding velocity in the initial period of the tribological pair interaction
(Fig. 1.19). Such a presentation of changes in the coefficient value allowed the obser-
vation that in all the analyzed cases, a rapid increase in m was recorded immediately
after the start of the test. It has been noted that the higher the velocity vs, the path neces-
sary to reach this maximum point decreases.
However, it is very difficult to analyze the character of changes in the friction co-
efficient on the basis of its dynamic recording. For this reason, it is possible to apply
the evaluation of the signal after statistical processing, consisting in its averaging with
a fixed constant interval of the path equal to e.g., 50 m. The effects of such calculations
are shown in Fig. 1.20.
Figure 1.16 Actual normal force obtained from piezoelectric dynamometer and the force
distribution including Hamming window with range of 100 measurement points.
Figure 1.17 Coefficient’s signal waveform with the Hamming window smoothing method.
Figure 1.18 Mean progress of the friction coefficient as a function of the friction path.
108 m
42 m
92 m
vs=150 m/min vs=200 m/min
10 m
27 m
Figure 1.19 The course of changes in the Inconel 718-WC/AlTiN friction coefficient for the
friction path up to 300 m and vs ¼ 50 O 200 m/min. Normal force 120 N.
Figure 1.20 Mean value of the friction coefficient of the pair Ti6Al4V-WC/TiAlN determined
with a fixed path interval of 50 m for a normal force FN ¼ 60 N.
The static evaluation of the friction tests may be based on the mean of friction co-
efficient. In the analyzed case, the average m value was calculated for the whole friction
path of 1000 m. The results of these calculations are shown in Fig. 1.21. Generally,
the mean friction coefficient decreased with increasing sliding velocity. The red line
in the graph from Fig. 1.21 is the trend line. For friction with a normal force of
120 N, the linear fitting gives a good approximation. For FN ¼ 120 N the trend line
is described by the equation m ¼ 0,0,023,468 vs þ 0,87,555 with R-
squared ¼ 0.965. On the basis of these equations, it has been calculated that for
FN ¼ 120 N the mean gradient with an increase of vs is 0.0023 [m/min]1 (Fig. 1.21).
Changes in the coefficient of friction can also be assessed by means of a box plot
containing information on the position, dispersion, and shape of the data distribution.
The rectangle in Fig. 1.22 is a box whose values are determined by each quartile. The
upper part of the box is determined by the third quartile and the lower part by the first
quartile. The length of the box is equal to the interquartile range. The line inside the
box, marked red on the chart, indicates the median. The dashed line marks the whiskers
at the ends with minimum and maximum values of the friction coefficient. Outliers,
i.e., significantly different from the rest of the results, were marked in red.
In this convention, the mean values of the friction coefficient for the normal force
FN ¼ 60 N and the friction path 1000 m for different sliding velocity are shown in
Fig. 1.22.
The box chart shows that for the lowest applied sliding velocity, the interquartile
range is the smallest, while for the higher vs, where the coefficient waveforms are sta-
ble with only slight fluctuations, the highest interquartile range can be seen. When
analyzing the m values, one can see that most of the data are in the range of
0.28e0.4. The outliers marked with red lines on the graph are the result of high m
values obtained in the initial period of friction.
Figure 1.21 Mean friction coefficient of the pair Inconel 718-WC/AlTiN as a function of sliding
velocity and normal force FN ¼ 120 N including the trend line (red line).
Figure 1.22 Mean values of the friction coefficient of the pair Ti6Al4V-WC/TiAlN for normal
force FN ¼ 120 N, friction path s ¼ 1000 m and different sliding velocity.
1.5.2 Temperature
During tribological tests, the frictional, normal, and thermoelectric forces ste can be
measured simultaneously. The ste values will be used to calculate the temperature
in the friction area. For this purpose, a calibration of a natural thermocouple for a given
tribological pair must be performed.
In the natural thermocouple method, the thermocouple is made up of a sample (cut-
ting insert) and a countersample (disc). The hot bond (contact) of a natural thermo-
couple is the contact surface of the cutting insert with the disc material.
Measurement using a natural thermocouple with respect to friction of Ti6Al4V and
Inconel 718 alloys with a carbide insert or any tribological pair requires electrical isola-
tion of the sample and its countersample from the rest of the system. This method also
requires precise calibration of the friction pairs to determine the relationship between
the generated ste thermoelectric force and the temperature at the point of contact. To
record the tested thermoelectric force signals, the National Instrument NI9214 temper-
ature input module and LabVIEW software can be used.
Fig. 1.23 shows the view of the natural thermocouple calibration stand for different
pairs of tested sampleecountersample materials with the specification of the contact
zone and the location of the heat source and foreign thermocouple.
The established correlations will allow to determine the temperature value for the
given friction conditions on the basis of the ste force measured.
In the case of tribological pairs in which the sample is electrically nonconductive, a
pyrometer may be used to measure the temperature. The Optris CTlaser 3 MH-CF1
pyrometer with a small measuring field was used in our own research to register the
temperature as close as possible to the place of its generation. This applies in particular
to the friction of Inconel 718 nickel alloy with whiskers-reinforced ceramics insert.
heat source
cutting insert isolated from the system
isolation
workpiece material
mV
termocouple
°C
Figure 1.23 View of the calibration stand for natural thermocouple.
The Optris CTlaser pyrometer enables contactless temperature measurement in lab-

oratory and industrial conditions. The pyrometer used in the study enables precise tem-
perature measurement of a 0.8 mm diameter point thanks to the use of the double laser
sighting. The emissivity of the sample was determined experimentally by a specialized
laboratory. The optical characteristics of the measuring head are presented in
Table 1.1.
Fig. 1.24 shows a diagram and a view of the position of the pyrometer when
measuring the surface temperature of the inserts, close to the friction area during tribo-
logical tests.
To determine the contact temperature of a tribological pair, it is necessary to use the
change of emissivity of ceramics reinforced with whiskers as a function of tempera-
ture. The range of emissivity changes was determined for the temperature range
105 O 500 C (Fig. 1.25).
Table 1.1 Parameters of the Optris CTlaser 3 MH-CF1 pyrometer measuring head.
Temperature
Measuring range 100e600 C
Resolution 0.1 K
Other parameters
Accuracy at 23 5 C, ε ¼ 1, exposure time 1 s: (0.3% of
reading þ 2 C)
Optical resolution 100:1
Spectral range 2.3 mm
Emissivity for ceramics in the temperature range 0.86e0.93
105 O 500 C
Ø=0.8 mm
a) 80 mm b)
pyrometer
Figure 1.24 Diagram of setting the pyrometer for measuring the temperature of the insert flank
face (a), view of the temperature measurement stand (b).
Figure 1.25 Emissivity of whiskers-reinforced ceramics Al2O3þSiC as a function of

temperature.
The progress of temperature changes during the friction tests of Inconel 718 nickel
alloy with a whisker-reinforced ceramic insert as a function of the friction path for
sliding velocities vs ¼ 200 and 500 m/min and normal force FN ¼ 60 and 120 N is
shown in Fig. 1.26.
Due to the high fluctuation of temperature values, caused by, among other things,
the measurement method itself and possible external disturbances, the evaluation of
temperature changes may be attempted based on a higher-order polynomial
approximation.
Figure 1.26 Temperature changes in the contact area of Inconel 718-Al2O3þSiC as a function
of the friction path for variables vs and FN.
Changes of temperature values in the contact area were presented by means of fifth
degree polynomial approximation for the friction path from 20 m (Fig. 1.27). Despite
some instability in the course of the charts assessed, it seems that the trend of temper-
ature increase along with the frictional path is maintained.
Similarly, the polynomial approximation function can be used for the temperature
changes. An example of fitting a trend line for the individual tested sliding velocities is
shown in Fig. 1.28.
On the basis of temperature changes, a stabilization area can be observed for all pa-
rameters considered, which was achieved for the friction path in the range from 150 to
Figure 1.27 Temperature approximation in the contact area of the pair Inconel 718-Al2O3þSiC
with a fifth-degree polynomial.
a) vs=200 m/min b) vs=500 m/min
Figure 1.28 Temperature in the contact area of Inconel 718- Al2O3þSiC with polynomial
approximation function: (a) vs ¼ 200 m/min, (b) vs ¼ 500 m/min.
350 m. Mean temperature values were determined for the friction path from this range,
as shown in Fig. 1.29.
The evaluation of temperature changes in relation to sliding velocity and normal
force can be illustrated by means of a column diagram showing mean temperatures
in the contact area.
The temperature can also be measured with a thermographic camera, which also re-
quires the determination of the emissivity of the tested tribological pair. For technical
reasons, temperature measurements can only be made at a certain distance from the
contact area of the tribological pair.
Figure 1.29 Mean temperature values in the contact area of the pair Inconel 718-Al2O3þSiC
determined from the friction path within the range of 150 O 350 m.
1.5.3 Displacement and friction coefficient for the tested

tribological pairs
Tribological tests of friction pairs can be carried out in a comprehensive way, regis-
tering in the function of path/friction time, in addition to the friction force and normal
force, also changes in acceleration based on different types of vibration sensors.
Fig. 1.30 shows the location of the displacement sensor during tribological tests.
Such a position allows, after a number of calculations, to establish the dynamic dis-
placements of a stationary sample (cutting insert) as a function of time/friction path.
Fig. 1.31 shows a schematic algorithm for calculating mean values of dynamic dis-
placements of the sample based on data obtained from the vibration sensor.
The evaluation of changes in the mean values of the dynamic displacements of the
sample should be carried out in correlation to the changes in the friction coefficient.
This approach is intended to try to establish possible links between the dynamic changes
in sample displacement and the corresponding changes in the friction coefficient.
The frequency and correlation of the occurrence of characteristic peaks of displace-
ment values in relation to m were evaluated.
It was observed that in many cases the peak of the line on the displacement graph is
correlated with the peak on the friction coefficient graph. A graphical representation of
these observations for FN ¼ 60 N is shown in Fig. 1.32.
A rapid increase or decrease in the displacement of a sample, referred to as its
“peak,” may be explained by the formation and breakage of a microweld in the contact
area of the sample with the countersample. As expected, this should result in changes
in the friction coefficient. It seems, however, that the signal obtained from the vibration
sensor is more sensitive to changes of contact conditions in the friction pair than the
signal from the piezoelectric dynamometer. In both cases the signals were converted
to other evaluated values (displacement and friction coefficient). Despite this, the
sensitivity to changes in contact conditions is higher when assessing the displacement
than only the change in m.
accelerometer
Figure 1.30 Location of the IMI Sensors 603C01 acceleration sensor during tribological tests.
Real acceleraon signal recorded Calculated displacement signal

from the vibraon sensor
Double integraon
Signal averaging
based on Hamming
window
Averaged displacement signal for Medium displacement

posive and negave values
Signal module
averaging
Figure 1.31 Algorithm for calculating mean values of sample dynamic displacements based on
data obtained from the vibration sensor.
1.5.4 Surface wear after tribological tests

In tribological contacts, wear occurs due to the interaction between two surfaces, and it
denotes the gradual removal of surface materials, i.e., the loss of material. During
tribological wear, the weight and/or shapes and dimensions as well as the structure
and physical properties of the abrasive materials are changed. In the process of friction,
the two tribologically cooperating surfaces are always subject to faster or slower wear.
Usually, at the beginning of the friction process, the friction coefficient increases dur-
ing the tribological pair lapping, which characterizes the relative movement resistance
of the cooperating pairs. The tribological wear and friction coefficient are the basic
properties of the tribological process.
The wear mechanisms concern coatings and machining of abrasive, adhesive, and
thermal nature. In fact, there is not only one wear mechanism, it is simultaneously
accompanied to a greater or lesser extent by other wear mechanisms. However, only
one of them is the leading process and serves as a division criterion. In the literature,
depending on the causes and effects of wear and tear, there are many classifications of
the process.
Abrasive wear occurs when the loss of material in the surface layer is caused by the
separation of particles due to microcutting, scratching, or grooving. These processes
occur when hardened or loose abrasive particles are present in the friction areas of
the cooperating elements, or when the harder material has asperities. Similarly,
oxidized wear products work in the friction area. The nature of the abrasive grains’
a)
b)
Figure 1.32 Graphical example of the correlation between characteristic displacement change
peaks in relation to the progress of the friction coefficient curve of the pair Ti6Al4V-WC/TiAlN
for FN ¼ 60 N, vs ¼ 100 m/min (a) and 150 m/min (b).
action on the abrasive material depends on its movement relative to the surface of the
material, as well as the nature and magnitude of the loads transferred by the grain.
Abrasion can be carried out by loose single grains, by grains fixed in the friction sur-
faces, by the abrasive layer between the friction surfaces, and by the abrasive jet.
Fig. 1.33 shows a model of elementary wear and tear processes due to abrasion.
Figure 1.33 Model of elementary wear processes: (a) grooving, (b) shearing of asperities,
(c) shearing of asperities with an abrasive through protrusions, (d) plastic strain of the material.
Adhesive wear is a process of surface destruction caused by the formation of junc-

tions in microareas of plastic strain of the surface layer, especially the highest peaks of
roughness. The resulting local metallic junctions of the friction surfaces are then torn
apart, leading to the destruction of these junctions as the metal particles are torn off or
smudged on the surfaces sliding against each other. Adhesive wear occurs in sliding
friction at low speeds and high unit pressures in the areas of the actual contact surface.
This type of wear also occurs when two metal surfaces with high chemical affinity
come into contact with each other.
Thermal wear occurs at high friction speeds and high pressures, which promotes the
generation of large amounts of heat, softening of the material, and even melting of the
metal on the actual contact surfaces. This process causes the deformation of the surface
layer and contributes to the formation of cold weld junctions and damage to the surface
by tearing particles away from it and smudging them on the countersurface, eventually
resulting in seizure.
Wear involving oxidation occurs when the intensity of surface damage by abrasion
is less than the intensity of oxide film formation. This type of wear involves the
destruction of the surface layer of metals and alloys in friction conditions as a result
of the separation of oxide layers resulting from the adsorption of oxygen in the areas
of friction, the diffusion of oxygen in the plastically and elastically deformed micro-
volumes of the metal with the simultaneous formation of layers of solid solutions.
Oxidation wear is most intense when metal pairs with different mechanical properties
are moving against each other, as well as in the case of multicomponent alloys, solid-
solution-based metals, or heterogeneous alloys.
This wear information, which is important from the point of view of the function-
ality of friction elements, is another step toward a better understanding of tribological
phenomena occurring in areas with intense impact of extremely different materials. For
this reason, the evaluation of tribological research cannot fail to analyze the phenom-
ena of wear.
Detailed evaluation of the friction effects of the tested tribological pairs is possible
due to observation of the wear surface of selected samples (cutting inserts) using scan-
ning microscopy SEM with EDS analysis. A lot of information can also be obtained by
analyzing images obtained using confocal and optical microscopy. The application of
different methods of observation and analysis of the surface of tested materials will
allow to present the effects and phenomena of wear in various aspects. The analysis of
EDS chemical composition and measurement on confocal microscopy allow to
confirm the observed results of wear obtained by optical microscopy. Surface profiles
of abraded samples, obtained using confocal microscopy, can also be developed in
software such as MountainsMap Premium 2.4 from Digital Surf.
Figs. 1.34 and 1.36e1.38 show example images of surface abrasion of WC/AlTiN
sample using different imaging techniques. From Fig. 1.34, it can be seen that in many
places where the sample was in contact with the countersample, the coating was
partially removed. Adhesive sticking and residues of the transferred countersample
material can be observed on the surface. The analysis of the chemical composition
by EDS (Fig. 1.35) additionally allows the thesis that during friction, there was a
mutual transfer of materials and their deposition in the contact area.
transfered Inconel 718

direcon of sliding
movement
#3
coang
#2
#1
exposed substrate
WC-Co6%
coang
Figure 1.34 SEM photo of WC/TiAlN sample surface area after friction tests of Inconel 718-
WC/TiAlN pair for FN ¼ 60 N, vs ¼ 50 m/min, s ¼ 50 m. Image with EDS points (a),
magnification of the sticking area (b).
a) coang
Content
Element
W% A%
Ti 72,19 54,54
Al 21,24 28,49
N 6,57 16,97
b) exposed substrate
Content
Element
W% A%
W 82,36 59,20
Ni 7,79 17,53
Co 4,13 9,26
Fe 3,03 7,18
Cr 2,69 6,84
c) transfered Inconel 718

Content
Element
W% A%
Ni 59,99 58,87
Fe 18,70 19,29
Cr 18,21 20,17
W 2,33 0,73
Ti 0,78 0,94
Figure 1.35 EDS spectrum at the point: #1 (a), #2 (c) and #3 (e) as shown in Fig. 1.34.
(a) coating. (b) exposed substrate. (c) transferred Inconel 718.
By observing the surface of samples with a confocal microscope, MountainsMap

can generate a surface at a selected point in the cross section and then evaluate
wear. In Figs. 1.36 and 1.37, the places where the countersample material is stuck
are clearly visible, as well as the areas where the insert core is visible, and the depth
of the insert is precisely defined.
Observing the surface of samples with an optical microscope also enables the eval-
uation of wear and its visualization in a 3D view. After proper development in Moun-
tainsMap software, it is possible to determine the depth of friction (Fig. 1.38).
Evaluating friction effects on the basis of surface profiles obtained in Mountain-
sMap from 3D models, one can observe not only the depth of friction but also the
width and amount of material deposited, which allows for a wide analysis of wear
(Fig. 1.39).
Figure 1.36 Surface area of WC/TiAlN insert after the friction tests of the pair Ti6Al4V-WC/
TiAlN for FN ¼ 60 N, vs ¼ 50 m/min, s ¼ 50 m. Surface stereometric view (a), surface profile
at the cross section (b).
Figure 1.37 Images from optical microscope of WC/TiAlN sample surface after friction tests of
the pair Ti6Al4V-WC/TiAlN for FN ¼ 60 N, vs ¼ 150 m/min, s ¼ 50 m. 2D surface view (a),
3D image (b), surface profile at the cross section (c).
a)
b) c)
Figure 1.38 Pictures of the sample surface area after Inconel 718-Al2O3þSiCw friction tests
for: (a) FN ¼ 60 N, vs ¼ 500 m/min, s ¼ 100 m, (b) FN ¼ 60 N, vs ¼ 200 m/min, s ¼ 2000 m,
(c) FN ¼ 60 N, vs ¼ 500 m/min, s ¼ 2000 m.
Figure 1.39 Sample surface profiles after friction tests of the pair Inconel 718-Al2O3þSiC for
FN ¼ 60 N, vs ¼ 500 m/min and various friction paths. (a) s ¼ 50 m. (b) s ¼ 100 m. (c)
s ¼ 300 m. (d) s ¼ 2000 m.
1.6 Summary
Friction is an inseparable phenomenon that occurs in nature and affects the work car-
ried out by man. Knowing this phenomenon and trying to explain the correlation of the
influence of particular factors occurring in a given tribological system on the course of
friction is a very important aspect of scientific research. It is precisely because of the
multitude of factors influencing the friction process that the evaluation of this phenom-
enon requires comprehensive, multifaceted research. The use of tribometers, which
Another random document with
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We know some families where the girls and boys look so much
alike that we could guess they were brothers and sisters, even if we
did not know that they all lived in the one house and had the one
family name. If we look carefully at the plants we meet, at their
leaves and flowers and fruits, and even at their stems and roots,
often we may guess rightly which ones belong to the same family.
If we place side by side an apple blossom and a pear blossom, we
see that they are very like each other. Both have the green outside
cup which above is cut into five little green leaves. Both have five
white or pinkish flower leaves. Both have a good many pins with dust
boxes, and from two to five of those pins without dust boxes.
If we place side by side a pear and an apple, we see in both cases
that it is the green cup, grown big and juicy and ripe, which forms the
delicious fruit.
If we cut these two fruits open lengthwise, we can see just how the
pins without dust boxes are set into the green cup; and we can see
that the lower, united part of these pins makes a little box which
holds the seeds.
In the picture (Fig. 14) the shading shows you where this seedbox
ends, and the green cup, or what once was the green cup, begins.
This is rather hard to understand, I know; but your teacher can make
it clear to you with a real pear.
So it ought to surprise you no longer to learn that the apple and
the pear are cousins.
Fig. 14
Now, I want you to look at the picture at the head of this chapter.
This is the wild rose, the flower from which the great Rose family
takes its name.
This rose is a much larger flower than either the apple or the pear
blossom. Its flower leaves are deep pink. These bright flower leaves
make gay handkerchiefs for signaling when the rose plant wishes to
attract the attention of the bees.
But there are five of them, just as there are in the apple and the
pear blossom; and there are the pins with dust boxes,—so many of
them, in the rose, that it would take some time to count them all. And
in the center are the pins which have seedboxes below; for these
pins in the rose are quite separate one from another, and each one
has its own little seedbox.
Fig. 15
So, though different in some ways, in others the flower of the rose
is very much like those of the apple and the pear.
In this picture (Fig. 15) you see its fruit. This is called the “rose
hip.” When ripe, it turns bright red. In late summer you see the
rosebushes covered with these pretty hips. At times this fruit does
not look altogether unlike a tiny apple or pear; but if we cut it open
lengthwise, we see that its inside arrangements are quite different.
Fig. 16
The lower parts of the pins without dust boxes do not grow into
one piece with the green cup (now the red cup), as in the apple and
the pear. Instead, this cup (Fig. 16) is hollow. To its inner sides are
fastened the little seedboxes, as you will see if you look carefully at
the picture. This hollow case with its separate seedboxes shows you
that the rose plant is not so closely related to the pear and the apple
trees as these trees are to each other.
UNEATABLE FRUITS
P ERHAPS one day you bit into the fruit of the rose, and found it
sour and unpleasant to the taste. You may have forgotten that
not long ago you learned a new meaning for the word “fruit.” Possibly
you still fancy that a fruit must be something good to eat. So many
people have this idea, that once more I wish to make clear to you
that the fruit is the seed-holding part of the plant.
Whether this part is good to eat or not, makes no difference as to
its being a fruit.
The apple is a fruit, you remember, not because it is good to eat,
but because it holds the seeds of the apple tree.
And for this same reason the pear is a fruit. It is the case in which
is laid the seedbox of the pear tree. This case, when ripe, happens
to be juicy and delicious; but it would be quite as much a fruit if it
were dry and hard, and without taste.
And so the rose hip is a fruit, because it is the case which holds
the little seedboxes of the rose flower.
What is the fruit of the milkweed?
All country children know the milkweed plant, with its big bright
leaves, and bunches of pink or red or purple flowers (Fig. 17). And
you know the puffy pods that later split open, letting out a mass of
brown, silky-tailed seeds. There! I have given the answer to my own
question; for if the plant’s fruit is the seed-holding part, then the
milkweed’s fruit must be this pod stuffed full of beautiful, fairy-like
seeds.
Fig. 17
Fig. 18
Then you know the burdock (Fig. 18) which grows along the
country road. But perhaps you do not know that the fruit of this is the
prickly burr which hooks itself to your clothes on your way to school.
This burr (Fig. 19) is the case which holds the little seeds of the
burdock, and so it must be its fruit.
Fig. 19
Fig. 20
The fruit of the dandelion is the silvery puffball (Fig. 20) or “clock,”
by blowing at which you try to tell the time of day. If you pull off one
of the feathery objects which go to make up the puffball, at its lower
end you see a little dandelion seedbox (Fig. 21).
And these fall days, along the roadsides and in the woods,
everywhere you see fruits which you will hardly know as such unless
you keep in mind the true meaning of the word.
Many of these I am sure you would not care to eat. The burr from
the burdock would not make a pleasant mouthful. Neither would you
like to breakfast on a milkweed pod. And a quantity of dandelion
puffballs would hardly add to the enjoyment of your supper.
Fig. 21
If you should tell your mother you had brought her some fruit, and
should show her a basket of burrs and pods, she would think you
were only joking, and perhaps a little foolish; and I dare say she
would be greatly surprised to find you were using the word quite
rightly.
MORE COUSINS OF THE APPLE
Fig. 22
T HE apple has three cousins, all of whom are very much alike.
These cousins are the cherry, the plum, and the peach (Figs. 22,
23, 24). All three belong to the Rose family.
Have you ever noticed the great family likeness between these
three fruits?
Look at them in the pictures. To be sure, they are of different sizes,
but they are almost alike in shape.
And if you should cut them open lengthwise, right through the
stony center, all three would look much like the next picture, which is
taken from a peach (Fig. 25). All these fruits have the soft outer part
which you find so pleasant to the taste.
Fig. 23
Fig. 24
Within this, in all of them, is a hard object, which we call the stone
or pit; and inside this stone or pit, in each case, lies the seed.
These next pictures show you two views of the flower of the cherry
(Figs. 26, 27).
Here you see a likeness to other members of the Rose family, to
the blossoms of the apple and the pear.
Fig. 25
You see that the green cup is cut into five little leaves (in the
picture these are turned back and downward). You see also the five
white flower leaves, and ever so many of the pins with dust boxes.
But you find only one of those pins without dust boxes; and this, as
you now know, has a seedbox below.
Fig. 26
Fig. 27
Well, that is all right. The cherry blossom has but one of these
pins, and the flowers of the peach and of the plum have only one.
Figure 28 shows you a cherry blossom cut open. Here you see
plainly the single pin with a seedbox.
This seedbox with its case is what grows into the cherry. The white
flower leaves, and the pins with dust boxes, fall away. In the cherry
flower the green cup also disappears, instead of making the best
part of the fruit, as it does with the apple and the pear. And the upper
part of the seedbox pin withers off; but the seedbox below grows
juicy and ripe and red, at least its outer case does.
Fig. 28
By the end of June you take out the long ladder and place it
against the cherry tree. Seating yourself on one of its upper rungs,
you swallow the outside of the shining little ball we call the cherry,
letting the stony seedbox inside drop down upon the ground, where
all ripe seeds belong.
The story of the plum and of the peach is almost the same as the
story of the cherry. If you understand how the single seedbox of the
cherry blossom turns into the cherry fruit, then you understand how
the same thing happens with the single seedboxes of the plum and
the peach blossom.
You know that in the flowers of the pear and the apple there were
several of these pins without dust boxes; and although these were
joined below into a single seedbox, this had separate compartments
for the many seeds.
But the single seedboxes of the cherry, the plum, and the peach,
have but one hollow. Usually in this hollow we find only one seed. So
you see that these three fruits make a little group by themselves
because of their great likeness to one another.
STILL MORE COUSINS
Fig. 29
C HERRIES and plums we find growing wild in the woods and

fields. While in many ways the wild trees are unlike those we
grow in our orchards, yet, if you look closely at their flowers and
fruits, you will find they answer generally to the descriptions you
have been reading.
Early in May, when the orchard is still gray and dreary, suddenly
we notice that the upper branches of the cherry tree look as though a
light snow had fallen. It seems as if the lovely blossoms had burst
forth in an hour. One’s heart gives a joyful jump. Summer is really
coming. The flowers of May promise the fruit of June.
But when we find the blossoms of the wild cherry, it is several
weeks later. Some of the little wood flowers have already come and
gone. The trees are thick with leaves before we discover the
fragrance of its slender, drooping clusters; for, though in other ways
these blossoms are almost exactly like those of the cultivated cherry,
they are much smaller, and grow differently on the branches.
This same difference in size and manner of growing you will find
between the wild and the cultivated fruits. You country children know
well the little chokecherries (Fig. 29) that are so pretty and so
plentiful along the lanes. These hang in bunches that remind you
somewhat of the clusters of the currant. They are much smaller than
the market cherry; yet if you cut one through, you will see that in
make-up it is almost exactly like its big sister.
Those of you who live near the sea find wild beach plums (Fig. 30)
growing thickly along the sand hills. These are hardly larger than
good-sized grapes; yet if you cut them open, you see that they are
really plums.
Fig. 30
In our woods and fields we do not find any wild peaches. The
peach was brought to us from far-away Persia. Only in the garden
and orchard do we meet its beautiful pink blossoms. To see these
growing naturally we must go to their Persian home.
So, while we remember that the cherry, the plum, and the peach
belong to one little group because of their likeness to one another, let
us not forget that the peach is one of the foreign members of the
Rose family.
IN THE WOODS
W HAT do you say this morning to going to the woods rather than
to either garden or orchard?
Not that I am ready to take back anything I said at the beginning of
this book about the delights of the orchard as a playground. For
actual play I know of no better place. An apple tree is as good a
horse as it is a house, as good a ship as it is a mountain. Other trees
may be taller, finer to look at, more exciting to climb; but they do not
know how to fit themselves to the need of the moment as does an
apple tree.
But for anything besides play, the woods, the real woods, are even
better than the orchard. The truth is, in the woods you have such a
good time just living, that you hardly need to play; at least you do if
you are made in the right way.
So now we are off for the woods. We have only to cross a field and
climb a fence, and we are in the lane which leads where we wish to
go.
Through the trees comes a golden light. This is made partly by the
sunshine, but mostly by the leaves turned yellow. These yellow
leaves mean that summer is over. It is in summer, when we are
having our vacation, that the leaves work hardest; for leaves have
work to do, as we shall learn later. But now they are taking a rest,
and wearing their holiday colors.
Twisting in and out over the rails of the fence are clusters of
berries which are very beautiful when you look at them closely. Each
berry is an orange-colored case which opens so as to show a scarlet
seedbox within (Fig. 31). A little earlier in the year you could not see
this bright-colored seedbox. It is only a short time since the outer
case opened and displayed its contents. These are the berries of the
bittersweet. Last June you would hardly have noticed its little
greenish flowers, and would have been surprised to learn that they
could change into such gay fruit.
Fig. 31
Do you see a shrub close by covered with berries? These berries

are dark blue. They grow on bright-red stalks. If we wait here long
enough, it is likely that we shall see the birds alight upon some upper
twig and make their dinner on the dogwood berries; for this is one of
the Dogwood family,—the red-stalked dogwood, we call it (Fig. 32).
When its berries turn a very dark blue, then the birds know they are
ready to be eaten, just as we know the same thing by the rosy
cheeks of the apple.
Fig. 32
You can be pretty sure that any fruit so gayly colored as to make
us look at it twice, is trying to persuade some one—some boy or girl,
or bird, or perhaps even some bear—to come and eat it.
You have not forgotten, I hope, why these fruits are so anxious to
be eaten? You remember that when their seeds become ripe, and
ready to make new plants, then they put on bright colors that say for
them, “Come and eat us, for our little seeds want to get out of their
prison!”
Once upon a time these seeds did not find their cozy seed cases a
prison. So once upon a time the baby robins were content to stay
safe in their nest. And once upon a time all the playground you
needed was a little corner behind your mother’s chair. But seeds, like
birds and babies, outgrow their surroundings, and need more room.
Fig. 33
Here is a tall shrub with bright-colored leaves, and clusters of dark

red fruit that grow high above our heads (Fig. 33). It looks something
like certain materials used in fancywork. This shrub is called the
sumac; and if you pick and pull apart one of its fruit clusters, you find
that it is made up of a quantity of seeds that are covered with little
red hairs. There is nothing soft and juicy about the fruit of the sumac.
Whether it is ever used as food by the birds, I do not know. I wish
some child would make it his business to find out about this. Some of
you are sure to live near a clump of sumacs. By watching them
closely for a few weeks, you ought to discover if any birds feed upon
their fruit.
If you do make any such discovery, I hope you will write a letter
telling me of it; and then, if another edition of this book is published, I
shall be able to tell other children more about the fruit of the sumac
than I can tell you to-day.
There are many interesting things about plants yet to be found out;
and you children will find it far pleasanter to make your own
discoveries, using your own bright eyes, than to read about the
discoveries of other people. Every field, each bit of woods, the road
we know so well leading from home to the schoolhouse, and even
the city squares and parks, are full of interesting things that as yet
we have never seen, even though we may have been over the
ground a hundred times before.
Now let us leave the lane, and strike into the woods in search of
new fruits. This morning we will look especially for those fruits which
by their bright colors and pleasant looks seem to be calling out to
whomsoever it may concern, “Come and eat us!”
Close at hand is one of our prettiest plants. Its leaves look as
though they were trying to be in the height of the fall fashion, and to
outdo even the trees in brightness of color. These leaves are set in
circles about the slim stem. From the top of this grow some purple
berries (Fig. 34).
Fig. 34
This plant is the Indian cucumber root. If one of you boys will dig it
up with your knife, you will find that its root is shaped a little like a
cucumber. Though I have never made the experiment myself, I am
told that it tastes something like the cucumber. It is possible, that, as
its name suggests, it was used as food by the Indians. To hunt up
the beginnings of plant names is often amusing. So many of these
are Indian, that in our rambles through the woods we are constantly
reminded of the days when the red man was finding his chief support
in their plants and animals.
In June we find the flower of the Indian cucumber root. This is a
little yellowish blossom, one of the Lily family. Small though it is, for
one who knows something of botany it is easy to recognize it as a
lily. Indeed, the look of the plant suggests the wood and meadow
lilies. This is partly because of the way in which the leaves grow
about its stem, much as they do in these other lilies.
Now look at the beautiful carpet which is spread beneath your feet.
Here you will wish to step very lightly; for otherwise you might crush
some of those bright red berries which are set thickly among the little
white-veined leaves.
These are called “partridge berries,”—a name given them because
they are eaten by partridges. But the bare winter woods offer few
tempting morsels for bird meals; and it seems likely that the nuthatch
and snowbird, the chickadee and winter wren, hail with delight these
bright berries, and share with the partridges the welcome feast.
Please look closely at one of the berries in Fig. 35, and tell me
whether you see anything unusual.
“There are two little holes on top.”
Yes, that is just what I hoped you would notice. I do not know of
any other berries in which you could find these two little holes; and
as I do not believe it would be possible for you to guess what made
these holes, I will tell you about them.
Fig. 35
The flowers of the partridge vine always grow in twos. The

seedboxes of these two flowers are joined in one. So when the
flowers fade away, only the one seedbox is left. When this ripens, it
becomes the partridge berry; and the two little holes show where the
two flowers were fastened to the seedbox.
Try not to forget this, and early next July be sure to go to the
woods and look for the little sister flowers. Perhaps their delicious
fragrance will help you in your hunt for their hiding place. Then see
for yourselves how the two blossoms have but one seedbox between
them (Fig. 35).
Now, we must take care not to wet our feet, for the ground is
getting damp. We are coming to that lovely spot where the brook
winds beneath the hemlocks after making its leap down the rocks.
What is that flaming red spot against the gray rock yonder?
As we draw nearer, we see that a quantity of scarlet berries are
closely packed upon a thick stalk (Fig. 36).
Do you know the name of the plant which owns this flaming fruit?
If you were in these woods last May, at every turn you met one of
those quaint little fellows we call “Jack-in-the-pulpit.”
Fig. 36
Jack himself, you remember, was hidden almost out of sight by his
“pulpit.” This pulpit was made of a leaf striped green or purple, or
both; and this leaf curled about and above Jack (Fig. 37).
After a time the pretty leaf pulpit faded away, and Jack was left
standing all alone.
The lower part of Jack is covered with tiny flowers. After these had
been properly dusted by the little flies (for flies, not bees, visit Jack),
just as the apple blossom began to change into the apple, so these
tiny flowers began to turn into bright berries.
While this was happening, Jack’s upper part began to wither away;
and at last all of it that was left was the queer little tail which you see
at the top of the bunch of berries.

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Machining and Tribology Alokesh

Tribology and Fundamentals of Abrasive Machining

Imaging Technologies and Transdermal Delivery in Skin

Vibration Assisted Machining Lu Zheng

Advanced Machining and Finishing 1st Edition Kapil

Tribology of Graphene: Simulation Methods, Preparation

Advanced machining processes of metallic materials :

eTextbook 978-1118353912 Grease Lubrication in Rolling

(eTextbook PDF) for Precision Machining Technology 3rd

Machining and Tribology

Copyright © 2022 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

For information on all Elsevier publications visit our website at

Publisher: Matthew Deans

Typeset by TNQ Technologies

Zafar Alam Department of Mechanical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology

Munish Kumar Gupta Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Opole University of

Neeraj Sharma Department of Mechanical Engineering, Maharishi Markandeshwar

a numerical simulation method is needed to observe various physical phenomena at the

1 An introduction to machining tribology 1

2 The underlying mechanisms of coolant contribution in the machining

3 Advanced cooling-lubrication technologies in metal machining 67

3.3 Control parameters 75

4 Abrasive wear during machining of hard nanostructured cermet

5 Tribology in (abrasive) water jet machining: A review 113

7 Simulation of force, energy, and surface integrity during nanometric

7.4 Surface generation and subsurface damage 177

8 Molecular dynamics simulation of friction, lubrication, and tool

9 Tribological aspects of different machining processes 213

10 Surface texturing for improved tribological performance in

Machining and Tribology. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-819889-6.00009-5

area internal external

wear wear fricon fricon without wearing

dry physical technical dry fliud boundary mixed

Figure 1.1 Friction types.

zone A zone A-B zone B zone C

chip and workpiece

1.3 Construction designs for tribometers

pin Cutting insert

The changed conﬁguration of the tribometer (Fig. 1.4) based on Hedenqvist’s

Figure 1.4 Conﬁguration of the tribometer.

Figure 1.5 Conﬁguration of the tribometer.

rotaon workpiece (ring)

The construction of the tribometer proposed by Smolenicki for tribological research

pin Fn pin Fn pin Fn

Grzesik, Zalisz, and Niesłony [12] proposed a closed tribosystem conﬁguration of

dynamometer pin disc

Figure 1.9 Diagram of the pin-on-disc tribometer.

Figure 1.10 Tribometer CETR UMT 3 of insert-on-disc type.

dynamometer engine plate

The construction of the tribometer allows for:

1.4 Determination of friction conditions

whereby the letter j denotes the expression

1.5 Tribological studies

On the basis of measurements from piezoelectric dynamometer, the friction force Ft

vs=150 m/min vs=200 m/min

Figure 1.23 View of the calibration stand for natural thermocouple.

The Optris CTlaser pyrometer enables contactless temperature measurement in lab-

Figure 1.25 Emissivity of whiskers-reinforced ceramics Al2O3þSiC as a function of