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Structural
Engineering
Handbook
The photos on the front cover are courtesy of Thornton Tomasetti (Chicago office) and Jacobs
(New York office). Mustafa Mahamid is grateful to the two firms for their contributions.
Structural
Engineering
Handbook
MUSTAFA MAHAMID
EDWIN H. GAYLORD, JR.
CHARLES N. GAYLORD

Fifth Edition

NewYork Chicago San Francisco Athens London

Madrid Mexico City Milan New Delhi
Singapore Sydney Toronto
Copyright © 2020, 1997, 1990, 1979, 1968 by McGraw Hill. All rights reserved. Except as permitted under the United States
Copyright Act of 1976, no part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in
a database or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of the publisher.

ISBN: 978-1-26-011599-4
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 About the Editors

Mustafa Mahamid, Ph.D., S.E., P.E., P.Eng., F.SEI, F.ASCE, F.ACI, is a clinical associate
professor in the Department of Civil and Materials Engineering at the University of Illinois-
Chicago and is a member of the AccessEngineering Faculty Advisory Board. He previously
worked as a practicing structural engineer at GRAEF and Skidmore, Owings & Merrill and
currently is a consultant for various structural engineering firms in the United States and
abroad. He is a Fellow of ASCE, a Fellow ofACI, and a Fellow of ASCE's Structural Engineering
Institute (SEI) and is active on various ACI and ASCE/SEI technical committees.

The late Edwin H. Gaylord, Jr. was a professor of civil engineering at the University of Illinois-
Urbana-Champaign.

The late Charles N. Gaylord was a professor of civil engineering at the University of Virginia.
This page intentionally left blank
 Contents

Contributors xv
Prmice xbc

Chapter 1. Structural Loads Mustafa Mahamid, David A. Fanella • •••••• 1

1.1 Introduction •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 1
1 .2 Dud Loads.................................................................. . 1
1 .3 live Loads ................................................................... . 1
1A Rain Loads ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 7
1.5 Soll Lat.nil Loads ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 8
1 .6 Snow and Ice Loads .......................................................... . 9
1 .7 Wind Loads••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 20
1 .8 E.llrthquake Loads ........................................................... . 49
1 .9 Flood and Tsunami Loads .................................................... . 49
1.1O Load Combinations ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 57
References .......................................................................... . 60

Chapter 2. Structural Analysis Aly M. Said., Anas S. Issa,,

M. Shohrio Alam •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 61
PART A FUNDAMENTALS AND APPLICATIONS TO STRUCTURAL FRAMEWORKS ••••• 61
2.1 Introduction •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 61
2.2 Fundam911tals of Analysls ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 61
2.3 Energy Prlndples ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 63
2A Analysis of Statically Determinate Structures •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 67
2.5 Analysis of Statically Indeterminate Stnmctures••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 72
2.6 FoKA! Method................................................................ . 74
2.7 Displacement Method ....................................................... . 77
PART B ARCHES AND RIGID FRAMES •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 91
2.8 Introduction •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 91
2.9 Analysis of Arches •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 93
2.1o Design of Arches•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 94
2.11 Design of Fnimas ............................................................ . 101
2.12 Special Topics. •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 111
2.13 Construction and Details ..................................................... . 112
References .......................................................................... . 116

Chapter 3. The Finite-Element Method Craig D. Foster,

Sheng-Wei Chi •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 119
3.1 0verv1- ofTheory of Flnltti-Element Analysls••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 119
3.2 Outline of Sttlps In a Finite-Element Analysis ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 122
3.3 Types of StNctunil and Mechanical Analyses •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 122
3A Elements and Nodes ......................................................... . 124
3.5 Meshing •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 125
3.6 Applying Loads and Dlspl11ct1ment Boundary Conditions ••••••••••••••••••••••• 126
3.7 Material Models and Other Properties ........................................ . 126
3.8 Solving the Quasi-Static Problem ............................................. . 126

Yll
viii CONTENTS

3.9 Postprocessing-Solving for Strain, Stress, and Other Quantities....... • • • • •• • • 126

3.10 Dynlimlc Flnlte-ElamentAnalysls........ ••••••••••• ••••••••••• •••••••••••• •••• 126
3.11 NonllnearFlnlte-ElemmtAnalysls............................................. 128
3.12 Verification and Validation • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 128
3.13 Issues and Pitfalls in Finite-Element Analysis..... • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 128
3.14 lntrodudlon to Finite Elements for Thermal, Thennomechanlcal,
and Other Problems • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 130
Ref.ranees • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 131

Chapter 4. Computer Applications in Structural Engineering

Raoul Karp, Bulent N. Alemdar, Sam Rubenzer............................ 133
4.1 lntrodudlon...... ••••••••••• ••••••••••• ••••••••••• ••••••••••• •••••••••••• •••• 133
4.2 Computer Structural Analysis Simulation •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 133
4.3 Strudural Finite Elements..................................................... 135
4.4 Foundations.................................................................. 139
4.5 Verifying Analysis Results • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 142
4.6 Building lnfonnation Modeling and Interoperability •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 142
4.7 Summary..................................................................... 143
RetWrences • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 143

Chapter 5. Earthquake-Resistant Design s. K. Ghosh • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 145

5.1 Overview..... • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • •• • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 145
5.2 Nature of Earthquake Motion •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 145
5.3 Design Phllosophy....... • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 146
5.4 Seismic O.slgn Requirements of the 2018 IBC/ASCE 7-16....................... 147
References • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 162

Chapter 6. Fracture and Fatigue Kedar s. Kirane, Zdenllc P. Bablnt,

J. Emesto lndacochea, Vineeth Kumar Gattu • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 165
PART A CONCRETE AND COMPOSITES............................................... 165
6.1 lntrodudlon to Quaslbrlttle Fradure • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 165
6.2 Conaete • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 166
6.3 Flber-Relnforced Composites.................................................. 169
Ref.ranees • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 173
PART B STRUCTURAL STEELS • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 175
6.4 Fracture of Structural Steels. • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • 175
6.5 Fatigue of Structural Steels.................................................... 182
References • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • 193

Chapter 7. Soil Mechanics and Foundations Joseph w. Schulenberg,

KrishnaR.Reddy.................................................... 195
7.1 Soil Behavior..... •• • • • •• • • • • •• • • • •• • • • • •• • • • • •• • • • •• • • • • •• • • • •• • • • • •• • • • • •• • • 195
7.2 Shallow Foundation Analyses •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 199
7.3 Deep Foundations •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 204
7.4 Retaining Strudures......... ••••••••••• ••••••••••• ••••••••••• •••••••••••• •••• 210
7.S Investigations................................................................ 218
7.11 Soil Improvement............................................................. 219
7.7 Monitoring................................................................... 221
Ref.rences • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 221

Chapter 8. Design of Structural Steel Members Jay Shen,

Bulent Akbas, Onur Seirer, Charlies J. Carter. • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 225
8.1 Design of Steel and Composite Memben •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 225
8.2 Seismic Design of Steel Members In Moment and Braced Frames • • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 264
8.3 Conduding Remarks..... • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 303
RetWrences • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 303

Chapter 9. Design of Cold-Formed Steel Structural Members

Nabil A. Rahman, Helen Chen, Cheng Yu. • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 305
9.1 Shapes and Applications. • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 305
9.2 Materials..... • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 306
 CONTENTS Ix

9.3 Co1TOsion Protection ......................................................... . 308

9A Mambar Design Mathodology................................................ . 309
9.5 Structural Stability In Dmrmlnlng M•mbH Foras••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 311
9.6 Member Design ............................................................. . 311
9.7 Assemblies and Systems ..................................................... . 315
9.8 Connactlons •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 317
Referenctis .......................................................................... . 320

Chapter 1o. Aluminum Structural Design J. Randolph Kissell• •••••••• 321

10.1 Introduction ................................................................ . 321
10.2 Dnlgn OVllrvt.w ............................................................ . 322
10.3 Determining Required Forces ................................................ . 322
10A Axial Tension ................................................................ . 323
10.5 Axlal Comprasslon ........................................................... . 324
10.6 Fluu1W ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 325
10.7 Shear and Torsion••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 3215
10.a Combined Forces ............................................................ . 328
10.9 Connactlons •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 328
10.10 Sarvlcaablllty••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 331
10.11 Fabrication and EIWdion ..................................................... . 331
10.12 Fatigue ..................................................................... . 331
References .......................................................................... . 331

Chapter 11. Design of Reinforced-Concrete Structural Members

Mustafa Mahamid, David A. Fanella •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 333
11.1 Concrete .................................................................... . 333
11.2 Reinforcement•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 333
11.3 Spadflcatlons, Codas, and Standards •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 334
11 A General Raqulntments for Stntngth and Servlcaablltty ••••••••••••••••••••••••• 334
11.5 General Prlndplu of the Str9ngth O.slgn Mathod ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 338
11 .6 General Prindples and Requirements......................................... . 339
11 .7 One-Way Slabs. Two-Way Slabs. and Beams .................. .. ......... .. .... . 340
11 .8 Columns••••••• ••••••••••• •• •••••••••• ••••••••••• •••••••••• ••• ••••••••• •• ••••• 352
11 .9 Tension Members ............................................................ . 354
11.1 O Members Subjectecl to Flexure and Axlal l.oitd ................................ . 354
11.11 w.111 ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 3515
11.12 Footings•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 360
11.13 'IWo-Way Slab Systems •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 365
11.14 Salsmlc ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 367
References . .. ....................................................................... . 368

Chapter 12. Design of Prestressed-Concrete Structural Members

Sri Srltharan, Maryam Nazari• •••.•.••••••.•.•.••••.•.•.••••••.•.•.••••••.•.• 369
Nal:lltlon .. .. ..................... . ................................. . .......... . ..... . 369
12.1 Introduction ••••••••••••••• ••••••••••• ••••••••••• ••••••••••• •• •••••••••• • ••••• 370
12.2 Prestress Losses ............................................................. . 371
12.3 Analysis Concepts ........................................................... . 374
12A Design for Flexure ........................................................... . 380
12.5 Dnlgn for Shur, Bond, and Baarfng.......................................... . 3815
12.6 Dnlgn of Continuous Baam .................................................. . 389
12.7 Design for Torsion ........................................................... . 393
12.8 Design for Seismic Loacls ................................... . .......... . ..... . 3!Hi
Rafarancas .. ..................... . ................................. . .......... . ..... . 397

Chapter 13. Masonry Construction Richard Bennett,.

Sam Rubenzer •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 399
Notation ............................................................................ . 399
13.1 Masonry Materials •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 400
13.2 Masonry Analysls ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 401
13.3 Unntlnforaicl Muonry •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 402
13A Ralnforad Masonry ......................................................... . 403
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13.5 Seismic Design • • • •• .. • .. • • • • .. .. .. • • • • • •• • .. • .. • • • .. • .. .. • • • • .. .. .. .. • • • • .. .. 407

13.6 Specifying Mllsonry and Tasting Mllsonry........ • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 409
13.7 MllsonryFlreW.lls............................................................ 409
References........................................................................... 410

Chapter 14. Timber Structures Thomas Williamson,

Mustafa Mahamld. • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 411
14.1
Wood as an Engineering Material.... • • • • .. • .. • .. • • • •• • .. • .. • • • .. • .. • .. • • • • .. .. 411
14.2 Allowabla Strus Design (ASD) VL Load and Raslstance
Factor D•lgn (LRFD)..... • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 413
14.3 Structural Wood Products. • • • .. .. • .. • • • • .. • .. • .. • • • .. • .. • .. • • • .. .. .. .. • • • • .. .. 413
14.4 Member Design • • .. .. .. • • • • • .. .. .. • • • • • .. • .. .. • • • • .. • .. .. • • • • .. .. .. .. • • • • .. .. 422
14.5 Connactlon Design • .. • .. • • • • •• .. • .. • • • • •• • .. • .. • • • •• .. .. .. • • • •• .. .. .. • • • • •• .. 425
14.6 Lataral Load Raslstanai .. • • • • •• .. • .. • • • • •.. .. • .. • • • •• .. .. .. • • • •• .. .. .. • • • • •• .. 430
Rnrene111 • • • .. .. .. .. • • • • .. .. • .. • • • • .. .. • .. • • • • .. .. .. .. • • • .. .. .. .. • • • •• .. .. .. • • • • .. .. 435

Chapter 15. Bridge Engineering Soliman Khudeira, Tony Shkurti,

Eric Stone, James Carter Ill, Jamshid Mohammadi, Bora Jang • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 437
PART A STEEL AND CONCRETE BRIDGES • • • • • • .. .. • • • • • .. • • • • .. .. • • • • • .. • • • • .. .. • • 437
15.1 General...................................................................... 437
15.2 Loads ............ ........... ........... ........... ........... ............ .... 437
15.3 Stael Bridges • • • • • •.. • • • • • • • • •• .. .. • • • • • •• .. .. .. • • • •• .. .. .. • • • •• • .. .. • • • • • •• .. 453
15A Baarlng and Expansion Details................................................ 459
15.5 Beam and Plate-Girder Bridges...... • • • • .. • .. • .. • • • .. • .. • .. • • • .. • .. • .. • • • • .. .. 462
15.6 Truss Bridges................................................................. 469
15.7 Concrete Bridges • .. .. • .. • • • • .. .. • .. • • • • .. • .. • .. • • • .. • .. .. • • • • .. .. • .. • • • • • .. .. 470
15.8 Slab Bridges.. • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 471
15.9 T-Beam Brfd991... ........... ........... ........... ........... ............ .... 473
15.10 Bax-Girder Bridges........................................................... 483
15.11 Prestressecl-COncrete Bridges .. • • .. • • • • • .. • .. .. • • • • .. • .. .. • • • • .. .. .. .. • • • • .. .. 493
15.12 Bridge Ralllngs • • • •• .. .. • • • • • •• .. .. • • • • • •• .. .. .. • • • •• .. .. .. • • • •• • .. .. • • • • • •• .. 505
15.13 Administration of a Bridge System .. • • • • •• .. .. .. • • • •• .. .. .. • • • •• • .. • .. • • • • •• .. 506
References ..... ... ... ...... .. ... ...... .. ... ...... .. .. .. ..... ... ... ..... ... ... ...... .. 507
PART B STEEL BOX-GIRDER BRIDGES.............................................. 508
15.14 Benefits...................................................................... 508
15.15 Internal Elements............................................................. 509
15.16 Limit States and Combinations...... • • • • .. • .. • .. • • • .. • .. • .. • • • .. • .. • .. • • • • .. .. 509
15.17 Analysis of Bax Girders .. • • • • .. .. .. • • • • • .. .. .. .. • • • .. .. .. .. • • • .. .. .. .. • • • • .. .. 511
15.18 Design of Bax-Section Membmn............................................... 512
15.19 Internal Element Design...................................................... 512
15.20 Conduding Remarks.......................................................... 512
References........................................................................... 513
PART C CURVED STEEL I-GIRDER BRIDGES • • • • • .. • • • • • .. • • • • • .. .. • • • • .. • • • • • • .. • • • 514
15.21 General.......................................................................... 514
15.22 Design Considerations... • • • • .. .. • .. • • • • .. • .. • .. • • • .. .. .. .. • • • .. • .. • .. • • • • .. .. 514
15.23 Curved Girder Mechanics...... •• • •• • • •• • •• • • •• • •• • • •• • •• • • •• • •• • • •• • •• • • •• • •• • •• 517
References ..... ... ... ...... .. ... ...... .. ... ...... .. .. .. ..... ... ... ..... ... ... ...... .. 524
PART D CURVED STEEL BOX-GIRDER BRIDGES..................................... 525
15.24 General • .. • .. • • • • .. .. • .. • • • • .. .. .. • • • • • .. • .. • .. • • • .. • .. • .. • • • .. • .. • .. • • • • .. .. 525
15.25 Design Considerations... • • • • .. • • .. • • • • • •.. .. • .. • • • •.. .. • .. • • • •.. .. • .. • • • • •.. • 526
15.26 Bax-Girder Mechanics .. •• .. • .. .. .. • .. .. .. • .. .. .. • .. •.. .. .. .. • .. .. •.. .. .. •.. .. .. • 529
References ..... .. .... ...... ... .. ...... ... .. ...... .. .. .. ..... .. .. .. ..... .. .. .. ...... .. 531
PART E CURVED CONCRETE BOX-GIRDER BRIDGES • • • • .. • • • • • .. .. • • • • .. • • • • • .. .. • • 532
15.27 General.......................................................................... 532
15.28 Concrete Bax-Girder Bridge Types... • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 532
15.29 Significance of Structural Configuration and Details. •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 533
15.30 Review of Theory................................................................ 535
15.31 Design Considerations... • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 539
References........................................................................... 547
 CONTENTS xl

Chapter 16. Railroad Bridge Design Mohsen Issa,

Ahmad Hammad •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 549
16.1 Introduction •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 549
16.2 General Requirements ....................................................... . 549
16.3 Loading ..................................................................... . 549
16A Timber ...................................................................... . 550
16.5 Steel ........................................................................ . 551
16.6 Concrete .................................................................... . 552
References .......................................................................... . 557

Chapter 17. Industrial Buildings Jules Van de Pas, John Rolfes •••••••• 559
17.1 Planning Industrial Buildings. ................................................ . 559
17.2 Code Requirements and Industrial Loads ..................................... . 563
17.3 Framing Systems ............................................................ . 566
Refer.nctis .......................................................................... . 573

Chapter 18. Tall Bulldlngs Charles Besjak, Brian McElhatten,

Preetam Blswas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575
18.1 Definition ofTall Building..................................................... 575
18.2 General Design Considerations................................................ 575
18.3 Structural Design Considerations.............................................. 576
18A ServlceabllltyConsideratlons ................................................. 577
18.5 Structural Systems for Tall Buildings........................................... 577
18.6 System Conc.eptuallzatlon..................................................... 579
18.7 System Parameters and Cholms............................................... 581
18.8 Analysis Parameters and Technlquu .. • . . . . . . • • • .. . . . . . .. • • .. • . . . . .. • • .. • . . . . . 591
18.9 Performance-Based Design for Wind • • .. . . . . .. .. • .. . . . . .. .. .. .. . . . .. .. .. .. . . . . 595
18.1 O Performance-Based Design for Seismic .. . . . . . .. .. .. . . . . .. .. .. .. . . . .. .. .. .. . . . . 599
18.11 CrHp and Shrinkage.......................................................... 600
18.12 High-Rise Bulldlng Glossary................................................... 601
18.13 Addltlon11I Credits • • • .. .. • .. • • • • • .. .. .. • • • • • .. .. .. • • • • • .. .. • .. • • • • .. .. • .. • • • • • 601
Acknowledgments • • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • 601
Referenais • • • . . . . . • • • • • . . . . . . • • • • • • . . . . . . • • • • • . . . . . . • • • • • . . . . . . • • • • • • . . . . . • • • • • • . . . . . 601

Chapter 19. Thin-Shell Concrete Structures Edmond Sallklls,

Mustafa Mahamid, David P. Billington, Julian A. Dumitnscu • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 603
19.1 Introduction 11nd Historical Oftrvt.w........ ........... ........... ............ 603
19.2 ShellsofRotlltion............................................................. 609
19.3 Domes . . . .. .. .. . . . . . .. .. .. .. . . . . . .. .. .. . . . . . .. .. .. . . . . .. .. .. .. . . . .. .. .. .. . . . . 613
19A Cyllndrlcal Barrel Shells....................................................... 626
19.5 Folded P111t.s........ ............ ........... ........... ........... ............ 632
19.6 Translation Shells of Double Curv11ture • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • 638
19.7 Dimensioning .. • • • • • .. • .. • .. • • • • .. • .. .. • • • • .. .. • .. • • • • .. .. .. .. • • • .. • .. • .. • • • • 647
19.8 Stability and Safety........................................................... 647
19.9 Construction................................................................. 649
19.10 Appear11nm .................................................................. 649
References .. .. • • • .. • .. .. • • • • .. .. .. .. • • • • •.. .. .. • • • • .. .. • .. • • • • .. .. • .. • • • • .. .. .. .. • • • • 649

Chapter 20. Cable-Supported Roofs Paul A. Gossen,

Keith M. MacBaln • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 651
20.1 Introduction.................................................................. 651
20.2 Cable Mllttlrials and Construction .. .. .. • • • • • .. .. .. • • • • • .. .. • .. • • • • .. .. • .. • • • • • 651
20.3 Structural Systems • • .. .. .. .. • • • • .. .. • .. • • • • .. .. • .. • • • • .. .. .. .. • • • .. .. .. .. • • • • 656
20A Dynamics .. .. • .. • • • • .. .. .. .. • • • • .. .. • .. • • • • .. .. • .. • • • • .. .. .. .. • • • .. .. .. .. • • • • 658
20.5 Analysis and Design • .. .. .. .. • • • • .. .. • .. • • • • .. .. • .. • • • • .. .. .. .. • • • .. .. .. .. • • • • 658
20.6 E111ctlon...................................................................... 661
Refer.nctis • .. • • • • •• • .. .. • • • • •• • • .. .. • • • • •• • .. .. • • • • •• • • • .. • • • • •• • • • .. • • • • •• • • .. .. • • • • 661
xii CONTENTS

Chapter 21. Reinforced-Concrete Silos Ramez B. Gayed,

Mustafa MahamicL Amin Ghali • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 663
21.1 G•n•l'lll •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 663
21.2 DeslgnofWalls ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 676
21.3 DesignofBottoms............................................................ 681
Refl!rences • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 695

Chapter 22. Design of Steel Tanks Leslie D. Scott • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 697

22.1 Introduction.................................................................. 697
22.2 Design Considerations... . . . . . • • • • • . . . . . . • • • • • • . . . . . • • • • • • . . . . . • • • • • • . . . . . . • • • 701
22.3 Design of Reservoirs and Standpipes . . . . . .. .. .. . . . . . • • .. .. . . . . . .. .. • .. . . . . .. .. 707
22A ElaYllted Tanks................................................................ 717
22.5 Acmssorlu................................................................... 723
22.6 Materials..... • • • • .. • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • .. • • • • • • • • • .. • • • • • • • • • • .. • • 726
22.7 Commercially Available Computer Programs..... • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 726
22.8 The Engineen Role...... • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 727
Refl!ntnces... •••••••••••• ••••••••••• ••••••••••• ••••••••••• ••••••••••• •••••••••••• •••• 727

Chapter 23. Electrical Transmission and Substation

Structures Michael D. Miller, Robert£ Nickerson. • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 729
23.1 Introduction.................................................................. 729
23.2 Referenced Standards and Mlinuals of Practice • . . . . . • • • • • • . . . . . • • • • • • . . . . . . • • • 729
23.3 Transmission Lin• Structures. •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 729
23A Substation Structures......................................................... 737
References........................................................................... 740

Chapter 24. Chimneys Shu-Jin Fang, Victor Bochicchio • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 741

24..1Introduction.................................................................. 741
24.2 Design Loads................................................................. 741
24.3 SIMI Stacks .. • • • • •.. • • .. • • • • •.. • • .. • • • • •.. • • • .. • • • .. .. • • .. • • • .. .. • • .. • • • • •.. • 745
24A R•lnforc.d-Concrm Chimneys................................................ 750
24.5 Liners and Unlngs .. • • • • • • • • • .. • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • .. • • • • • • • • • .. • • • • • • • • • • .. • • 752
24.6 Foundations.................................................................. 754
Refl!rences • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 754

Chapter 25. Health Monitoring and Nondestructive Testing

Didem Ozevin, Farhad Ansari • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 757
25.1 Introduction.................................................................. 757
25.2 Components of NDE Methods................................................. 757
25.3 W.veform-Based NDE Methods and Applications . . . . • • • • • • . . . . . • • • • • • . . . . . . • • • 760
25A Th• Appllcatlons ofw.v.fonn-Based NDE M.thods to
Infrastructure Syst.ms... • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 765
References • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 767

Chapter 26. Building Information Modellng (BIM) for

Structural Engineering Nawari o. Nawari • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 771
26.1 Introduction.................................................................. 771
26.2 BIM Fundam•ntals..... •. . . . . .. • • • •. . . . . .. .. • • •. . . . .. .. • • •. . . . .. .. • • •. . . . . .. • • 771
26.3 BIM Processes In Practice. . . . . .. • • • • . . . . . .. .. .. .. . . . .. .. .. .. . . . .. .. .. .. . . . . .. .. 776
26A Structure and Architecture Synergy (SASJ Framework........ . . . . • • • • • • . . . . . . • • • 778
26.5 Condusions .. . . . . . • • • • .. . . . . . .. .. .. . . . . . .. .. • .. . . . . .. .. • .. . . . . .. .. • .. . . . . . .. • 786
Refl!ntnces • • • .. • • • • .. • • • • .. • • • .. • • • • .. • • • .. • • • • •• • • • • .. • • • .. • • • • .. • • • •• • • • • .. • • • • .. • • 786

Chapter 27. Structural Fire Engineering v. K. R. Kodur, M. z. Naser..... 789

27.1 G•n•l'lll ...................................................................... 789
27.2 Designing Structures for Fire Safety • • • • • .. • • .. .. • • • .. .. .. .. • • • .. .. .. .. • • • • .. .. 789
27.3 Fire Growth and Development .. • • .. . . . . . .. .. .. . . . . . .. .. .. . . . . . .. .. .. . . . . . .. .. 789
27A ProP9rtlu of Construction Mat•rlals at Elnat.d TempKBtures •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 791
27.5 Fire R9slstanai Evaluation • • • ........... ........... ........... ............ .... 796
27.6 Prescriptive-Based Approaches............................................... 796
 CONTENTS xiii

27.7 Rational Design Approaches ................................................. . 798

27.8 Summary ................................................................... . 800
Rnr.nct11 .......................................................................... . 800

Chapter 28. Disproportionate Collapse and Blast-Resistant

Design Shalva Marjanishvili, Robert Smilowirz••••••••••••••••••••••••• 801
PART A STRUCTURAL ROBUSTNESS AND DISPROPORTIONATE COLLAPSE 801
28.1 Introduction •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 801
28.2 Disproportionate Collapse Mitigation Strategies ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 802
28.3 Progressive Collapse Modeling •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 802
28A Progreulva Collap• Anlllysls Example •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 806
Rnrmct1s .......................................................................... . 809
PART B BLAST-RESISTANT DESIGN ............................................... . 809
28.5 Introduction •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 809
28.6 Blast Phenomena ........................................................... . 810
28.7 Dynamic Design Approach .................................................. . 812
28.8 Struduntl Bahmor .......................................................... . 813
28.9 Primary Structurw: Mlltertal Selection and Design for
Blast Resistance ............................................................. . 814
28.1 O Secondary Structure: Material Selection and Design for
Blast Reslstanct1 ............................................................. . 815
28.11 Concluslon .................................................................. . 815
Rnrmct1s .......................................................................... . 815

Chapter 29. FRP Strengthening of Reinforced-Concrete

Members Hayder A. Rasheed ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 817
29.1 FRP Properties for Strengthening Appllcatlons. •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 817
29.2 Flexural Strengthening Design for Beams and Slabs•••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 818
29.3 Shear Strengthening Design for Beams ....................................... . 822
29A Confinement Strmgth•nlng Design for Orcular Columns••••••••••••••••••••••• 827
Rnr.nct1s .......................................................................... . 831

Chapter 30. Structural Glass and Glazing Rul de 5. Camposlnhos ••••• 833
30.1 Introduction •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 833
30.2 Glass: Produdlon and Propatl• ............................................. . 834
30.3 Glass as a Structural Material ................................................. . 835
JOA Actions .................................................... .. ................ . 839
30.5 Codes and Standards ...................................... ... ......... . ..... . 842
30.6 Plllte Buckling ............................................................... . 850
30.7 Latentl-Torslonal Budding ................................................... . 854
30.8 Glass Columns ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 8515
References .......................................................................... . 858

Chapter 31. Machine Foundations O. Salem All• •••••••••••••••••••• 861

31.1 Background ••• ••••••••••• •• •••••••••• •••••••••• •• ••••••••• ••• ••••••••• •• ••••• 8151
31 .2 Classlflcatlon of Machine Based on Machin•~ •• ••••••••• ••• ••••••••• •• ••••• 8151
31.3 Classlflcation of Machine Based on Type of Exdtatlon Force •••••••••••••••••••• 8151
31 A Classification of Machine Based on Foundation ~ ••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 8151
31.5 Classification of Machine Load Transfer Mechanism •••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 8151
31 .6 Design Umlts for Machine Foundations....................................... . 8152
31 .7 Effect of the Supporting Soll ................................................. . 8152
31 .8 Energy Transt.r M•chanlsm ................................. .. ............... . 8153
31.9 Effect of Embedment of Foundation ••• •••••••••• •• ••••••••• ••• ••••••••• •• ••••• 8153
31 .1 O Reduction in Permissible Soil Stnass .. . .......... . .......... ... ......... . ..... . 8154
31.11 Damping In Soll ...................... . .................... .. .......... .. .... . 8154
31.12 Modellng TKhnlques for Machine Foundations •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 8155
31.13 Block-Type Foundation ...................................................... . 8155
31.14 Mat Foundations ............................................................ . 8H
31.15 Elevated Machine Foundation ................................................ . 8157
xiv CONTENTS

31.16 Three-Dimensional Finite-Eletnent Mocleling • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 868

31.17 Soll Moclallng..... ••••••••••• ........... ........... ........... ............ .... 868
31.18 Currant Approach of Soll Mocl•llng............................................ 869
31.19 Methods to Compute Dynamk Impedance Functions • • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 870
31 .20 Foundations Supported on Piles............................................... 870
31 .21 Pllu Subjactad to Lateral Vibrations........................................... 871
31.22 ElastlcContlnuum ............................................................ 872
31 .23 Pllu Sub)Ktad to Vartkal Vibrations.......................................... 875
31.24 PileGroupEffect.............................................................. 881
References • • • .. .. .. .. • • • • .. .. • .. • • • • .. .. .. • • • • • .. .. .. .. • • • .. .. .. .. • • • .. .. .. .. • • • • .. .. 882

Chapter 32. Value Methodology Muthlah Kasi,

Charles A. Bartlett. • .. • • • • • • • • • • • .. • • • • .. • .. • • • • .. • • • • • • .. • • • • .. • • • • • • .. • • • • .. 885
32.1 Introduction.................................................................. 885
32.2 VM Job Plan .. • • • • .. .. .. • • • • • .. .. • .. • • • • .. .. • .. • • • • .. .. • .. • • • • .. .. • .. • • • • • .. .. 885
32.3 The Key Futures ofVM Job Plan: Function Analysis •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 889
32A Exampla 1: Parapat Joint Datall .. • .. • • • • •.. • .. .. • • • .. .. • • .. • • • .. .. • .. • • • • • .. .. 890
32.5 Evaluatlon Phasa • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 893
32.6 Implementation • • .. .. • .. • • • • .. .. • .. • • • • .. .. .. .. • • • .. .. .. .. • • • .. .. .. .. • • • • .. .. 894
32.7 Summary..................................................................... 894
References • • • .. .. .. .. • • • • .. .. • .. • • • • .. .. .. • • • • • .. .. .. .. • • • .. .. .. .. • • • .. .. .. .. • • • • .. .. 894

Chapter 33. Stone Cladding Rul de S. Camposlnhos • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 895

33.1 Introduction: Natural Stona Caddlng. • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 895
33.2 Natural Stona Daplctlon • • • • • .. .. • .. • • • • •.. • .. .. • • • .. .. .. .. • • • .. .. .. .. • • • • .. .. 896
33.3 Mechanical Properties • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 898
33A Cadding Systems and Methods .. • .. • • • • .. .. .. .. • • • .. .. .. .. • • • .. .. .. .. • • • • .. .. 899
33.5 Limit States Design .. .. .. • • • • .. .. .. • • • • • .. .. .. .. • • • .. .. .. .. • • • .. .. .. .. • • • • .. .. 901
33.6 Dowtll Anchoraga. •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 905
33.7 Karf Anchoraga............................................................... 909
33.8 Undercut Anchorage..... • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 911
References • • • .. .. .. .. • • • • .. • .. .. • • • • .. • .. .. • • • • .. .. .. .. • • • .. .. .. .. • • • .. .. .. .. • • • • .. .. 915

Index 9'9
 Contributors

Bulent Akbas. Ph.D. Department of Civil Engineering, Gebze Technical University. Gebze, Turkey
(Chap. 8}
M. Shahrla Alam Professor, School of Engineering, University of British Columbia, Kelowna,
British Columbia, Canada (Chap. 2}
Bulent N.Alemdar, Ph.D., PE Principal Research Engineer. Bentley Systems, Inc., Carlsbad, California
(Chap.4)
O. Salem All, Ph.D., PEEngineering Manager, Structural Technologies (Chap. 31)
Farhad Ansari Professor, Department of Civil and Materials Engineering, University of Illinois
at Chicago (Chap. 25}
Charles A. Bartlett, PE, CVS (Chap. 32)
Zdenik P. Balant McCormick Institute Professor and Walter P. Murphy Professor of Civil and
Environmental Engineering, Mechanical Engineering and Material Science and Engineering,
Northwestern University, Evanston, minois (Chap. 6)
Richard Bennett Professor and Director ofEngineering Fundamentals, University of Tennessee,
Knoxville, Tennessee (Chap. 13)
Charles Bnjak, PE, SE Skidmore, Owings & Merrill (Chap. 18)
David P. Bllllngton Professor Emeritus of Civil Engineering, Princeton University (Deceased)
(Chap. 19)
Preetam Blswas. PE Skidmore, Owings & Merrill (Chap. 18)
Victor Bochicchio Executive Vice President, Hamon Custodis, Inc., Somerville, New Jersey (Chap. 24)
Rul de S. Camposlnhos Coordinator Professor with Aggregation, Polytechnic of Porto, Portugal
(Chaps. 30, 33)
American Institute ofSteel Construction, Chicago, nlinois (Chap. 8}
CharllesJ.Cartllr, Ph.D., PE, SE
James Carter IllConsulting Engineer, Chicago, nlinois (Chap. 15)
Helen Chen, Ph.D., PE American Iron and Steel Institute, Washington, D.C. (Chap. 9}
Sheng-Wei ChL Ph.D. Department of Civil Engineering, University of nlinois at Chicago
(Chap. 3)
Jullan A. Dumltrucu Consulting Structural Engineer, Raytheon Engineers and Constructors
(Retired) (Chap. 19)
David A. Fanella, Ph.D., SE, PE Concrete Reinforcing Steel Institute (Chaps. l, 11)
Shu-Jin Fang Consultant, and Former Associate and Senior Manager, Sargent & Lundy, Chicago,
nlinois (Chap. 24}
Craig D. Foster, Ph.D. Department of Civil Engineering, University of nlinois at Chicago
(Chap. 3)
Vineeth Kumar Gattu Chemical and Fuel Cycle Technologies, Argonne National Laboratory
(Chap. 6)
Ramez B. Gayed Adjunct Professor, University of Calga~ and Senior Structural Engineer,
thyssenkrupp Industrial Solutions (Canada) Inc. (Chap. 21)
llY
xvi CONTRIBUTORS

Amin Ghall Professor Emeritus, University of Calgary {Chap. 21)

s. K. Ghosh S. K. Ghosh Associates LLC, Palatine, minois (Chap. 5)
Paul A. Gossen, PE Geiger Engineers, Suffern, New York (Chap. 20)
Ahmad Hammad, Ph.D., PE. SE Assistant Vice President and Senior Engineering Manager, WSP
USA (Chap. 16)
J. Ernesto lndacochu Professor Emeritus, Civil and Materials Engineering, University of
lllinois at Chicago (Chap. 6)
Anas S. Issa Postdoctoral Fellow, Applied Laboratory for Advanced Materials & Structures
(ALAMS), University ofBritish Columbia, Kelowna, British Columbia, Canada {Chap. 2)
Mohsen Issa, Ph.D., PE, SE Professor, Department of Civil and Materials Engineering, University
of Illinois at Chicago (Chap. 16)
Bora Jang Sharma and Associates, Inc. {Chap. 15)
Raoul Karp. PE, SE Vice President of Design Engineering Analysis, Bentley Systems, Inc.,
Carlsbad, California (Chap. 4)
Muthlah Kasi, PE, SE. CVS-Ufe (Chap. 32)
Soliman Khudeira lllinois Institute of Technology and Chicago DOT {Chap. 15)
Kedar S. Kirane Assistant Professor of Mechanical Engineering, Stony Brook Untversity, Stony
Brook, New York (Chap. 6)
J. Randolph Klssall, PE (Chap. 10)
V. IC. R. Kodur, Ph.D., P.Eng. University Distinguished Professor and Chairperson, Department
of Ctvil and Environmental Engineering, Michigan State University. East Lansing, Michigan
{Chap. 27)
Keith M. MacBaln, Ph.D., PE Geiger Engineers, Suffern, New York (Chap. 20)
Mustafa Mahamid, Ph.D., SE, PE. P.Eng. Clinical Associate Professor, Department of Civil and
Materials Engineering, University ofnlinois at Chicago (Chaps. 1, 11, 14, 19, 21)
Shalva MarJanlshvlll, D.SC:.,. PE, SE Technical Director, Hinman Consulting Engineers, Inc.,
San Francisco, California (Chap. 28)
Brian McElhatten, PE, SE Arup {Chap. 18)
Michael D. Miller, PE. P.Eng.VP Engineering, SAE Towers {Chap. 23)
Jamshid Mohammadi lllinois Institute of Technology {Chap. 15)
M. Z. Naser, Ph.D., PE Assistant Professor, Glenn Department of Civil Engineering, Clemson
University. Clemson, South Carolina {Chap. 27)
Nawarl O. Nawarl, Ph.D., PE School of Architecture, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida
{Chap. 26)
Maryam Nazari Assistant Professor, Department ofCivil and Geomatics Engineering, California
State University, Fresno, California (Chap. 12)
Robert E. Nickerson, PE Consultant {Chap. 23)
Dldem Ozevln Associate Professor, Department of Civil and Materials Engineering, University
of Illinois at Chicago {Chap. 25)
Nabll A. Rahman, Ph.D., PE FDR Engineers, Raleigh, North Carolina (Chap. 9)
Hayd9r A. Rasheed, Ph.D., PE Professor, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas (Chap. 29)
Krishna A. Raddy Professor of Civil Engineering, University of Illinois at Chicago {Chap. 7)
John Rolfes Vice President, CSD Structural Engineers, Milwaukee, Wisconsin (Chap. 17)
Sam Rubenzer, PE, SE Founder and Structural Engineer, FORSE Consulting, Eau Claire, Wisconsin
{Chaps. 4, 13)
Aly M. Said Associate Professor, Architectural Engineering, Pennsylvania State Untversity.
University Park, Pennsylvania {Chap. 2)
 CONTRIBUTORS :xvll

Edmond Sallklls California Polytechnic State University (Cal Poly), San Luis Obispo (Chap. 19)
Jos•ph W. Schul•nb•rg Assistant Clinical Professor of Civil Engineering, University of minois
at Chicago (Chap. 7)
Lasll• D. Scott Chief Engineer, Tank Industry Consultants, Inc., Indianapolis, Indiana (Chap. 22)
Onur Sear, Ph.D. Department of Civil Engineering, Gebze Technical University, Gebze, Turkey
(Chap. 8)
Jay Shen, Ph.D., PE. SE Department of Civii Construction and Environmental Engineering,
Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa (Chap. 8)
Tony Shkurtl Consulting Engineer, Chicago, minois (Chap. 15)
RobtirtSmllowltz, Ph.D., PE Senior Principal, Thornton Tomasetti (Chap. 28)
Sri Srltharan Wilkinson Chair of Interdisciplinary Engineering and Professor of Structural
Engineering, Department of Civil, Construction and Environmental Engineering, Iowa State
University. Ames, Iowa (Chap. 12)
Eric Ston• Consulting Engineer, Chicago, Illinois (Chap. 15)
Jules Yan de Pu Vice President, CSD Structural Engineers, Greenwood Village, Colomdo (Chap. 17)
Thomas Williamson, PE Retired Vice President of Quality and Technical Services, APA-The
Engineered Wood Association (Chap. 14)
Chang Yu, Ph.D., PE University of North Texas, Denton, Texas (Chap. 9)
This page intentionally left blank
 Preface

AB a practicing structural engineer and as an educator, I have always believed that structural
engineers and architects should have knowledge ofthe design of the various types of structures
and of their components, various analysis and design methods, the technologies used in this
analysis, and the design and production of engineering drawings. The Structural Engineering
Handbook provides established engineers, young engineers preparing for license exams, archi-
tects, and civil engineering students a comprehensive reference on the planning and design of
a variety of engineered structures. It also gives the designer the information likely needed for
all design phases.
The handbook covers various types of structures, such as tall buildings, industrial buildings,
bridges including railroad bridges, thin-shell structures, arches, cable-supported roofs, steel
tanks for liquids, retaining structures, blast-resistant structures, bins and silos for granular
material, steel transmission towers and poles, and chimneys. Structural loads for the various
types of structures are also covered, and there is comprehensive coverage of classical structural
analysis methods, finite-element analysis, and computer applications in structural engineering.
Additionally, earthquake-resistant design has been covered based on the most recent codes
and standards. Design of reinforced concrete, prestressed concrete, structural steel, cold-formed
steel, masonry. wood, and aluminium are covered. A chapter on soil mechanics, soil exploration,
and foundation design is also provided. Design against fatigue and fracture is covered for concrete,
composites, and steel
In this fifth edition, all chapters have been rewritten, some chapters in previous versions
of the handbook have been removed due to recent developments in design or construction
practices, and 12 new chapters have been added. The new chapters cover structural loads,
fracture mechanics of concrete and composites, railroad bridges, health monitoring of struc-
tures, building information modeling (BIM), structural fire engineering, progressive collapse
and blast-resistant design, strengthening of concrete using fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP),
structural glass, design of foundations for machines, value engineering, and stone cladding.
The 33 chapters of the handbook have been written by 66 contributors. They have pre-
sented their material in a ready-to-use form with flowcharts to show step-by-step procedures
wherever possible. Therefore, derivations of formulas are omitted in all but a few instances,
and many worked-out examples are given. Background information, descriptive matter, and
explanatory material have been condensed or omitted. Because each chapter treats a subject
that is broad enough to fill a book by itself, the contributors have had to select the material that,
in their judgment, is likely to be the most useful to the greatest number of users. References
and sources of additional material are noted for most of the topics that could not be treated
in sufficient detail.
I am very grateful to the contributors for their tremendous efforts in writing, reviewing,
and editing their work, and for their patience during the time it has taken to complete the
fifth edition.
Mustafa Mahamid, Ph.D., S.E., P.B., P.Bng.
University of Illinois at Chicago
This page intentionally left blank
Structural
Engineering
Handbook
This page intentionally left blank
 Chapter 1
Structural Loads

BY
MUSTAFA MAHAMID, Ph.D., SE. PE. P.Eng. University of Illinois at Chicago
DAVID A. FANELLA. Ph.D~ SE, PE Concrete Reinforcing Steel Institute

1.1 INTRODUCTION a building or structure and do not include construction loads, environ-
mental loads (such as wind loads, snow loads, rain loads, earthquake
Applicable nominal loads on a structure are determined from the
loads, and flood loads), or dead loads (IBC 202).
general building code under whic.b the project is to be designed and
IBC Table 1607.1 contains nominal design values of uniformly dis-
constructed. Chapter 16 ofthe IBC (Ref. 1) contains the minimum mag-
tributed and concentrated live loads L 0 as a function of occupancy or
nitudes of some nominal loads and references ASCE/SEI 7 (Ref. 2) fur
use. The occupancy description listed in the table is not necessarily
others. For a specific project, the governing local building code should
group-specific (occupancy groups are defined in IBC Chapter 3). For
be consulted fur any variances from the IBC or ASCE/SEI 7.
example, an office building with a Business Group B classification may
It is common for nominal loads to be referred to as service loads.
These loads are multiplied by load factors in the strength design
method Exceptions are the wind load effect Wand the earthquake load Tllble1.1 Summary of Loads Addl'91Hd In the IBC and ASCE/SEI 7
effect E: Both are defined to be strength-level loads where the load fac-
Notation Load Code •ection
tor is equal to 1.0.
Table 1.1 contains a list of loads from the IBC and ASCE/SEI 7. D Dead load IBC 1606
Comprehensive information on the determination of structural loads n, Weight of ice Chap. 10 of ASCFJSEI 7
can be found in Ref. 3. B Combined effect of horizontal and IBC 1613 and
vertical earthquake-induced forces ASCEJSEI 12.4.2
u de£lned in ASCEISF.I 12.4.2
1.2 DEAD LOADS
E., Maximum seismic load effect of IBC 1613 and
Nominal dead loads D are the actual weights of construction materials horizontal and vertical forces u ASCEJSEI 12.4.3
and fixed service equipment that are attached to or supported by the 1et forth in ASCFJSEI 12.4.3
building or structure. Specific examples of such loads are listed under p Load due to fluids with well-defined
the definition of •dead load" in IBC 202. pressures and mu:imum heights
Dead loads are considered to be permanent loads because their mag- F, Flood load IBC 1612
nitude remains essentially constant over time. H Load due to lateral earth pressure.1, IBC 1610 (soil lateral loads)
Superimposed dead loads are permanent loads other than the weights ground water preasure, or pressure
of the structural members and include the following: floor finishes of bulk tnale!lal1
and/or topping; walls; ceilings; heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning L LiV<! load. tteept roofllV<! load. IBC 1607
(HVAC) and other service equipment; fixed partitions; and cladding. including any permitted liV<!
Minimum design dead loads for various types of common con- load reduction
struction components are provided in ASCE/SEI Table C3.l-la, and L, RoofllV<! load including any IBC 1607
minimum densities for common construction materials are given in permitted live load reduction
ASCE/SEI Table C3.l-2. In cases where information on dead load is R Rain load IBC 1611
unavailable, values of dead loads used in design must be approved by s Snow load IBC 1608 and Chapter 7
the building official (IBC 1606.2). of ASCE/SF.I 7
T Cumula!M effect. of oelf-straining See ASCEISEI 2.3.4 and
forces and effect. 2.4.4
1.3 LIVE LOADS w Load due to wind pressure IBC 1609 and Chapters 26
1.J,1 G•n•..I to 31 of ASCEISEI 7
Live loads are transient in nature and vary in magnitude over the life w, Wind-on-ice load IBC 1614 and Chapter 10
of ASCEISBI 7
of a structure. These loads are produced by the use and occupancy of
:Z CllAl'TH ONE

a1'o have~ areas that may warrant live loads of 125 or 250 J15f (6.0 or InSI Units
12.0 kN/m2) depending 011 the type of storage, which are greater 1han
the preaaibed oJBc:e live loacb. Structural me.mben are designed on the
buis ofthe muimum effects due t.o application of either a uniform load
L•L.(0.25+Jxu.Ar
4.75 )

or a concentrated load and need not be dalgned for the effects of both
loads applied at the U1De time. The building offiGial mu.rt approve live
lOldt that are not 1pecl6cally listed ill the table.
Putltiom that can be relocated (i.e., thoae typef that are not perma-
nently attached t.o the ltrudure) arc conaidered to be live loads In office
and other buildinp. A live load equal 1D at leut 15 psi (0.72 kN/m2)
muat be Included for movable putiliom if the nominal unl.funn floor
Im load la lea than 80 pet (3.8 kN/m2 ).
IBC Table 1607.1 pretaibet a minimum roof live load of 20 psi
(0.96 kN/m2) for typical roof lltnlctures; larger live loads are required
for roofi UJed u garden.1 or plau1 of 111embly.
ASCE Table 4.3-1 abo contain• minimum unl.funn and concentrated
Im load., and IOJlle of thcae value1 diffi:r from those ill IBC Table
1607.1. ASCE Tables CU-land C4.3-2canbe11.ted u a guide in mab-
liahing live load. for some commmily encountered occupancies.
1.3-2 RedllCtlan In Uw! a-.
Bel;aU1e liw loads are tranlient in nature. the probability that a struc;-
tur.d member will be mbjected t.o the full effect. from nominal live
loadt decreuea u the area 1upported by the member illaeaaee. Euept
for uniform llw load. on roofs, the minimum Wliformly distributed liYI:
loadt L, ln me Table 1607.l are permitted t.o be reduced In accordance
with the methodt in IBC 1607.11.1 ar 1607.ll.2. The general method
of live load reduction ill IBC 1607.11.1 ii alto given ill ASCB/SBI 4.7.
Reductlon of roof liYI: loada must confwm t.o IBC 1607.13.2.
In thU equltlon, Ku. la the li'YI: load element factor given In me
fible 1607.11.1, and Ar ii the tributary area mpported by the member
mtquare feet (1quare meters).
The live load element factor Ku. c:onvertl the tributary area Ar Into
an Influence area. which b contldeud to be the adjacent floor area from
which the member cleriva m load. In other wordt,
Ku = .infhience area/tributary area
Figure l.l llluttratahawthereduction multiplier 0.25+15!(.JKuAr )
vvte. wtth respect to the J.nfluence area Ku.Ar. Induded In the figure
are the minimum influence area of 400 lqUUC kct and the limits of O.S
and 0.4, which are the muimum permitted reduction1 for memben
eupportlng one floor and two or more tloors, reapeciively.
ONB-WAY SLABS
Li:9e load reduction on one-way slab. is pennitted provided that the
tributary area. A,.. doea not exceed an area equal to the slab epan timea a
width normal t.othe epan af 1.5 timeathe dab cpan (I.e., u area wtth an
upcct ratio of 1.5). The live load will buomewhat higher for a one-way
slab with an uped ratio of 1.5 than Cm a two-Wlly slab with the same
upect ratio. Thia recognizes the benefits of higher redundancy that
results from two-way actio11..
ASCE/Sfil 4.7.6 lw the aame requirementa for live load reduction on
one-way dab. u that in IBC 1607.11.l.l.

1.J.J Genenl Method of Lin l.eMI ltedudlon Hluyy LIVB LoAl>I

me Bquation (16-23) can be uted to obtain a reduced live load L for
members that support an area KuAr 2: 400 tP (37.2 m1):
L·L.(025+ .jK:Ar )
::! o.sor. rot" member1 mpporting one tloor
2: 0.401-. for members supporting two or more tloon
Accordlng ro IBC 1607.11.1.2, li'YI: loadt that arc greater than 100 psf
mlllt not be .reduced acept for the following:
1. Live load. for memben tupporting two or more t1oors are permit-
ted tc be reduced by a muimum al 20 percent, but L must not be lea
than that calc:ulmd by CBC 1607.11.1.
2. In 0"11p&Dc.ia other than ltorage. additional Im: load reduction
.is permitted if it can be shown by a regbtered design profesm.ona1. that
1uch a reduction i. warranted.

1.0

0.9

0.8

..• 0.7
i.
E 0.8
:I
:Iii I
c 0.5 - ~ ----------------

l '
0 I
I I

0.4 -L------------------'------------------------------
« 0.3

0.2

0.1

0.0
0 2,000 4,000 6 ,000 8,000 10,000 12,000
KuAr (sq ft)
fllure 1.1 Wuctionmult:iplier for live load in aa:orclanc:e with me 1607.11.l.
 STRUCTURAL LOADS J

In buildings that support relatively large live loads, such as storage
buildings, several adjacent bays may be fully loaded; as such, live loads
should not be reduced in those situations. Data in actual buildings
indicate that the floor in any story is seldom loaded with more than
80 percent of the nominal live load. Thus, a maximum live load reduc-
tion of 20 percent is permitted for members that support two or more
floors, such as columns and walls.
PASSENGER VEHICLE GARAGES
The live load in passenger vehicle garages is not permitted to be reduced,
except for members supporting two or more floors; in such cases, the
maximum reduction is 20 percent, but L must not be less than that
calculated byIBC 1607.11.1(IBC1607.11.1.3). Thus, live load reduction
is not permitted except for members that support two or more floors.
GROUP A (ASSEMBLY) OCCUPANCIES
Due to the nature of assembly occupancies, there is a high probability
that the entire floor is subjected to full uniform live load. According to
Footnote m in IBC Table 1607.1, live load reduction is not permitted in
assembly areas, CX(:ept for follow spot, projection, and control rooms,
unless specific ~ons ofIBC 1607.11 apply.
Flowchart 1 shown in Fig. 1.2 can be used to determine basic uniform
live load reduction in accordance with IBC 1607.11.1.
1.JA Alternirtlvtt Uniform Live l.Olld Reduction
An alternative method of uniform live load reduction, which is based on
provisions in the 1997 Uniform Building Code (Ref. 4), is given in IBC
1607.11.2. IBC Equation 16-24 can be used to obtain a reduction factor

FLOWCHART1

Basic Uniform Live Load Reduction (IBC 1607.11.1)

Yes

Live load reduction is not permitted"

No Yes

AT :s: 1.S(slab span) 2

No Yes

Live load reduction is not permitted**

No Yes

Live load reduction is not permittedt

• See IBC 1607.11.1.2 for two exceptions to this requirement.

** Live loads for members supporting two or more floors are permitted to be
reduced by a maximum of 20 percent (IBC 1607.11.1.3).
t Live loads for members supporting follow spot, projections, and control
rooms are permitted to be reduced (see Footnote m in IBC Table 1607.1).
Figure 1.2 Basic uniform live load reduction In accordance with IBC 1607.11.1 (Flowchart 1).
4 CHAPTER ONE

FlOWCHART1

Basic Unifonn Live Load Reduction (IBC 1607.11.1)

(continued)

No Yes

Live load raduction is not permitted

except as specified in IBC 1607.13.2

No Yes

Live load reduction is not permitted

:?: 0.50L0 for members supporting one floor

:i: 0.40L0 for members supporting two or more floors

Figure 1.2 (Continued)

R for members that support an area greater than or equal to 150 square

=l~.2-0.0001.A,
for A, S 200 square feet
feet where the live load is less than or equal to 100 psf.
Flowchart 2 shown in Fig. 1.3 can be used to determine alternative R1 for 200 square feet< A, < 600 square feet
uniform live load reduction in accordance with IBC 1607.11.2. 0.6 for A, ~ 600 square feet
1.3.5 Roofl.oltd1

In general, roofs are to be designed to resist dead, live, wind, and, where
applicable, rain, snow, and earthquake loads. A minimum rooflive load
of 20 psf is prescribed in IBC Table 1607 .1 for typical roof structures,
while larger live loads are required for roofs used as gardens or places
of assembly.
IBC 1607.13.2 permits nominal roof live loads on flat, pitched, and
curved roofs and awnings and canopies other than fabric construction
supported by a skeleton frame to be reduced in accordance with IBC
Equation 16-26:
where L 0 =unreduced roof live load per square foot of horizontal roof
projection supported by the member
L, = reduced roof live load per square foot of horizontal roof
projection supported by the member
~ =j~.2-0.0SF
forPS4
for 4<F<l2
0.6 for F~l2
A, = tributary area (span length multiplied by effective width) in
square feet supported by a member
P = the number of inches of rise per foot for a sloped roof
=the rise-to-span ratio multiplied by 32 for an arch
or dome
No live load reduction is permitted for members supporting less than
or equal to 200 square feet as well as for roof slopes less than or equal
to 4: 12. In no case is the reduced roof live load to be taken less than
12 psf. The minimum load determined by this equation accounts for
occasional loading due to the presence of workers and materials during
repair operations.
 STRUCTURAL LOADS 5

FLOWCHART2
Alternative Unifonn Live Load Reduction (IBC 1607.11.2)

Yes

Live load reduction is not permitted*

No Yes

A ~ 0.5(slab span)2

No Yes

Live load reduction is not permitted**

No Yes

Live load reduction is not permitte<ft

* Live loads lor members supporting two or more floors are permitted to be reduced
by a maximum ol 20 percent [IBC 1607.11.2(1); also see exception in that section].
- Live l0&ds for members supporting two or more floors are permitted to be reduced by
a maximum ol 20 percent [IBC 1807.11.2(2)].
t Live loads for members supporting follow spot, projections, and control rooms are
permitted to be reduced (see Footnote m in IBC Table 1607.1).
Figure 1 .3 Alternative uniform live load reduction in accordance with IBC 1607.11.2 (Flowchart 2).

Llve loada are permitted to be reduced on areas of occupiable roofs
using the provisions ofIBC 1607.11 for floor live loada (IBC 1607.13.3).
Llve loads that are greater than or equal to 100 psf at areas of roofs
that are classified as Group A (assembly) occupancies are not permit-
ted to be reduced unless specific exceptions of IBC 1607.11 apply (see
Footnote m in IBC Table 1607.1).
A minimum rooflive load of 20 psf is required in unoccupied land-
scaped areas on roofs (IBC 1607.13.3.1). The weight of landacaping
material is considered a dead load and must be determined based on
the saturation level of the soil
A minimum roof live load of 5 psf is required for awnings and
canopies in accordance with IBC Table 1607.1 (IBC 1607.13.4). Such
elements must also be designed fur the combined effects of snow and
wind loads in accordance with IBC 1608 and 1609.
1.3.6 Crane Loads
Design provisions fur runway beams that support moving bridge cranes
and monorail cranes are given in IBC 1607.14. In general, the sup-
port structure of the crane must be designed fur the maximum wheel
load, vertical impact, and horizontal impact as a simultaneous load
combination.
A typical top-running bridge crane is depicted in Fig. 1.4. The trol-
ley and hoist move along the crane bridge, which is supported by the
6 CMAPTHONE

FLOWCHART2
Alternative Uniform Live Load Reduction (IBC 1607.11.2)
(continued)

No Yes

Live load reduction is not pennitted

L=L0 [l-(R/IOO)]
=
R O.OS(A - ISO)

{
~ percent for horizontal. members
~ smalle.tt of 60 percent for vertical members
23.1(1 + DILJ

Flg1111t 1.J (Contilnltd)

is muimum; genertilly, this oc:curs when the trolley is moved u close to

the supporting membeu a.s poss:ible.
The muimum whec:l loacb must be increued by the percentage11
given In me 1607.14.2 to accowrt for the vertical Impact for« that le
ca\16ed by the starting and atopphlg m<Mment of the Sll!pellcled wdgh.t
from the c;rane and by the mavcment af the c;rane a!Ollg the rails.
A lateral force that acb perpendicular to the c.rane runway beams is
generated by the tnmvene movement of the crane, that la, by move-
ment Chat oc:c:IU& perpendicular to the 1'W1WIY beam (see Fig. 1.5).
Trolley with Hoist Acc;ording to me 1607.1.U, the magnitude af thi• load Oll c::wie

Vertical

Bridge Runway
Beam (typ.)
Support
Column (typ.)
Hook

ruinftY beams and support colwmis. The entire crane asKmblage can
also move along the length of the runway beuns.
The maximum wheel loads that are to be used in the design af the
supporling member' are due to the weight af Che bridge plus the rum
of the rated capacity and the we.lght of the trolley. The trolley Is to be
p04ltloned on IU rwnw.y u the location where the muhlng load effect

runway beams with electronically powm<I trolleys is to be taken equal
to 20 perunt of the rum oCthe rated capa.clty of the crane and the weight
of the hoist and ttolley. It is wumed that thla load acta horlzontlllly at
the tractlo.n surface of the runway beam and that lt ls distributed to the
runway beam uid supportlDB structure (sw:h as ((INmns) based on the
lateral stiffness of the members.
A longitudlnal force is generated on a crane runway beam by acceler-
ation, decderatl.on, and braking of the crane bridge beam (see Fig. 1.5).
This load is taken u 10 percent of the muimum wheel loads of the
c:rane and is usumed to a.ct horizontally at the traction surface of the
runway beam in either direction parallel. to the beam (me 1607.14.4).
Bridge aanes with hand-geared bridges are eumpt from this provision.
Refuence 5 ((llltt/Jns adcll1lona1 informa1ion on the determination o(
c:rane loads for indumial buildingl.
1.J.7 ~rWlllund Parddons
Interior walls and partitions (lncludlng their finishing materials) that are
greater than 6 feet in height are required to be daigned for a horizontal
load. o( 5 psf (IBC 1607.15). Thil requimnent is intended to provide
sufficient at.rength and durabillty of the wall framing and ib finished
construction when subjected to nomiilal impact loads, suc:'h. as those
from moving furniture or equipment and from HVAC piess11riution.
Requimnenbl for fabric partitions that exceed 6 feet in height are
givenlnlBC 1607.15.1.Ahorlzontalload equal to 5 psfla to be applied
to the partitlo.n framing. Additlonally, a 40-pound load. must be applied
over an 8-in.-diameter area of the fabric face et a height of 54 in. above
the floor. This condition ill meant to simulate the loa.d caused by a per-
son leaning against the fabric using their hand as the point of contact.
1.A RAIN LOADS
1.4.1 G-.11
me 1611 and ASCEISBI Chapter 8 contain requirements for design
rain loads. The nominal rain load R ls determined based on the amount
of water that can accumulate on a roof UNlillng that the primary roof
drainage system is bl~. When this O«lllt, water will rue above the
primary roof drain until it reaches the elevation of the roof edge or the
secondary drain.age aystem.. The depth of water above the primary drain
at the deaign raln1ill l.Dten&lty is bued on the flow rate of the secondary
~which "f'ariet widely depending on the type of ae<:0ndary symm
that is wed.
The type and location of the aecondary dra!n8 and the amount of
rainwater above their Inlets under dulgn ccndltlons must be known
in order to determine R. Coo.rdination among the design team (archi-
teciura!. structural. and plumbing) ill very important when establishing
.rain Joa.di.
Chapter 11 of the lnte.matlonal Plumbing Code• (IPC&) colltllns
req,ulremenu on the design of roof drainage symms. lncludlng the
req,uiRd size and number of drains based on the area that is serviced.
(Rei. 6). Ramfa1I. rate$ are given fur varlou& dtie.t In the United Sta.tea
In Appendix B of the lPC. These rates are based on the mapa In IPC
Figure 1106.1, which have the same origin u the mtpS in the IBC (11«
the following d.i.scuss:ion).
1.4.2 Desitft Rllft I.old
me Equation 16-35 or ASCE/SEI Equation 8.3-1 is used to determine
the rain load R:
R=5.2(d,+di.)
The constant in this equation ill equal to the unit load per inch depth
of rainwater, that is, the denalty of water divided by 12 ill. per foot:
62.4/12 =5.2 psf per inch.
The total depth o( rainwater on a roof that is to be uaed in deten:nin-
ing R ((Insists of two parts:
1. The depth of water on the undetlecte.d roof up to the Inlet of
the secondary dnlnage aystem. when the primary drainage system is
bloclced (dJ.
SlRUCTURALLOADS 7
2. The additional depth of water on the 1111deftec:ted roof @ave the
inlet of the secondary drain.age system at its duign Bow (dh).
The static head d, u the dlltance from the primary drain to the sec-
ondary drain and ls determined in the design of the ((lm.bined drainage
system.
The rainwuer depth dA (which it alto nifem!d to u the hydraulic
head) is a function of the .rainfall intenaity i at the site, the area of roof
A that ls serviced by that drainage system, and the &1ze of the drainage
system.
IBC Figunl 1611.1 provides the rainfall ra.tell for a storm of I-hour
duration Chat has a 100-year return period. The.te ratet have been deter-
mined by a mttsttcal analysis ofweather .records. Both the primary and
the SC(Olldary drainage ~s mutt be designed fur the pmaibed
rainf.ill rate (see Section 1108 of the IPC on how to lize serondary
drainage syJtems). n ill always good practice to check with local build-
ing a11thorltiea to ensure that the proper raln1ill rate la wed In dea!gn.
In genera), dh depends on the type and size of the secondary drainage
system and the flow rate Qit mu.st handle. The following equmon from
C8.5 can be used to determine the Bow rate through a single secondary
drainage system:
Q=0.0l04Ai
ln this equation, Q iJ in gallons per minllk.. A i• in squaR feet. and i iJ
in inc:'h.et per hour. The constant 0.0104 ill obtained based on the units
associated with the variables In the equation:
Comtant=ft2 x l.D.x_!!_x 7Mgalx....!..!!!.....=O.Ol04
hr 12 in. tt3 60 min
The following equa.tiom relue the Bow rate Q in gallons per minute to
the hydraulic head dA in inches for channel- and closed-type scuppers
(see Fig. 1.6 and Ref. 7):
=
Clwmel-type ICUppers: Q 2.9 ~.5 when h ~di.
Ooeed-type 8'uppen: Q=2.9 b[t1l -(d11 -ht.s Jwhen h < t111
5
where b and h are the width and depth of the Jtupper, respectively, in
inches. Note that the channel-type acuppen equation is also applicable
to closed-type scuppers when It ~ dir
b
Channel- type Scupper
b
Closed- type Scupper
Flfu19 1.6 Roof tcappen.
t CMAPTHONE

Parapet

Scupper (Secondary Drainage System) / Top of Rainwater

dh ./_ __
------- ------------------------ --------- ----
Roof Drain

Primary Drainage System

(assumed blocked)

Figure 1.7 Wala' deptha, tl, and t.llP in accardance with IBC 1611 fur typical perimeter KUf'PC?L

ASCE/SEI Table C8-1 give& flown.tee in gallone per minute and cor-
iuponding hydraulic heads for circular drain, channel-type scupper.
and closed-type scupper drainage symm..
Figure 1.7 illwrtrate.1 the rairxw.Ua' depth! tl., and dh that are to be used.
in determining R for the case of a scupper secondary drainage syrtem.
while Fig. 1.8 illustntes these water depths for a typical interior drallar
secondary drainage~
Where buildings are configured. such that rainwater will not collect
0.11 the roo( no rain load b required in the design of the root; and a sec-
ondary drainage system is not needed. What la important to .note Is that
the provWons ofIBC 1611 and ASCB/SEI Chapter 8 must be considered
wherever the potential aim that water ma:y accumulm on die roof.
1.u Ponding lmablltty
ln sl.tuttions where roofs do not hm: adequate slope or ha~ insuffl.dent
and/or blocked drains to remove water due to rain or melting snow,
water will tend to pond in low areas, which will cause the roof structure
to deflect. These low areas will subseq,ue.ntly attract even more water,
leading to addil.lonal defl«tton. Sufllclent stiffness must be provided
so that d.efl~on• will not continually inc~ until innability o~
resulting in localiud failure.
The provision• in ASCE/SEI U are provided to help emure that
susceptible bays ha~ adequue stiffnetlS to preclude progressive ddlec:-
tion and adequate mength. to resin the ponding load plus the ~pli~le
design rain load (JBe 1611.2). Swrceptible bays are detined in ASCBJSEI
8.4 and illustrated in ASCE/SEI Figure C8.4-1.
ASCE/SEI Figure C8.4-2 shows a roof with. inte.rlor primary drains
and perimeter overftow (secondary) drains. All bays are suscep-
tible in this s:itwllion regardle.u of the roof slope becawe water can be
impounded on the roof when the primary drainage system b blocked.
1.4.4 Controllld Dreln1e-
ln some Juriadlcttons, the rate of rainwater flow from roofs Jnto storm
drains Is limited. Controlled-ilow drains are typically ut1li7.ed in such
cues and arc dmgned in accordance with lPC 1110 (Ref. 6). The drain-
age ftow rate provided by the primary drainage S}'ltem (controlled-ftow
dra!ns) 18 lea.t than the rainfall rate and mter inte.ntJonally accumulate
on the roof.
According to me 1611.3 and ASCE/SEI 8.S, a SC«lllduy drainage
l}'Jtml at a higher elevation must be provided when controlled-ftow
dra!ns are used. u the primary drainage system; th1a .18 meant to limit the
accumulatJon of water on the roof above that elewtion. Note that con-
trolled drainage hardware must not be u.ed on the •econduy drainage
l}'Jtml became the secondary system is the backup in caJe the primary
ly3tem u blocked.
Roof\! must be designed in mch cases to support the stormwater
Wllporuily supported on them, dmilu to traditional roof drainage
~
Ponding instability in accordance with me 1611.2 or ASCE/SEI 8.4
must also be checl<ed.
1.S SOIL LATERAL LOADS
1.S.1 G-.11
Poundation walh of a building or structun: and retaining wll11s murt be
det!gned to mist the lateral loadt cau.ed by adjacent aoll. A geotechni-
<:al investigation is uaually unde.rtab.n to determine the magnitude of
die soil prusure. In cue. where the results of such an investipti.on are
not available, the lateral soil loadt in me 'Ilible 1610.1 are to be wed
(aimilar de&ign lateral loads are provided in ASCE/SEI Table 3.2-1).

Secondary Drainage System

Top of Rainwater

L
----- -- ---------------------------
Roof Drain --......
ds

-----===~== ; - ========- -----:....-:...------~-----:....~-------------

Primary Drainage System

(assumed blocked)
Rgure 1.8 Wam-deptha. d,and d,.. inaa::mdmcew:ith DlC 1611 far typical intaior clraina.

The design 1atera1 soil load. H, depencls on the type of •oil and the
boundary conditiona a1 the top of the wall Walh that are reatrictecl. to
.move a1 the top are to be deaigned for the at-rert p.nmurea tabulated in
me Table 1610.1, while walls that are free to deflect and rotate at the top
are to be clesiped fur the ac:tivc pre11S111'e$ in that table.
Foundation walls that clo not extend more 1han 8 feet bc:low grade
and are laterally rupported at the top by fl.Wble diaphragms are permit-
ted to be dCl!gned for the actift pressure values given in the table.
IAkra1 soil preaum are not provided for the expansive IOils Identi-
fied by Note bin IBC Table 1610.1 becau1e thete soils ha.ve unpredict-
able characterlstla. These soib absorb water and tend to shrink and
swell to a higher degree than other soils. As these soils swell, they are
capable of exerting relatively large force. on the aoil-retalning ruucture.
As such, apanaiTe soils are not suitable u backfill (see Note b).
In addition to lateral pres.'lllrel from soil, walls mutt be designed
to mist the effects of bydroitattc pre.uure due to undrained bacldlll
(unless a drainage system Is inml!ed) and to any surdlarge loads that
<:all R"1lt from sloping backfills or from d.rivewa}" or parking space.
Chat are close to a. wall Submerged or ~d soil pressuret include
Che weight a! the buoyuit aoil plua the hydrostatic p.ressure.
ASCB/SEI 3.2.2 contains requirements for the de'1gn of any horl-
zontal element supported directly on •oil. auc.:h as slabs on grade and
ba.tement slabt. Full hydrostatic pressure mu.rt be applied over the entinl
area of such elemel!U where applicable. Elem.enta that are supported by
apansive soils must be designed to accommodate the upward loads
c.:au.ed by the es:pansive soil. or the expansive soil is to be remOV\ld or
ltlbiliud a.round and beneath the ltlucture..
1.6 SNOW AND ICE LOADS
1.6.1 lninlcllldlon
Struciural memben that are a. part of :coo&, balconies, canopie1, and
llmllar atructurea that are expoeed to the e.nviroa.me.nt must be deaigned
fur the effi:cts of mow loacls in th04e geographic areas whe.re snowfall
<:all oc;c;ur.
Loacls on buildings and oeher structure.I due to snow are determined
based on the anticipated ground mow load. the occupancy of the build-
.Ing, the aposure, the thermal resistance of the roof structure, and the
shtpe and slope of the roof. Partial loading. unbalanced mow loacls
due to roof configuration, drif\ loacls on lower or adjacent roofs and on
projections such as parapea and mechanical equlpme.nt. sliding snow
loads, and ra!n-on-&iow loacls muft also be considered when designing
fur the dfectll &om snow.
me 1608.1 niquires 1hat de1ign mow loads be d.ewmined by the pro-
vision• of Chapter 7 ofASCB/SBI 7. In-depth information ii given in the
following sections on the•e provisions along with pertinent background
.Information on the methodologies that iue utilized.
..-~~~~~~~~~~-.iii
Obstruction provides shelter where x 5 10h0
Flgur. 1.t ShelteRd roof~ for mow loads.
SlRUCTURALLOADS t
In certain paru of the United States, atmospheric tu loads must be
conddered in the design a! all structure. and structural elemenu that
are exposed to the element.t. Chapter 10 of ASCB/SE.I 7-16 c:ontaina
prov:isi.ona on how to determine ice loads due to fnaing rain on a.
variety of structural ahapes, objects, and configurations as a function of
the design Ice thickness.
1.6.2. AltRoofSnowloads
Once a ground mow load has bee.n established, a flat roof snow load,. Pp
ls determined by Eq,UUl.on 7.3-1 a! ASCEJSEI 7:
p1=o.1c,c11,p1
The 0.7 factor in Che equation above ii a co1t1ervative ground-to-roof
snow load convenlon factor. C, Is the aposure factor, accounts for the
wind at the die, and is related to the type of terrain and the ezposure of
the roo£ Valu~ of C, are given in ASCB/SEI 7 Table 7.3-1 as a function
of the surfac:e roughness c.:ategory a.nd the type of roof a:posure. Surfac:e
roughne.u categories B, C, and D are defined in 26.7 fur wind deilgn
(see Table 1.2).
'hble 1.2 Surfaa Rough MU c:.t.toriu
B Urban and ll1lba.cball. ueu, wooded-, or o1her temm
'With~ closely rpaccd. obst:rui:t!one having the
me of angle-family dwellillp or larger
c Open temlin with ICl!teml obmucticma having height»
gcneraJly 1ea than 3D feet; this a1e80iy ll1dudes flat
open country and grastlands
D Flat, unob11r11Cted am.t and water A1'faces; lhis category
in.c:lwm smooth mudflm, aalt flm. and unbmbn ice
Roof aposun:s are defined as fully expC*d. partially exposed, and
sheltered (1ee Footnote a. in Table 7.3-1). A fully exposed condition
e:d.rul where a roof la eq>o$ed on all sides with no shelter provided by
a.dJoWng terrain, higher structuru, or trees. Roofs wi1h large mechani-
cal equipment, parapets that extend aboft the height of the balanc.:ed
mow load. or other similar obstructions a.re not conaidmid to be fully
exp011ed because such conditions can provide some shelter to the wind.
Obstructions are defined as providh'lg shelter when they are loc:ated
within a dlmnce a! 10h0 from the roof; where h0 is the helglit of the
obstruction above the roof(see Footnote bin Table 7.3-1). The c:onifers
depicted 111 Fig. 1.9 provide shelter to the building roof if Che dlmnc.:e.
x, between the center!Jne of the building and the tree line is less than or
equal to 10h0 • In cases where deciduous trees that are leafless in winter
aum11111d the site, the fully aposed c:aleiO'Y is applic:able.
x Centerline of building
10 CHAPTER ONE

Partially exposed roof exposures are to be used where fully exposed
and sheltered conditions do not apply. This is generally the most common
roof exposure.
Similar to surface roughness categories, a roof exposure condition must
represent the conditions that are expected during the lifi: of the building.
et is the thermal factor; it accounts for the amount of heat loss
through the roof. Values of et are given in ASCE/SEI 7 Table 7.3-2 as a
function of the thermal condition. Like terrain categories and exposure
conditions, the thermal condition that is chosen must represent the
anticipated conditions during winters for the lifi: of the building.
I, is the importance factor; it adjusts the snow load based on the
occupancy of the structure. Risk categories for buildings and other
structures are defined in IBC Table 1604.5, and values of I, are gm:n in
ASCE/SEI Table 1.5-2.
1.AU Minimum Snow Loads for Low-Slope Roofs
ASCE/SEI 7.3.4 contains provisions for minimum snow loads, p,,., for
low-slope roofs, which are defined as follows:
• Monoslope, hip, and gable roofs with slopes less than 15 degrees.
• Curved roofs where the vertical angle from the eaves to the crown
is less than 10 degrees.
Flowchart 3 shown in Fig. 1.10 shows the procedure fur finding the
flat roof snow load.
1.6.4 Slopad Roof Snow l.Ndt
Design snow loads fur all structures are based on the sloped roof snow
load, p,. which is determined by the equation
p,=e,p,
The slope factor, e,, depends on the slope and temperature of the roof,
the presence or absence of obstructions, and the degree of slipperiness
of the roof surface.
Figure 7 .4-1 of ASCE/SEI 7 contains graphs of C, fur warm and cold
roof conditions, and C7.4 contains equations for e,. Flowchart 4 in
Fig. 1.11 shows the procedure for finding the roof slope factor snow
load, and Flowchart 5 in Fig. 1.12 shows the procedure for finding the
sloped roof snow load.
1.6.5 Partl•I LHdlng
The partial loading provisions of 7.5 of ASCE/SEI 7 must be satisfied
for continuous roof framing systems and all other roof systems where
removal of snow load on one span (by wind or thermal effects) causes
an increase in stress or deflection in an adjacent span. For example, an
increase in bending moment and deflection will occur in the span of a
cantilevered roof member that is adjacent to the cantilever span where
half the snow load is removed.

fLOWCHART3
Flat Roof Snow Load, P/

Determine ground snow loadp8

from Fig. 7.2-1 or Fig. 1608.2 for
conterminous U.S. and Table 7.2-1
or Table 1608.2 for Alaska**

Determine exposure factor c. from

Table 7.3-1 (7.3.1)

Determine thermal factor et from

Table 7.3-2 (7.3.2)

Determine importance factor 1,

using IBC Table 1604.5 and
Table 1.5-2 (7.3.3)

Determine flat roof snow load

P1=0.1c.c,I,p8 by Eq. 7.3-1t

• A ftat roof is defined as a roof with a slope that is less than or equal to 5 degrees.
.. "CS" in the maps signifies areas where a site-specific study must be conducted to
determine Pg· Numbers In parentheses represent the upper elevatlon llmll In feat for
the ground snow load values given below. Site-specific studies are required at
elevations not covered in the maps.
Minimum snow loads for low-slope roofs Pm are specified In 7.3.4. Low-slope roofs are
defined in 7.3.4.
Figure 1.10 Flat roof snow load (Flowchart 3).
 STRUCTURALLOADS 11

FLDWCHAAT4

Roof Slope Factor, c;

No Yes

Detennine thermal factor C1

from Table 7.3-2 (7.3.2)
c, =1.0 (7.4.4)

No Yes

Roof Is defined es a Roof Is defined es a

cold roof (7.4.2) warm roof (7.4.1)

• Portions of curved roots having s slope exceeding 70 degrees shall be considered free of
snow load, that is, c.~ o (7.4.3).

FLOWCHART4

Roof Slope Factor, Cs

(continued)

No Yes

Detennine roof slope factor c, Detennine roof slope factor c,

using the solid line in Fig. 7.4-1 b using the dashed line in Fig. 7 .4-1 b

No Yes

Detennine roof slope factor C, Detennine roof slope factor C,

using the solid line in Fig. 7.4-1 c using the dashed line in Fig. 7.4-1c

Flgu!W 1.11 Roof slope factor (Plowchart 4).

12 CHAPTER ONE

FLOWCHART4

Roof Slope Factor, Cs

{continued)

No Yes

Detennine roof slope factor c, Detennine roof slope factor c,

using the solid line in Fig. 7.4-1at using the dashed line in Fig. 7.4-1at

•• See 7.4 for definitions ot unobstructed and sllppery surfaces. An R-value for a roof Is
defined as Its thermal resistance.
t See 7.4.5 for an additional uniformly diStributecl load that is to be applied on overhanging
portions of warm roots due to fonnatiOn of ice dams and icicles along eaves.
Figure 1.11 (Conlinud)

FLOWCHARTS
Sloped Roof Snow Load, p,
Determine flat snow load PJ
from Flowchart 3
Detennine roof slope factor c,
from Flowchart 4
Detennine sloped roof snow
loadp, = C,p1 by Eq. 7.4-1
Figure 1.12 Sloped roof snow load (Flowchart 5).
For simplicity, only the three load cases given in Figure 7.5-1 of
ASCE/SEI 7 need to be investigated; comprehensive alternate span (or
checkerboard) loading analyses are not required:
• Full balanced snow load on either of the exterior spans and half of
the balanced snow load on all other spans.
• Half of the balanced snow load on either exterior span and full bal-
anced snow load on all other spans.
• All possible combinations of full balanced snow load on any two
adjacent spans and half of the balanced snow load on all other spans.
There will be (n-1) possible combinations for this case where n is equal
to the number of spans in the continuous beam system.
Case 1 can occur when two different snow events that correspond to
half of the balanced snow load are separated by an event that prevents
the lower half of the roof snow from drifting. The intervening event can
be sleet or freezing rain, for example. After the second snowfall occurs, a
strong wind blows across the roof, removing snow from all of the spans
and depositing it on all of the downwind spans. Case 1 in Figure 7.5-1
depicts the case for wind blowing from right to left.
Wind blowing from left to right must also be considered, and this is
covered in Case 2 for a wind of shorter duration than that in Case 1. In
particular, the wind event in Case 2 is long enough to remove the snow
from the first span and deposit it on the adjoining spans.
The load pattern depicted for Case 3 in Figure 7.5-1 could cor-
respond to a case where there is an obstruction on the roof (such as
a parapet) that blocks the wind from blowing the snow behind the
obstruction.
Partial loading provisions need not be considered for structural
members that span perpendicular to the ridgeline of gable roofs with
slopes between 2.38 degrees ('f.i on 12) and 30.3 degrees (7 on 12)
because this loading case is addressed in the unbalanced snow load
provisions of 7.6.1, which are covered in the next section.
1.6.6 UnlMlllnmd RoofSn-LIHld1
OVERVIEW
Unbalanced snow load occurs on sloped roofs from wind and sunlight
and in most cases can be considered a drift load. Wind tends to reduce
the snow load on the windward portion of a roof and increase the snow
load on the leeward portion. Provisions for unbalanced snow loads are
given in 7.6.1 for hip and gable roofs; in 7.6.2 for curved roofs; in 7.6.3
 $1RUCTURAL LOADS 13

fur multlple folded plate, sawtooth, and barrel vault roofs; and in 7.6.4
fur dome rooh. When determining unbalan~ mow loads on a root it
ill important to consider wind from all directions.
HIP AND GABLB Roo11s
Depicted. In Fig. 1.13 is unM!an~ mow load. on a hip aid gable roof
of a building due to wind. The shape of the roof drift can t.wically be
characterized u a triangle located. close to the ridgeline: the turchuge is
essentially zero at the ridge, and the top sumce of the surcharge I• basi-
cally horizontal. Loading (Ollcli1lon• meant to represent thl• behavior
arc giTen in 7.6.1.
In CUC$ where W is Jen than 20 feet. a wlue of W equal to 20 feet
ii used in Equation 4.3. In such cues, the mow drift height. Ii,,, deter-
mined. by Equation 4.3 need not be tabn greater than
~I,p1W/4y
whe.re W ls the actud fetch distance, not the minimum fetch distance
of20 feet.
The density of snow, y, ill determined by Equa1ion 7.7-1:
')'=0.13p,+14S: 30 pc(
Flowchart 6 in Fig. 1.15 can be used to determine the unbalanced roof
mow loads for hip and gable roofs.

.....
Wind
Windward Leeward
CuRVJIJ> ROOI'
Provisions for balanced and unbalanced mow loads on curved roo& are
given in 7.6.2. Any portion of a curved roof that has a slope that exceecb
70 degreu can be comidered free of1now loads. Note that the roofJlope
is measured from the horizoatal. to the tan.gent of the curved roof at that
point In cases where the roof •lope a<:l:ed.a 70 degree«, the point on the
roof at a slope of 70 degree1 is (Ollsiderecl to be die eave.
Balanced and unbalanced. load cases that are applicable to curved roo&
are given In Figure 7.4-2 aa a function of the dope of the roof at the eave.
It Is Important to note that these provisions are not applicable to
c:urved roof's that are co.ncavc upward. In such caset. u wdl as in cases
for other roof geometries and complicated site (Ollditions, wind tunnel
model studiet should be wed to establish design snow loads (see C7.14).
Flgin 1.13 U~ mow load on• hip or gable roo£ The unbalanced. load.ls very similar to Cue 2: the windward portion of
the roof between the windwvd eave and the crown ls auumed. to be free
Unbalanced. mow loads mlllt be considered. for roofs with 1lope.1 of* of mow, and there are two cases to comi.der for die leeward portion ofthe
on 12 (2.38 degrees) Chrough 7 on 12 (30.3 degree.). Drift» typically do roof depending 011 whether or not the ground or another roof abuts the
not form on roofs with. slopes less than and greater than tht$e llmiting curved roof w.ilhiD. 3 reet of.Its eaves (see Figure 4.8 In Ref 3).
whle.. Bdanced. and unbalan«d load conditlons that must be addressed Flowchart 7 in Fig. 1.16 cm be used to detx!rmine the unbalan«d roof
for hip and gable roofs arc illumab!d in Figure 7.6-2 (see Fig. 1.14). mow loads for curved roo&.
MUL'l1PL£ FOLDBD Pu.'1'11, SAWTOO'l'B, AND
8hd..fS/3 BAJl!UlL VAULT ROOFS
I' 'I Provisions for unbalanced mow loads on folded plate, sawtooth, and
0.3ps f ! : hdy/./S bane! vault roofs are given in 7.6.3. Unbalanced loads need to be con-
Unbalanced
All other cases
..,~~.~-.--
. .--.i.~ i i t t Ps
dde.red when the slope e:ui!eds" .ln.fft (1.79 degrea).
Similar to curved roofs. unbalanced. loads are equal to O.S!J at
the crown or ridge of the roof and are equal to 2pJ' C, at the valleys.
IDllS!raled in Figure 7.6-3 are the balanced and unlialanced loads for a
sawtooth roof.
Unbalanced
w s 20 feet w ith t t t t t lsPg Flowchart 8 in Fig. 1.17 can be used to detx!rmine the unbalan«d roof
mow loads for folded plate, sawtooth, and barrel vault roo&.
roof rafter system
DoMll Rool'S
Acco.rding to 7.6.4, unbalanced snow loads for dome roof's are to be
determined in the same manner u for curved rooti. Unbalanced loads
Balanced t I I I I I I I i Ps are to be applied to the downwind 90-degrc:e sector of the dome in plan
(see Fig. 1.18). The load decreases linearly to zero over 22.5-degree sec-
tors on either side ofthis aec:tor. No anow load. I• taken on the remaining
225-degree upwind sector.
The balan~ and unbalanced. load di..ruiblllions depend on the slope

[d
of the roofat die eaves. In the unbalanced load case, the mow load at the
eave or where the slope .Is equal to 70 degrees dec.rease& llneady to zero
over the 22.S-degree sector on each side of the 90-degree downwind
a«tor of the root:
s 1.6.7 Drlfb on Lowtr Roots
0v:u.VIBW
Section 7.7 contains provl.slo.ns for snow drifts that can oc<:Ur on lower
roo& of a building due to die following:
1. W'md depositing mow from higher portion• of the same building
or an adjacent building or terrain feature (sw:h u a hill) to a lower roof
2. Wlnd depositing snow from the windward portion of a hnm roof
FltuM 1.14 Balanced and unbalanced snowloadt fur hip and gable rooft. to the portion of the lower roof adjaCCI1t to a taller part of the building
 FLOWCHART&

Unbalanced Roof Snow Loads - Hip and Gable Roofs

(7.6.1)

No Yes

Unbalanced snow loads are

not required to be applied

No Yes

No Yes

Unbalanced load shall consist of: Apply unbalanced unifonn snow

• 0.3p,on the windward side
• p, on the leeward side plus a rectangular
surcharge of h,n/{S, which extends from
the ridge a distance of BhifS/3*
load of I,P1 on the leeward side
and no load on the windward side
(see Rg. 7.6-2 and Fig. 4.5)

(see Rg. 7.6-2 and Fig. 4.5)

• hd Is the drift height from Fig. 7.6-1 wllh W substituted fort u• y = snow
density detennlned by Eq. 7.7·1, and S =roof slope run for a rise of one.
Figure 1.15 Unbalanced roof snow loads-hip and gable rooti (Flowchart 6).

FLOWCHART7

Unbalanced Roof Snow Loads - Curved and Dome Roofs*

(7.6.2, 7.6.4)

No Yes

Unbalanced load shall consist of: Unbalanced snow loads are not
• No load on the windward side required to be applied
• The applicable load distribution depicted
in Cases 1, 2, or 3 shown in Fig. 7.4-2 (see
Figs. 4.6, 4.7, and 4.6)**

• Portions of curved roofs having a slope> 70° shall be considered free of snow.
- See Fig. 4.10 for application ol unbalanced snow loads on a dome roof.

Figure 1.16 Unbalanced roof snow loads-cur-1 and dome rooti (Flowchart 7).
14
 $1RUCTURAL LOADS 15

fLOWCHART8

No Yes

Unbalanced snow loads are not Unbalanced load shall consist al'*
required to be applied • o.s pt at the ridge or crown
• 2 p/C, atthe valtey-
• Figure 7.6-3 and Fig. 4.9 illustmte batanced and unbalanced snow !Oads for a
eawtooth roof.
•• Snow eurfal::& above th& valley shall not b& at an &levation higher than th& snow
above th& ridg&. Snow d&pths shall be det&rmin&CI by <IMclng th& snow load by th&
snow density given by Eq. 7.7·1.
Figure 1.17 UD.balaD<:cd roof «llOW loadt-mllltlple fu1dcd plait. sawtooth. md ham! '9all!t roaff (Plowdwt 8).

Decreasing snow load

Decreasing snow load

Plan of Dome Roof

The first type of drift Is cailed a leeward drift. and the •econd 18 a In the case ofleeward. drlft8, the height of the drift. h.,. at the roof step
windward. drift. Both types of drifts are lllusmited in Figure 7.7·1 (see is determined from Figure 7.6-1 by substituting the length of the upper
Fig. 1.19). root lClf!Pd' for l,. and using the mow importance factor. I,:
In cases where there is a change in elevation between roan, mow

~ =[0.43(l1 ppt)(p1 +10)~ J-1.5

will have a tendency to accumulate at this location (aee Fig. 1.19).
Depe.nding 011 wind direction, either a windward or a leeward. drift
will form. A triangular shape i• used to diaracterize windward drifh
as well.
"1.
The configuration that Is to be taken for snow drilU on lower roo& ls The clear height. h., ahown in Fig. 1.20 is equal to the height of the
deplcb:d In Figure 7.7·2 (see Fig. 1.20). roof step minus the height of the balanced mow, It,,. It Is dete.rm.!ned
16 CMAPTERONE

Wind
)

Windward drift Leeward drift

i upper

Ps

/iower

Figure 1.30 Cwifiguralion af anow drifta.

in this way assuming that the upper roof Is blown clear of snow in There may be caS« where the drift width. w, aceeda the le.ngth of the
the vicinity of the drift. While this assumption is generally valid for lower root ei.,_. Jn these situations. the drift load ii to t<iper linearly to
windward dritling, it is not necessarily accurate for leewvd. drifting wo at the iiir end of the lower level roof. This provision may be appli-
because there may still be anow on the upper level roof when the drift cable to canopiea over an entranceway to a building. Figure 1.21 ahow»
has stoppe<l growing. For simplicity; the ume assumption is used for the the proper load dlstr:lbution to use where w > ti..-.
clur height regard!~ of the type of drift that is formed
The height of the balanced mov.s h"' ii determined 111ing the magni-
tude of the balanced snow load, p., and the density of the snow, -y:
,,. p, p,
y 0.13p,+14
where yneed not be taken greater than 30 pd {see Equation 7.7-1).
The width of the drih. w, depends on the clear height. h., as follows:

Jfit Is found that the governing drift height, ""' aceeds the clear height,
h" then the drift height is set ~u.al to h.., The drift width in dm cue has
been ertablished by equating the crou-sectional area o( the triangular
drift that 18 llmiled to h, (i.e., h, x w/2) with the cross-sectional area of
the triangular drift that Is not llmlted to h, [I.e., (114 x 411/2)). The upper
limit of drift width 811i i• baled on studi« that showed that additional
mow accumulation i.'I not er;pectlld within a rise-to-run railo range of RguN 1.21 Load ~n where the drift width 1£ graier thaD the lezl8th
1:6.5 to 1:10. of the lowerroo£

According to 7.7.1, drift loads need not be 'onsidered where the ratio
hjhb is less than 0.2. In sum 'ases, the roof step is relatively small so that
the drift formation is negligible.
ADJACENT STRUCTURES
Leeward drifts = form on the roof of a stru,ture that is close enough
to an adjaant one that has a higher roof. A"ording to 7.7.2, leeward
drifts form on lower roofs of adjacent buildings when the horizontal
separation distance, s, between the two is less than 20 feet and is less
than 6 times the vertkal separation distance, h. The drift surcharge is
determined using the provisions of 7.7.1. See Ref 3, Section 4.2, fur
details on drift calculations at adjacent structures.
INTERSECTING DRIFTS AT Low ROOFS
ASCE/SEI 7.7.3 contains provisions for snowdrifts that =
o"ur at
reentrant 'omers and parapet wall 'omen Three-dimensional drifts
form at sum locations due to wind acting in multiple directions. The
provisions in 7 .7.1 are to be used to determine the individual two-
dimensional snowdrift geometries for both leeward and windward
intersecting snow drifts. Referen'e 3 Section 4.2 'ontains details on the
determination of intersection drifts at low roofs.
Roop PROJECTIONS AND PARAPETS
Drift loads on sides of roof projections (including rooftop equipment)
and at parapet walls are determined by the provisions of 7.8, which are
based on the drift requirements of7.7.1.
The drift that is formed adjai:ent to a parapet wall is a windward drift,
and the height of the drift is equal to three-quarters of h11 from Figure 7 .6-1.
SLIDING SNOW
The load 'awed by snow sliding off of a sloped roof onto a lower roof
is determined by the provisions of 7 .9. Sum loads are superimposed on
the balan'ed snow load of the lower roof and need not be used in com-
bination with drift, unbalanced, partial, or rain-on-snow loads.
Sliding snow loads are applicable for upper roofs that are slippery
with slopes greater than % on 12 and for upper roofs that are not slip-
pery with slopes greater than 2 on 12.
RAIN-ON-SNOW SURCHARGE LOAD
The snow load provisions in the ~ussions above 'onsider load effects
due to light rain on snow; effects due to heavy rain are not directly taken
into acc:ount in the SO-year ground snow loads. At locations where the
ground snow load is greater than 20 psf, it is assumed that because of
the relatively deep snow pad, heavy rains have a less likely chance of
permeating through the snow pack and draining away; as sum, rain-on-
snow load effects have been captured in the ground snow load measure-
ments, and an additional surcharge to account fur this is not required.
A rain-on-snow surcharge load of 5 psf is to be added on all roofs that
meet the conditions of 7.10. This surcharge load applies only to the bal-
anced load case and need not be used in 'ombination with drift, sliding,
unbalanced, minimum, or partial loads.
PONDING INSTABILITY
Provisions for ponding instability and progressive deflection of roofs
are given in 7.11and8.4 of ASCE 7. Sus~ble bays, that is, bays with
a roof slope less than ~ in. per foot or those where the primary drain
system is bloclted and the secondary drain system is functional, must
be analyzed for the effects from the larger of the snow load or the rain
load assuming the primary drainage system is bloclted. The roof stru'-
ture in these bays must be designed with adequate stiffness to preclude
ponding instability.
Roof surfaces with a slope greater than or equal to 14 in. per foot
toward points of free drainage need not be 'onsidered susceptible to
ponding instability.
EXISTING RoOFS
Requirements for increased snow loads on existing roofs due to addi-
tions and alterations are covered in 7.12. New structures built adjacent
STRUCTURALLOADS 17
to existing ones within a horizontal distance of20 feet have the potential
to increase the snow loads on the existing roof when the new roof is
higher than the existing one. In particular, both drift and sliding snow
loads must be considered on the existing roof due to the presence of
the new roof. Additionally, the existing roof will most likely be partially
exposed or sheltered by the new building or alteration; if it were fully
exposed previously, an increase in snow load will be realized due to this
change in exposure.
ASCE/SEI 7.12 requires that owners or agents for owners of an exist-
ing building with a lower roof be notified for the potential of in'reased
snow loads when a new building or alteration with a higher roof is to be
lo'8ted within 20 feet of the existing building.
GENER.AL PROCEDURE TO DETERMINE
SNowLoAns
The following general procedure, which is based on that given in C7,
can be used to determine design snow loads in accordance with Chapter 7
of ASCE/SEI 7:
1. Determine ground snow load, p~ (7.2).
2. Determine flat roof snow load, Pt• by Equation 7.3-1 (7.3). The
procedure is shown in Fig. 1.10 (Flowcliart 3).
3. Determine sloped roof snow load, p,. by Equation 7.4-1 (7.4).
The pro,edUie is shown in Figs. 1.11 and 1.12 (Flowchart 4 and
Flowchart 5).
4. Consider partial loading (7.5).
5. Consider unbalanced snow loads (7.6). The procedure is shown
in Fig. 1.15 (Flowchart 6) for hip and gable roofs, Fig. 1.16 (Flowchart 7)
for curved and dome roofs, and Fig. 1.17 (Flowchart 8) for multiple
folded plate, sawtooth, and barrel vault roofs.
6. Consider snow drifts on lower roofs (7.7) and roof projections
(7.8). The procedure to determine snow drifts is shown in Fig. 1.22
(Flowchart 9).
7. Consider sliding snow (7.9).
8. Consider rain-on-snow loads (7.10).
9. Consider ponding instability (7.11).
10. Consider existing roofs (7.12).
1.6.8 Ice Loads
OVERVIEW
An ice-sensitive structuTe is defined as one in which the effects due to
atmospheric ice loading governs the design of part or all of the struc-
ture (IBC 202 and ASCE/SEI 10.2). Examples include the following:
(1) lattice structures, (2) guyed masts, (3) overhead lines, (4) light sus-
pension and 'able-stayed bridges, (5) aerial cable systems (e.g., ski lifts),
(6) amusement rides, (7) open catwalks and platforms, (8) flagpoles,
and (9) signs.
Freezing rain is rain or drizzle that falls into a layer of subfreezing
air in the earth's surface and freezes on oontact with the ground or any
other exposed surface to form glaze (clear, high-density) ice. Compared
to in-doutl icing (which o"urs when a supercooled ~ud or fog drop-
lets that are carried by the wind freeze on impact with objects) and
snow, freezing rain is considered the cause of the most severe ice loads
in most of the contiguous United States. Because values of ice thickness
for in-cloud icing and snow are not 'Uirently available in a form that
is suitable for inclusion in ASCE/SEI 7, only data for freezing rain are
given in Chapter 10.
Ice that is formed on exposed surfaces increases the size of the surface,
which increases the projeded area that is exposed to wind. Chapter 10
contains requirements that address the proper wind loads that must be
used on ice-covered ~tures.
The provisions of Chapter 10 do not apply to structures that are
covered by national standards (e.g., electric transmission systems and
communication towers and masts). In such cases, the standards and
guidelines in 10.1.3 are to be used where appli,able.
Design for dynamic load effects resulting from galloping. ice shedding.
and aeolian vibrations, to name a few, are not covered in Chapter 10. Such
effects must be considered in certain types of ice-sensitive structures.
18 CHAPTER ONE

FloWCHART9

Drifts on Lower Roof of a Structure

(7.7)

Determine ground snow load p1 from

Fig. 7 .2-1 or Fig. 1608.2 for
conterminous U.S. and Table 7.2-1 or
Table 1608.2 for Alaska*

Determine snow density

y=0.13p1 +14S30pcf(Eq. 7.7-1)

Determine sloped roof snow load

p 1 from Flowchart 5

Determine he as clear height from

top of balanced snow to
• closest point on adjacent
upper roof
•top of parapet
•top of projection on the roof
(see Fig. 7.7-2 and Fig. 4.12)**

Determine (1) drift height hdfrom Fig. 7.6-t for

leeward drifts and from 7.7.1 for windward drifts Drift loads are not
and (2) drift width wfrom 1.1.1t required to be applied

• ''CS* in the maps signifies areas where a site-specific study must be conducted to determine p1 . Numbers
in parentheses represent the upper elevation limit in feet for the ground snow load values given below.
Slte-speclftc studies are required at elevallons not covered In Iha maps.
•• Height of balanced snow hb = p,lyor p1fy(7.7.1).
t See 7. 7.2 and Figs. 4.14 and 4.15 for drift loads caused by adjacent structures and terrain features.
See 7.8 for drift loads on roof projections and parapet walls.
Figure 1.22 Drift on lower roof of a structure (Flowchart 9).

IcB LOADS DVB TO FIU!BZI~G RAm %3)0.10

Nomlul la Thickness Figures 10.4-2 through 10.4-6 contain an
equivalent uniform radial thickness, t, of ice due to freezing rain at a
f,. =(3 for 0 feet < z :!>900 ft
= 1.4 for z > 900 ft
height of 33 feet above the ground for the contiguous 48 states and
Alaska based on a 500-year mean recurrence interval. The concurrent • Importance Factor
3-second gust wind speeds are also given in the figures; these wind Importance factors, I~ adjust the nominal ice thickness and concurrent
speeds correspond to the winds that occur during the freezing rain wind pressure based on the occupancy of the structure. Risk categories
storm and those that occur between the time the freezing rain stops and for buildings and other structures are defined in IBC Table 1604.5, and
the temperature rises to above freezing. Special icing regions are also values of 11 are given in ASCBJSEI Table 1.5-2.
identified on the maps (gray shaded areas) and occur in the western • Topographic Factor
mountainous regions and in the Appalachian Mountains. Because of wind speed-up effects, the ice thickness and concurrent
The following factors are considered in the calculations of the ice wind speed are larger for buildings and structures that are situated
load: on hills, ridges, and escarpments compared to those located on levd
• Height Factor terrain. To account for these effects, the nominal ice thickness is
The height factor, f., is determined by Equation 10.4-4, and it is used modified by (JC.t)0.3S, where Ku is the topographic factor determined
to increase the radial thickness of ice for any height above ground, z: by Equation 26.8-1.

Dllllgn le11 Tbkknns far Freezing R.-ln The design Ice thickness, t"' that
Is to be used In calculating ice weight is the nominal ice thickness, t, mul-
tiplied by the modification factors noted above (see Equation 10.4-5):
ttl = tIJ.(Ka )0.35
Ice Weight Ice load is determined using the ice weight, D~ that is
formed on all exposed surfaces of structural members, guys, compo-
nents, appurtenances, and cable systems. The cross-sectional area of ice,
Ai· to be used in the determination of D1 in such cases is determined by
Equation 10.4-1:
~ =n;ttl(D, +t4}
The volume of ice on flat plates and large three-dimensional objects,
such as domes and spheres, is determined by Equation 10.4-2:
Vj = n;ttlA,
For flat plates, A, is the area of one side of the plate. For domes or
spheres, A, is the projected area of the dome or sphere and is deter-
mined by Equation 10.4-3:
2 Wind loads are determined using Equation 29.4-1 using the force coef-
A,= itr
In this equation, r is the radius of the maximum cross section of a dome
or a radius of a sphere.
The ice volume given by Equation 4.16 is for a flat plate or projected
surface that is oriented perpendicular to the path of the raindrops.
ASCE/SEI 10.4.1 permits Equation 4.16 to be multiplied by 0.8 for verti-
cal plates and 0.6 fur horizontal plates.
Once Ai or \./have been computed, the corresponding ice weight, D1,
is determined by multiplying A 1or Vj by the density of ice. .According to
10.4.1, the density of ice must not be taken less than 56 pd.
1.6.9 Wind on Ice-Covered Strudures
OVERVIEW
Ice that has formed on structural members, components, and appurte-
nances increases the projected area that is exposed to wind and changes
the structure's wind drag coefficients. Ice accretions tend to round sharp
edges, thereby reducing drag coefficients fur members lila: angles and
rectangular bars.
Ice-sensitive structures must be designed fur the wind loads deter-
mined by the provisions in ASCE/SEI Chapters 26 through 31 using
increased projected area and the modifications set forth in 10.5.l
through 10.5.5. The loads determined in this fashion are defined as the
wind-on-ice loads, W;.
WIND ON ICE-CovERED CHIMNEYS, TANKS, AND
SIMILAR STRUCTURES
For chimneys, tanks, and other similar types of structures, design wind
loads are determined by Equation 29.4-1:
F=q.GC1A1
The velocity pressure, q,, is determined by Equation 26.10-1 using the
topographic factor, K.,. determined in accordance with 10.4.5 and the
concurrent wind speed, V,:
q, = 0.00256K,Kr1KtlK<V,2
The velocity pressure exposure coefficient, K,, is determined from
Table 26. 10-1, and the wind directionality factor, K"' is defined in 26.6.
The ground elevation factor K, is defined in 26.9.
The gust factor, G, is determined in accordance with 26.11. For struc-
tures with square, hexagonal, and octagonal cross sections, the force
coefficients, c1 , are given in Figure 29.4-1.
Similarly, wind on ice-covered chimneys, tanks, and similar struc-
tures is determined by Equation 29.4-1:
F=q,GC!Af
STRUCTURAL LOADS 19
For wind on ice-covered solid freestanding walls and solid signs, wind
loads are determined for solid freestanding walls and solid signs using
Equation 29.3-1:
F=qhGCfA,
where q4 is determined by Equation 29.3-1 at height h, which is defined
in Figure 29.3-1, and G is determined in accordance with 26.11.
c
The force coefficients, 1, given in Figure 29.3-1 and the gross area,
A,. of the solid freestandiD.g wall or solid sign must be based on the
dimensions including ice.
WIND ON ICE-COVERED OPEN SIGNS AND
LATTICE FRAMEWORKS
Wmd loads are determined for these types of structures using Equation
29.4-1. c1, given in Figure 29.4-2, are to be uaed in this equation. In all
cases, the solidity ratio e (which is equal to the ratio of solid area to gross
area) that is defined in Figure 29.4-2 is to be based on the projected area,
including ice.
WIND ON ICE-COVERED TuvsSED TOWERS
ficients, c1, from Figure 29.4-3 and the gross area, A1 , based on the
dimensions, including ice.
WIND ON ICE-COVERED Gun AND CABLES
Because there is very little published experimental data for force coef-
ficients fur ice-covered guys and cables, a single value of 1.2 is permitted
to be used in all cases (10.5.5). The rationale behind using this value is
given in Cl0.5.5.
DESIGN TBMPBRATURBS POR FREEZING RAIN
Figures 10.6-1 and 10.6-2 give temperatures concurrent with ice thickness
due to freezing rain for the contiguous 48 states and Alaska, respectively.
The design temperature for ice and wind-on-ice that is to be used
is the temperature from Figures 10.6-1 and 10.6-2 or 32°F, whichever
gives the maximwn load effects. For Hawaii, the temperature must
be 32°F.
1.6.10 P•rtl•l lmldlng
It has been found that variations in ice thickness due to freezing rain at a
given elevation are usually small over distances of about 1000 feet. Thus,
partial loading from freezing rain does not usually produce maximum
load effects. However, in certain types of structures, partial ice loads
can produce maximum effects, and this must be considered in design.
Additional information on this topic can be found in Cl0.7.
GENERAL PROCEDURE TO DETERMINE
ATMOSPHERIC ICE LOADS
The following general procedure, which is based on that given in 10.8,
can be used to determine design ice loads in accordance with Chapter 10
of ASCE/SEI 7:
1. Determine nominal ice thickness, t; the concurrent wind speed,
V,; and the concurrent temperature from Figures 10.4-2 through 10.4-6
or from a site-specific study in accordance with 10.1.1 (10.4.2, 10.6).
2. Determine height factor,/., for each design segment of the struc-
ture (10.4.3 ).
3. Determine importance factor, I;. (lo.4.4).
4. Determine topographic factor, K.,. (10.4.5).
5. Determine design ice thickness, t"' by Equation 10.4-5 ( 10.4.6).
6. Determine the weight of ice, D;, using the applicable equations in
10.4.1 (10.4.1).
7. Determine the velocity pressure, q., for wind speed, v,. in accor-
dance with 26.10.
8. Determine the applicable wind force coefficients, Cp in accor-
dance with 10.5.
9. Determine the gust effect factor, G, in accordance with 26.11.
10. Determine the design wind force, W;. in accordance with the
applicable provisions of Chapter 29 (10.5).
20 CMAPTERONE
1.7 WIND LOADS
1.7.1 Introduction
NATUllB 011 Wnm LOADS
In genual. wind loading is the drea of the atmoaphere passing by a
stationary llrudure attached to the earth's surface. An in-depth dis,.
cusalon on the mechanics of atm.Oipherlc drculatlone can be found
in Ref. 8.
Loads on build.inp and other structures due to the~ &om wind
are deta:mined by conllidering both almwpheric and aerodynamic
efferu. The.te effects form the bw of the methodologies given in
ASCB/SE[ 7 for the determination of wind loads.
Atm01pheitc: Efl'ectll The atrnwpheric facton that have a direct
impact on the magnitude of wind loading on a building or other struc-
ture are obtained from meteorological and boundary layer effecb.
MmorolOfT Meteorology is the study of the atmosphe.re, and wind
climawlogy Is a branch within meteorology that focuse~ on the predlc:-
lion of storm conditions. In particular, extreme wind speeds u1ociated
with d!Herent types of sto.r:ma and the probability of occurrence ofsuch
atmne wlues are analyzed at specl1lc geographical loc:atl.ons. Th.ls
information is UJed in dm:lopiilg deaign wind sp«d maps In the IBC
and ASCE/SEI 7. Wmd Tdocity is used in calculating the maximum
des:igll wind loads that can be expected on a bull.ding or structure dur-
ing .Its life span.
Wlnd speed meuurements that are utilized. in c:mitiDg the dWgD.
wind spee<I map• in the IBC and ASCB/SEI 7 are obtained from essen-
tially two different sources. In non-huniCU1e regions, wind speed data
u collected from mndard three-cup ane.mometm that are located
33 feet «hove the ground in open te.m1n (such as at alrpom) at 485
National Weather Service weather rtatiO.Ds throughout the United
States thJrt have :;rt leut. S years of aVllilable data. Design wind speeds
in hurric.:ane reglom are obtained from nat:iatJcal aimulatlom bued on
historkal datt. since actual weather data on hurricmes at any partlc:ular
location are picrally limited.
The wind speed that was recorded. at the afomnentioned weather
statioiu fur many ,an wu the fastest-mile whld $pttd, which is the
muimwn wind speed average<l owr 1 mile of wind passing through an
memometer. From this definition. It follows thJrt the cormpondlng aver-
aging time u equal to 3600 divided by the vdocil:y of wind in mile.1 per
hour. M the Nltlonal Weather Service phased out the older equipment.
the fastest-mile wind speed was replaced with a 3-staJnd gust speed. The
F1srure 1.23 The c.o111:rollillg clim.at.ologlcll ~that produce extttme wlJld apeeda ill iegiona of the
<»llte?mlnOllf United Stam!.
3-.ewnd averaging time is based on the mrponse c:.harac:tcristics of the
newer instrumentJ that are utiliud a1 the weather stalions.
Thundentnrma, hurricanu, toma.does, and special regional~ are
the d1matological ev=tsthat are ofprlmarytntemt when deGgn1ng build-
ings and struc:tu.res in the U.nted States. Fipre 1.23 illustratet 1he control-
ling climamlogical evmts tlllll produce es.t!l!me wind speeds in R'giom of
Che CClltemlinous United Stata h is evident from the figure 1hat the pre-
wlllng wind speeds are generated bythunderstonm in most afthe country.
Wind speeds genmted by tomadoe~ are not included in the wind
speed maps in the me or ASCEISBI 7. The primary reason for this hu
to do with Che s:igD!&mtly lower probability of occurrence of tomad.oet
compared to that for baac: wind speeds. Additional lnfunmtton on how
to design for tornadoes is c:overed In Re£ 3.
Special wind ngions can have wind speeds significantly greater than
Chose in 1um>unding &Ras. Suc:.h rqiio.11al effects include wind blowing
over mowxtaln ranges or through gorges or valleys. The.te reglom are
identified u $l)edd wind regions on 1he bulc: wind tp«d maps.
._,..,, """' Ruld 11JntartJa The layer of the earth's atmosphere
that is localed from the surfa.c.e of the earth to appromnald.y 3300 feet
above the rurface .Is known as the boundary layer. The fluid dynamic
effi:c:ts that oc:c:ur within this layer have an important impact on the
magnitude of wind loads on buildinp and other struc:tum.
In general, the surface of the earth exerts a horizontal drag force on
wind. which impedea ita flow. The more frictional reslatanc.e ii experi-
enced, the closer the wind flow Is to the surface; thus, wind w!od.ty Is
smaller at or near the ground levd compared to levels@ove the surfue.
Similarly. at. a given height @ove the surface. wind velocity is amaller
over rougher surfacea compared to smoother ones because of frlctio.c.
Figure 1.24 depicts the variation of wind speed with. respect to height
and rwfac:e roughness. Bo1h phenomen& are captured in the cunent
wind load provisions wring a modified venion of the power-law meth-
odology that wu fint introduced in Ref. 9. Note that the wind velod-
ti« become con5tant above certain h.e.lghts fur the dlfftrent roughnw
categories; these heights are defined u gradient helghta in ASCE/SBI 7.
MirodJn•mlc Eflllc:ta
OnMnr Wmd tlow ii disturbed due to the preaenc:e of a bull.ding
or atrw:ture in Its path. The resulting raponae• due to this disturbance
are governed by the laws of «erodynamia. In the c:ase of a bull.ding
or o1her str\lc:ture that has an essentially block-like shape (which is
referred to as a bluff body), bluff body aerodynamics is UJed to predict
Che eff'ect8 caused by placing the bluff body in Che flow of wind.

Heightz
Flat, open, unobstructed areas, including water
Open terrain with scattered obstructions
Urban and suburban areas with closely spaced obstructions
Flgur.1.24 The variation of wind speed with reipect to he!Pt and swfaoe roughntw.
In general, when wind oome.t into contact with a building or other
structure, the following premim are created:
1. I!xtenuil pressures. which act on aD oterior sur&us; th~ pm-
lllml are caused by the effects that are generated when the wind strika
the building or other structure.
2. Intmtal prwum, which act on all interior surfaces; these pmsum
are due to leakage of air duough the o:terlor Nl'filce to the interior 'Pace.
It ii a11umed that the a.tern.al and intanal pressure a act perpendicu-
lar to the exterior and interior surfaces of the bull.ding or other struc-
ture. respectively. A pressure Is defined as positive whe.n it acts toward.
the sumce and negative when it «Ill away from the fU1'face.. Positive
pressure is c:ommonly referred to as just pressure, and negative pre11ure
is also identified as sucl:loo.
Emntol Preuure Figure 1.25 depicts idealized wind flow around
a gable roof build.Ing. Wind velocity inaeue~ at di!tanr;es &bow the
surlac;e, u shown in the following equation below. The prasure p, at
this point CUI be theoretically determined using Bemoulli'1 eq,uation:
p,=ipv1
In this equation, p ii the atmospheric; air density. and V ii the wind
velocity at the elevation of the stagnalion point.
The leeward wall and the aide walb all have negative praaure (the
negative pmsure on the leeward. wall is refured to as the wake).
A generic repmentation of the external wind pn:uures on the walls
and roof of the building depicted in Fig. 1.25 ii given in Fig. 1.26.
The dimentlonle&1 pressure c,. which is commonly referred to as a
p1usurt coefficient, la de&ed as the preaaure pat any point on the bull.d-
ing or structure divided by the stagnation pressure:
c, =-'-2
pV /2
lnfllmal PnSNn Cid En"°""" CJaa:HJarcion Intemal preuure1 act
on all interior surfaces of a building or structure and are due to leak-
age of air (pressure) through the exterior surt\ice to the Interior space.
The number and size of openinp in the envelope of the sttucture play
$1RUCTURAL LOADS 21
Wind Velocity
by roles when determining the effects caused by lntemal pressures.
ASCE/SE[ 7 defines an opening u an aperture or hole in the build.Ing
envelope that allows air to Bow through the build.Ing envelope and that
ill designed. u open during design winds. Doors, operable windows.
exhaum for ventilation systems, and gap• (deliberate or otherwise)
around cladding are juat a f.ew examples of openlnga.
.A number of diffemlt cues need to be aamined iD. order to properly
understand the ~ that internal pressure can have on a building or
strucl:uni. In the caJe of a building that hu a relatively large opening
on the windward wall. the wind :flow will try to IDflate the build.Ing,
resulting in internal premire that Is positive (see Fig. 1..27). Convemly,
an opening on the leeward wail, side walls, or roofwill tty to ddlate the
building and will result in negative internal pressure.
luJ. open 'fnllldlng b de&ed by ASCEISEI 7 u atructum having at
least 80 percent ope.11 at each waD..
A pmtiaUy endosed building hu openinp that are large enough to
affect internal pres.rore and have bac:kp:iund porosity low enough to
allow internal pressure to build up.
luJ. endoJedbuildiD.g Is one that is neither open nor partially encloud.
The efrec:u of Internal piessure are accounted for in ASCEISEI 7 by
intnnal pressure coefficients, the magnitude a of which are based on the
enclosure clual&ation of the build.Ing or other structure. It is evident
from Fig. 1.27 that internal preaure does .not contribute to the overall
horizontd wind pressures that act on a structure because .uch preir
sures caned out. However, internal pni.uumi must be c:omidered in the
design of individual components (auc:h u walll and roof framing) and
cladding; the type of Jntemal pre.sure (positive or negative) that results
in the critlw load combination m\Ut be Ulled.
Glllt Efl'Ktl Wmd velocity typically changes dramatically with time;
numeroUll peab and valley1 normally oc:cur over relatively short time
spans. In general. the average wind speed obtained from a wind event is
larger when a shorter averaging time Is used. The peaks in wind velocity
are called gusts, and these effects must be comidered in design.
Gust-d'ect facton are used in .ASCB/SBI 7 to account fur this
phenomenon. In short. a gust-effect factor relates the peak to mean
~·e In terms of an equivalent mt.lc design load or load effect. The
method that ii wied to detennine auc:h fa.ctou ii based on the following
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 “‘God bless you, Mr. President!’ said the father, the only words
he had uttered; and the mother, making a low courtesy, fairly
sobbed: ‘O sir, we are so much obliged to you.’ ‘Yes, yes; all right;
and you will find that that will bring him,’ was spoken in tones so
kindly and tender, that they have often since thrilled my memory.”
 XXXVII.
In the year 1855 or ’56, George B. Lincoln, Esq., of Brooklyn,
was travelling through the West in connection with a large New York
dry-goods establishment. He found himself one night in an
insignificant town on the Illinois River, by the name of Naples. The
only tavern of the place had evidently been constructed with
reference to business on the smallest possible scale. Poor as the
prospect seemed, Mr. Lincoln had no alternative but to put up at the
place. The supper-room was also used as a lodging-room. After a
tolerable supper and a comfortable hour before the fire, Mr. L. told
his host that he thought he would “go to bed.” “Bed!” echoed the
landlord; “there is no bed for you in this house, unless you sleep with
that man yonder. He has the only one we have to spare.” “Well,”
returned Mr. Lincoln, “the gentleman has possession, and perhaps
would not like a bedfellow.” Upon this, a grizzly head appeared out of
the pillows, and said, “What is your name?” “They call me Lincoln at
home,” was the reply. “Lincoln!” repeated the stranger; “any
connection of our Illinois Abraham?” “No,” replied Mr. L., “I fear not.”
“Well,” said the old man, “I will let any man by the name of ‘Lincoln’
sleep with me, just for the sake of the name. You have heard of
Abe?” he inquired. “Oh yes, very often,” replied Mr. Lincoln. “No man
could travel far in this State without hearing of him, and I would be
very glad to claim connection, if I could do so honestly.” “Well,” said
the old gentleman, “my name is Simmons. ‘Abe’ and I used to live
and work together when we were young men. Many a job of wood-
cutting and rail-splitting have I done up with him. Abe Lincoln,” said
he with emphasis, “was the likeliest boy in God’s world. He would
work all day as hard as any of us—and study by firelight in the log-
house half the night; and in this way he made himself a thorough
practical surveyor. Once, during those days, I was in the upper part
of the State, and I met General Ewing, whom President Jackson had
sent to the Northwest to make surveys. I told him about Abe Lincoln,
what a student he was, and that I wanted he should give him a job;
He looked over his memoranda, and, pulling out a paper, said:
‘There is —— county must be surveyed; if your friend can do the
work properly, I shall be glad to have him undertake it—the
compensation will be six hundred dollars!’ Pleased as I could be, I
hastened to Abe, after I got home, with an account of what I had
secured for him. He was sitting before the fire in the log-cabin when I
told him; and what do you think was his answer? When I finished, he
looked up very quietly, and said, ‘Mr. Simmons, I thank you very
sincerely for your kindness, but I don’t think I will undertake the job.’
‘In the name of wonder,’ said I, ‘why? Six hundred dollars does not
grow upon every bush out here in Illinois.’ ‘I know that,’ said Abe,
‘and I need the money bad enough, Simmons, as you know; but I
never have been under obligation to a Democratic administration,
and I never intend to be so long as I can get my living another way.
General Ewing must find another man to do his work.’”
I related this story to the President one day, and asked him if it
was true. “Pollard Simmons!” said he: “well do I remember him. It is
correct about our working together; but the old man must have
stretched the facts somewhat about the survey of the county. I think I
should have been very glad of the job at that time, no matter what
administration was in power.” Notwithstanding this, however, I am
inclined to believe Mr. Simmons was not far out of the way. His
statement seems very characteristic of what Abraham Lincoln may
be supposed to have been at twenty-three or twenty-five years of
age.
Mr. G. B. Lincoln also told me of an amusing circumstance which
took place at Springfield soon after Mr. Lincoln’s nomination in 1860.
A hatter in Brooklyn secretly obtained the size of the future
President’s head, and made for him a very elegant hat, which he
sent by his townsman, Lincoln, to Springfield. About the time it was
presented, various other testimonials of a similar character had
come in from different sections. Mr. Lincoln took the hat, and after
admiring its texture and workmanship, put it on his head and walked
up to a looking-glass. Glancing from the reflection to Mrs. Lincoln, he
said, with his peculiar twinkle of the eye, “Well, wife, there is one
thing likely to come out of this scrape, any how. We are going to
have some new clothes!”
One afternoon during the summer of 1862, the President
accompanied several gentlemen to the Washington Navy-yard, to
witness some experiments with a newly-invented gun. Subsequently
the party went aboard of one of the steamers lying at the wharf. A
discussion was going on as to the merits of the invention, in the
midst of which Mr. Lincoln caught sight of some axes hanging up
outside of the cabin. Leaving the group, he quietly went forward, and
taking one down, returned with it, and said: “Gentlemen, you may
talk about your ‘Raphael repeaters’ and ‘eleven-inch Dahlgrens;’ but
here is an institution which I guess I understand better than either of
you.” With that he held the axe out at arm’s length by the end of the
handle, or “helve,” as the wood-cutters call it—a feat not another
person of the party could perform, though all made the attempt. In
such acts as this, showing that he neither forgot nor was ashamed of
his humble origin, the late President exhibited his true nobility of
character. He was a perfect illustration of his favorite poet’s words:—

“The rank is but the guinea’s stamp,

The man’s the gold, for a’ that!”
 XXXVIII.
In March, 1864, Edwin Forrest came to Washington to fulfil an
engagement at Ford’s Theatre. It was announced one day that he
was to appear that evening in “Richelieu.” I was with the President,
when Senator Harris of New York came in. After he had finished his
business, which was to secure the remittance of the sentence of one
of his constituents, who had been imprisoned on what seemed
insufficient grounds, I told the President that Forrest was to play
Richelieu that evening, and, knowing his tastes, I said it was a play
which I thought he would enjoy, for Forrest’s representation of it was
the most life-like of anything I had ever seen upon the stage. “Who
wrote the play?” said he. “Bulwer,” I replied. “Ah!” he rejoined; “well, I
knew Bulwer wrote novels, but I did not know he was a play-writer
also. It may seem somewhat strange to say,” he continued, “but I
never read an entire novel in my life!” Said Judge Harris, “Is it
possible?” “Yes,” returned the President, “it is a fact. I once
commenced ‘Ivanhoe,’ but never finished it.” This statement, in this
age of the world, seems almost incredible—but I give the
circumstance as it occurred.
However it may have been with regard to novels, it is very
certain—as I have already illustrated—that he found time to read
Shakspeare; and that he was also fond of certain kinds of poetry.
N. P. Willis once told me, that he was taken quite by surprise, on a
certain occasion when he was riding with the President and Mrs.
Lincoln, by Mr. Lincoln, of his own accord, referring to, and quoting
several lines from his poem entitled “Parrhasius.”
In the spring of 1862, the President spent several days at
Fortress Monroe, awaiting military operations upon the Peninsula. As
a portion of the Cabinet were with him, that was temporarily the seat
of government, and he bore with him constantly the burden of public
affairs. His favorite diversion was reading Shakspeare. One day (it
chanced to be the day before the capture of Norfolk) as he sat
4
reading alone, he called to his aide in the adjoining room,—“You
have been writing long enough, Colonel; come in here; I want to read
you a passage in ‘Hamlet.’” He read the discussion on ambition
between Hamlet and his courtiers, and the soliloquy, in which
conscience debates of a future state. This was followed by passages
from “Macbeth.” Then opening to “King John,” he read from the third
act the passage in which Constance bewails her imprisoned, lost
boy.
Closing the book, and recalling the words,—

“And, father cardinal, I have heard you say

That we shall see and know our friends in heaven:
If that be true, I shall see my boy again,”—

Mr. Lincoln said: “Colonel, did you ever dream of a lost friend, and
feel that you were holding sweet communion with that friend, and yet
have a sad consciousness that it was not a reality?—just so I dream
of my boy Willie.” Overcome with emotion, he dropped his head on
the table, and sobbed aloud.
 XXXIX.
William Wallace Lincoln, I never knew. He died Thursday,
February 20th, 1862, nearly two years before my intercourse with the
President commenced. He had just entered upon his twelfth year,
and has been described to me as of an unusually serious and
thoughtful disposition. His death was the most crushing affliction Mr.
Lincoln had ever been called upon to pass through.
After the funeral, the President resumed his official duties, but
mechanically, and with a terrible weight at his heart. The following
Thursday he gave way to his feelings, and shut himself from all
society. The second Thursday it was the same; he would see no
one, and seemed a prey to the deepest melancholy. About this time
the Rev. Francis Vinton, of Trinity Church, New York, had occasion to
spend a few days in Washington. An acquaintance of Mrs. Lincoln
and of her sister, Mrs. Edwards, of Springfield, he was requested by
them to come up and see the President. The setting apart of
Thursday for the indulgence of his grief had gone on for several
weeks, and Mrs. Lincoln began to be seriously alarmed for the health
of her husband, of which fact Dr. Vinton was apprised. Mr. Lincoln
received him in the parlor, and an opportunity was soon embraced
by the clergyman to chide him for showing so rebellious a disposition
to the decrees of Providence. He told him plainly that the indulgence
of such feelings, though natural, was sinful. It was unworthy one who
believed in the Christian religion. He had duties to the living, greater
than those of any other man, as the chosen father, and leader of the
people, and he was unfitting himself for his responsibilities by thus
giving way to his grief. To mourn the departed as lost belonged to
heathenism—not to Christianity. “Your son,” said Dr. Vinton, “is alive,
in Paradise. Do you remember that passage in the Gospels: ‘God is
not the God of the dead but of the living, for all live unto him’?” The
President had listened as one in a stupor, until his ear caught the
words, “Your son is alive.” Starting from the sofa, he exclaimed,
“Alive! alive! Surely you mock me.” “No, sir, believe me,” replied Dr.
Vinton; “it is a most comforting doctrine of the church, founded upon
the words of Christ himself.” Mr. Lincoln looked at him a moment,
and then, stepping forward, he threw his arm around the clergyman’s
neck, and, laying his head upon his breast, sobbed aloud. “Alive?
alive?” he repeated. “My dear sir,” said Dr. Vinton, greatly moved, as
he twined his own arm around the weeping father, “believe this, for it
is God’s most precious truth. Seek not your son among the dead; he
is not there; he lives to-day in Paradise! Think of the full import of the
words I have quoted. The Sadducees, when they questioned Jesus,
had no other conception than that Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob were
dead and buried. Mark the reply: ‘Now that the dead are raised, even
Moses showed at the bush when he called the Lord the God of
Abraham, the God of Isaac, and the God of Jacob. For he is not the
God of the dead, but of the living, for all live unto him!’ Did not the
aged patriarch mourn his sons as dead?—‘Joseph is not, and
Simeon is not, and ye will take Benjamin also.’ But Joseph and
Simeon were both living, though he believed it not. Indeed, Joseph
being taken from him, was the eventual means of the preservation of
the whole family. And so God has called your son into his upper
kingdom—a kingdom and an existence as real, more real, than your
own. It may be that he too, like Joseph, has gone, in God’s good
providence, to be the salvation of his father’s household. It is a part
of the Lord’s plan for the ultimate happiness of you and yours. Doubt
it not. I have a sermon,” continued Dr. Vinton, “upon this subject,
which I think might interest you.” Mr. Lincoln begged him to send it at
an early day—thanking him repeatedly for his cheering and hopeful
words. The sermon was sent, and read over and over by the
President, who caused a copy to be made for his own private use
before it was returned. Through a member of the family, I have been
informed that Mr. Lincoln’s views in relation to spiritual things
seemed changed from that hour. Certain it is, that thenceforth he
ceased the observance of the day of the week upon which his son
died, and gradually resumed his accustomed cheerfulness.
 XL.
Among my visitors in the early part of May was the Hon. Mr.
Alley, of Massachusetts, who gave me a deeply interesting inside
glimpse of the Chicago Republican Convention in 1860. The popular
current had, at first, set very strongly in favor of Mr. Seward, who,
many supposed, would be nominated almost by acclamation. The
evening before the balloting the excitement was at the highest pitch.
Mr. Lincoln was telegraphed at Springfield, that his chances with the
Convention depended upon obtaining the votes of two delegations
which were named in the despatch; and that, to secure this support,
he must pledge himself, if elected, to give places in his Cabinet to
the respective heads of those delegations. A reply was immediately
returned over the wires, characteristic of the man. It was to this
effect:—

“I authorize no bargains, and will be bound by none.

A. Lincoln.”

It is unquestionable that the country was not prepared for the

final action of this Convention. In various sections of the Eastern and
Middle States, the antecedents and even the name of Mr. Lincoln
were entirely unknown. The newspapers announced the nominee as
the “Illinois Rail-splitter;” and however popular this title may have
been with the masses, it is not to be denied that it seemed to many
people a very extraordinary qualification for the Presidency. An
acquaintance of mine, who happened to be in Boston on the evening
of the day the Convention adjourned, formed one of a large group at
his hotel, eagerly discussing the result. Only one or two of the party
knew anything whatever of the first name on the “ticket,” and what
they knew was soon told. Considerable disappointment could be
seen in the faces of those composing the circle. One rough-looking
sovereign, from Cape Cod, or Nantucket, had listened attentively, but
taken no part in the conversation. Turning away at length, with an
expression of deep disgust, he muttered: “A set of consummate
fools! Nominate a man for the Presidency who has never smelt salt
water!”
Some of Mr. Lincoln’s immediate neighbors were taken as
completely by surprise as those in distant States. An old resident of
Springfield told me that there lived within a block or two of his house,
in that city, an Englishman, who of course still cherished to some
extent the ideas and prejudices of his native land. Upon hearing of
the choice at Chicago he could not contain his astonishment.
“What!” said he, “Abe Lincoln nominated for President of the
United States? Can it be possible! A man that buys a ten-cent
beefsteak for his breakfast, and carries it home himself.”
A correspondent of the “Portland Press” has given to the public
the following account of Mr. Lincoln’s reception of the nomination:—
“In June, 1860, a Massachusetts gentleman was induced to take
the opportunity, in company with several delegates and others
interested in the objects of the Convention, to go to Chicago and
spend a few days in visiting that section of our country. In a very few
minutes after the final balloting, when Mr. Lincoln was nominated, it
happened that a train of cars started upon the Central Railroad,
passing through Springfield, and Mr. R. took passage in the same.
Arriving at Springfield, he put up at a public house, and, loitering
upon the front door-steps, had the curiosity to inquire of the landlord
where Mr. Lincoln lived. While giving the necessary directions, the
landlord suddenly remarked, ‘There is Mr. Lincoln now, coming down
the sidewalk; that tall, crooked man, loosely walking this way. If you
wish to see him, you will have an opportunity by putting yourself in
his track.’
“In a few moments the object of his curiosity reached the point
the gentleman occupied, who, advancing, ventured to accost him
thus: ‘Is this Mr. Lincoln?’ ‘That, sir, is my name,’ was the courteous
reply. ‘My name is R., from Plymouth County, Massachusetts,’
returned the gentleman, and learning that you have to-day been
made the public property of the United States, I have ventured to
introduce myself, with a view to a brief acquaintance, hoping you will
pardon such a patriotic curiosity in a stranger.’ Mr. Lincoln received
his salutations with cordiality, told him no apology was necessary for
his introduction, and asked him to accompany him to his residence.
He had just come from the telegraph office, where he had learned
the fact of his nomination; and was on his return home, when Mr. R.
met and accompanied him thither.
“Arriving at Mr. Lincoln’s residence, he was introduced to Mrs.
Lincoln and the two boys, and entered into conversation in relation to
the Lincoln family of the Old Colony,—the Hingham General Lincoln
of the Revolutionary army, and the two Worcester Lincolns, brothers,
who were governors of Massachusetts and Maine at one and the
same time. In reply to Mr. R.’s inquiry, whether he could trace his
ancestry to either of those early families of his own name, Mr.
Lincoln, with characteristic facetiousness, replied that he could not
say that he ever had an ancestor older than his father; and therefore
had it not in his power to trace his genealogy to so patriotic a source
as old General Lincoln of the Revolution; though he wished he could.
After some further pleasant conversation, chiefly relating to the early
history of the Pilgrim Fathers, with which he seemed familiar, Mr. R.
desired the privilege of writing a letter to be despatched by the next
mail. He was very promptly and kindly provided with the necessary
means. As he began to write, Mr. Lincoln approached, and tapping
him on the shoulder, expressed the hope that he was not a spy who
had come thus early to report his faults to the public. ‘By no means,
sir,’ protested Mr. R.; ‘I am writing home to my wife, who, I dare say,
will hardly credit the fact that I am writing in your house.’ ‘O, sir,’
rejoined Mr. Lincoln, ‘if your wife doubts your word, I will cheerfully
indorse it, if you will give me permission;’ and taking the pen from Mr.
R., he wrote the following words in a clear hand upon the blank page
of the letter:—

“‘I am happy to say that your husband is at the present time

a guest in my house, and in due time I trust you will greet his
 safe return to the bosom of his family.
A. Lincoln.’

“This gave Mr. R. an excellent autograph of Mr. Lincoln, besides

bearing witness to his hospitable and cheerful spirit.
“Whilst thus engaged in pleasant conversation, the cars arrived
that brought from Chicago the committee of the Convention
appointed to notify Mr. Lincoln of his nomination. He received them
at the door, and conducted them to seats in his parlor. On the
reception of this committee, Mr. Lincoln appeared somewhat
embarrassed, but soon resumed his wonted tranquillity and
cheerfulness. At the proper time, Governor Morgan, of New York,
chairman of the committee, arose, and, with becoming dignity,
informed Mr. Lincoln that he and his fellows appeared in behalf of the
Convention in session at Chicago, to inform him that he had that day
been unanimously nominated to the office of President of the United
States; and asked his permission to report to that body his
acceptance of the nomination. Mr. Lincoln, with becoming modesty,
but very handsomely, replied that he felt his insufficiency for the vast
responsibilities which must devolve upon that office under the
impending circumstances of the times; but if God and his country
called for his services in that direction, he should shrink from no duty
that might be imposed upon him, and therefore he should not decline
the nomination.
“After this ceremony had passed, Mr. Lincoln remarked to the
company, that as an appropriate conclusion to an interview so
important and interesting as that which had just transpired, he
supposed good manners would require that he should treat the
committee with something to drink; and opening a door that led into
a room in the rear, he called out ‘Mary! Mary!’ A girl responded to the
call, to whom Mr. Lincoln spoke a few words in an under-tone, and,
closing the door, returned again to converse with his guests. In a few
minutes the maiden entered, bearing a large waiter, containing
several glass tumblers, and a large pitcher in the midst, and placed it
upon the centre-table. Mr. Lincoln arose, and gravely addressing the
company, said: ‘Gentlemen, we must pledge our mutual healths in
the most healthy beverage which God has given to man—it is the
only beverage I have ever used or allowed in my family, and I cannot
conscientiously depart from it on the present occasion—it is pure
Adam’s ale from the spring;’ and, taking a tumbler, he touched it to
his lips, and pledged them his highest respects in a cup of cold
water. Of course, all his guests were constrained to admire his
consistency, and to join in his example.
“Mr. R., when he went to Chicago, had but little political
sympathy with the Republican Convention which nominated Mr.
Lincoln; but when he saw, as he did see for himself, his sturdy
adherence to a high moral principle, he returned an admirer of the
man, and a zealous advocate of his election.”
 XLI.
In the July following Mr. Lincoln’s inauguration, an extra session
of Congress was called. In the message then sent in, speaking of
secession, and the measures taken by the Southern leaders to bring
it about, there occurs the following sentence: “With rebellion thus
sugar-coated, they have been drugging the public mind of their
section for more than thirty years; until, at length, they have brought
many good men to a willingness to take up arms against the
government,” etc. Mr. Defrees, the government printer, told me that,
when the message was being printed, he was a good deal disturbed
by the use of the term “sugar-coated,” and finally went to the
President about it. Their relations to each other being of the most
intimate character, he told Mr. Lincoln frankly, that he ought to
remember that a message to Congress was a different affair from a
speech at a mass-meeting in Illinois; that the messages became a
part of history, and should be written accordingly.
“What is the matter now?” inquired the President.
“Why,” said Mr. Defrees, “you have used an undignified
expression in the message;” and then, reading the paragraph aloud,
he added, “I would alter the structure of that, if I were you.”
“Defrees,” replied Mr. Lincoln, “that word expresses precisely my
idea, and I am not going to change it. The time will never come in
this country when the people won’t know exactly what sugar-coated
means!”
On a subsequent occasion, Mr. Defrees told me, a certain
sentence of another message was very awkwardly constructed.
Calling the President’s attention to it in the proof-copy, the latter
acknowledged the force of the objection raised, and said, “Go home,
Defrees, and see if you can better it.” The next day Mr. Defrees took
in to him his amendment. Mr. Lincoln met him by saying: “Seward
found the same fault that you did, and he has been rewriting the
paragraph also.” Then, reading Mr. Defrees’s version, he said, “I
believe you have beaten Seward; but, ‘I jings,’ I think I can beat you
both.” Then, taking up his pen, he wrote the sentence as it was
finally printed.
Mr. George E. Baker, Mr. Seward’s private secretary, informed
me that he was much amused and interested in a phase of Mr.
Lincoln’s character which came under his own observation. It was
Mr. Baker’s province to take to the President all public documents
from the State Department requiring his signature. During the first
few months, Mr. Lincoln would read each paper carefully through,
always remarking, “I never sign a document I have not first read.” As
his cares increased, he at length departed from his habit so far as to
say to the messenger, “Won’t you read these papers to me?” This
went on for a few months, and he then modified this practice by
requesting “a synopsis of the contents.” His time became more and
more curtailed, and for the last year his only expression was, “Show
me where you want my name?”
It is not generally known that the speech always made by the
President, upon the presentation of a foreign minister, is carefully
written for him by the Secretary of State. A clerk in the department,
ignorant of this custom, was one day sent to the White House by Mr.
Seward, with the speech to be delivered upon such an occasion. Mr.
Lincoln was writing at his desk, as the clerk entered—a half-dozen
senators and representatives occupying the sofa and chairs. Unable
to disguise a feeling of delicacy, in the discharge of such an errand,
the young man approached, and in a low voice said to the President:
“The Secretary has sent the speech you are to make to-day to the
Swiss minister.” Mr. Lincoln laid down his pen, and, taking the
manuscript, said in a loud tone: “Oh, this is a speech Mr. Seward has
written for me, is it? I guess I will try it before these gentlemen, and
see how it goes.” Thereupon he proceeded to read it, in a waggish
manner, remarking, as he concluded, with sly humor: “There, I like
that. It has the merit of originality.”
“Within a month after Mr. Lincoln’s first accession to office,” says
the Hon. Mr. Raymond, “when the South was threatening civil war,
and armies of office-seekers were besieging him in the Executive
Mansion, he said to a friend that he wished he could get time to
attend to the Southern question; he thought he knew what was
wanted, and believed he could do something towards quieting the
rising discontent; but the office-seekers demanded all his time. ‘I
am,’ said he, ‘like a man so busy in letting rooms in one end of his
house, that he can’t stop to put out the fire that is burning the other.’
Two or three years later, when the people had made him a candidate
for reëlection, the same friend spoke to him of a member of his
Cabinet who was a candidate also. Mr. Lincoln said he did not
concern himself much about that. It was important to the country that
the department over which his rival presided should be administered
with vigor and energy, and whatever would stimulate the Secretary to
such action would do good. ‘R——,’ said he, ‘you were brought up
on a farm, were you not? Then you know what a chin fly is. My
brother and I,’ he added, ‘were once ploughing corn on a Kentucky
farm, I driving the horse, and he holding the plough. The horse was
lazy; but on one occasion rushed across the field so that I, with my
long legs, could scarcely keep pace with him. On reaching the end of
the furrow, I found an enormous chin fly fastened upon him, and
knocked him off. My brother asked me what I did that for. I told him I
didn’t want the old horse bitten in that way. “Why,” said my brother,
“that’s all that made him go!” Now,’ said Mr. Lincoln, ‘if Mr. —— has a
presidential chin fly biting him, I’m not going to knock him off, if it will
only make his department go.’
“On another occasion the President said he was in great
distress; he had been to General McClellan’s house, and the
General did not ask to see him; and as he must talk to somebody, he
had sent for General Franklin and myself, to obtain our opinion as to
the possibility of soon commencing active operations with the Army
of the Potomac. To use his own expression, if something was not
soon done, the bottom would fall out of the whole affair; and if
General McClellan did not want to use the army, he would like to
borrow it, provided he could see how it could be made to do
5
something.”
 XLII.
One bright morning in May, the Sunday-school children of the
city of Washington, marching in procession on anniversary day,
passed in review through the portico on the north side of the White
House. The President stood at the open window above the door,
responding with a smile and a bow to the lusty cheers of the little
folks as they passed. Hon. Mr. Odell, of Brooklyn, with one or two
other gentlemen, stood by his side as I joined the group. It was a
beautiful sight; the rosy-cheeked boys and girls, in their “Sunday’s
best,” with banners and flowers, all intent upon seeing the President,
and, as they caught sight of his tall figure, cheering as if their very
lives depended upon it. After enjoying the scene for some time,
making pleasant remarks about a face that now and then struck him,
Mr. Lincoln said: “Mrs. Ann S. Stephens told me a story last night
about Daniel Webster, when a lad, which was new to me, and it has
been running in my head all the morning. When quite young, at
school, Daniel was one day guilty of a gross violation of the rules. He
was detected in the act, and called up by the teacher for punishment.
This was to be the old-fashioned ‘feruling’ of the hand. His hands
happened to be very dirty. Knowing this, on his way to the teacher’s
desk, he spit upon the palm of his right hand, wiping it off upon the
side of his pantaloons. ‘Give me your hand, sir,’ said the teacher,
very sternly. Out went the right hand, partly cleansed. The teacher
looked at it a moment, and said, ‘Daniel, if you will find another hand
in this school-room as filthy as that, I will let you off this time!’
Instantly from behind his back came the left hand. ‘Here it is, sir,’
was the ready reply. ‘That will do,’ said the teacher, ‘for this time; you
can take your seat, sir.’”
Mr. Lincoln’s heart was always open to children. I shall never
forget his coming into the “studio” one day, and finding my own little
boy of two summers playing on the floor. A member of the Cabinet
was with him, but laying aside all restraint, he took the little fellow at
once in his arms, and they were soon on the best of terms.
Old Daniel—alluded to on a previous page—gave me a touching
illustration of this element in his character. A poor woman from
Philadelphia had been waiting with a baby in her arms for several
days to see the President. It appeared by her story, that her husband
had furnished a substitute for the army, but sometime afterward, in a
state of intoxication, was induced to enlist. Upon reaching the post
assigned his regiment, he deserted, thinking the government was not
entitled to his services. Returning home, he was arrested, tried,
convicted, and sentenced to be shot. The sentence was to be
executed on a Saturday. On Monday his wife left her home with her
baby, to endeavor to see the President. Said Daniel, “She had been
waiting here three days, and there was no chance for her to get in.
Late in the afternoon of the third day, the President was going
through the passage to his private room to get a cup of tea. On the
way he heard the baby cry. He instantly went back to his office and
rang the bell. ‘Daniel,’ said he, ‘is there a woman with a baby in the
anteroom?’ I said there was, and if he would allow me to say it, it
was a case he ought to see; for it was a matter of life and death.
Said he, ‘Send her to me at once.’ She went in, told her story, and
the President pardoned her husband. As the woman came out from
his presence, her eyes were lifted and her lips moving in prayer, the
tears streaming down her cheeks.” Said Daniel, “I went up to her,
and pulling her shawl, said, ‘Madam, it was the baby that did it.’”
When Mr. Lincoln visited New York in 1860, he felt a great
interest in many of the institutions for reforming criminals and saving
the young from a life of crime. Among others, he visited, unattended,
the Five Points’ House of Industry, and the Superintendent of the
Sabbath-school there gave the following account of the event:—
“One Sunday morning, I saw a tall, remarkable-looking man
enter the room and take a seat among us. He listened with fixed
attention to our exercises, and his countenance expressed such
genuine interest that I approached him and suggested that he might
be willing to say something to the children. He accepted the
invitation with evident pleasure; and, coming forward, began a
simple address, which at once fascinated every little hearer and
hushed the room into silence. His language was strikingly beautiful,
and his tones musical with intense feeling. The little faces would
droop into sad conviction as he uttered sentences of warning, and
would brighten into sunshine as he spoke cheerful words of promise.
Once or twice he attempted to close his remarks, but the imperative
shout of ‘Go on! Oh, do go on!’ would compel him to resume. As I
looked upon the gaunt and sinewy frame of the stranger, and marked
his powerful head and determined features, now touched into
softness by the impressions of the moment, I felt an irrepressible
curiosity to learn something more about him, and while he was
quietly leaving the room I begged to know his name. He courteously
replied, ‘It is Abraham Lincoln, from Illinois.’”
Mr. Nelson Sizer, one of the gallery ushers of Henry Ward
Beecher’s church in Brooklyn, told me that about the time of the
Cooper Institute speech, Mr. Lincoln was twice present at the
morning services of that church. On the first occasion, he was
accompanied by his friend, George B. Lincoln, Esq., and occupied a
prominent seat in the centre of the house. On a subsequent Sunday
morning, not long afterwards, the church was packed, as usual, and
the services had proceeded to the announcement of the text, when
the gallery door at the right of the organ-loft opened, and the tall
figure of Mr. Lincoln entered, alone. Again in the city over Sunday, he
started out by himself to find the church, which he reached
considerably behind time. Every seat was occupied; but the
gentlemanly usher at once surrendered his own, and, stepping back,
became much interested in watching the effect of the sermon upon
the western orator. As Mr. Beecher developed his line of argument,
Mr. Lincoln’s body swayed forward, his lips parted, and he seemed
at length entirely unconscious of his surroundings,—frequently giving
vent to his satisfaction, at a well-put point or illustration, with a kind
of involuntary Indian exclamation,—“ugh!”—not audible beyond his
immediate presence, but very expressive! Mr. Lincoln henceforward
had a profound admiration for the talents of the famous pastor of
Plymouth Church. He once remarked to the Rev. Henry M. Field, of
New York, in my presence, that “he thought there was not upon
record, in ancient or modern biography, so productive a mind, as had
been exhibited in the career of Henry Ward Beecher!”