Employee

Selection
References and Testing
 Table of Contents
Predicting Performance Using
References and Letters of
Recommendation
Predicting Performance Using
Applicant Training and Education
Predicting Performance Using
Applicant Knowledge
Predicting Performance Using
Applicant Ability
Predicting Performance Using
Applicant Skill
Predicting Performance Using
Prior Experience
Predicting Performance Using
Personality, Interest, and
Character
Predicting Performance
Limitations due to Medical and
Psychological Problems
Comparison of Techniques
Rejecting Applicants
 Predicting
Performance
Using References and Letters
of Recommendation
Reference
Check
The p r oc es s of confirming
Letter of
accuracy of resume and job
application information.
Recommendation
A letter expressing an opinion
Reference regarding applicant’s ability,
previous performance, work
habits, character, or potential
The expression of opinion that for success.
could be either orally, or through
checklist, regarding applicant’s
ability, previous performance,
work habits, character, or
potential for future success.
 Reasons for Using References
and Recommendation
Confirming details Discovering new
on a resume. Checking for information about
discipline problems. the applicant.
It is important to confirm details
written in resume, b e c a u s e it is References and letters of
This is to determine applicant’s recommend ation (such as former
not unusual for applicants to d o
history of discipline problems. employers and professors that can
resume fraud. That is, p r o v i d e information about applicant’s
intentional placement of untrue work habits, character, personality,
If such was not o bs er v ed, the and skills.)
information on a resume.
employers might be c ha r ged of
negligent hiring – a situation in Reference checkers must always
98% of e m pl o y e r s b e l i e v e that obtain specific behavioral examples
which an em plo y ee with a
resume fraud is a p r o b l em to and try to g e t consensus from several
previo us criminal record
merit r efe r enc e c h e c k s (Meinert, references.
commits a crime as part of
2011).
his/her employment. A recent trend in reference checking
is for employers to “Google” or use
The legislators of Washington social networking sites about an
state t ho ugh resume fraud as applicant’s name to find more
Class C felony. information ab out the applicant.
 Reasons for Using References
and Recommendation
There have been four main problems with
references and letters of recommendation:
Predicting future
performance. Leniency
Research is clear that most letters of
Even though references recommendation are positive.
are commonly used to Applicants choose their own references!
screen and select Causes of leniency are:
employees, they have not Coworkers’ attitudes toward an employee
been successful in affect the references they give that person.
predicting future Although coworkers are willing to say
employee success. negative things about unsatisfactory
employees, confidentiality concerns can
hold them back.
Fear of legal ramifications
 Reasons for Using References
and Recommendation
There have been four main problems with
references and letters of recommendation:
Predicting future
performance. Knowledge of the Applicant
Second problem with letters of
Even though references
recommendation is that the person writing
are commonly used to
the letter often does not know the applicant
screen and select well, has not observed all aspects of an
employees, they have not applicant’s behavior, or both.
been successful in
predicting future
employee success. Low Reliability
Lack of agreement between two people who
provide references for the same person.
 Reasons for Using References
and Recommendation
There have been four main problems with
Predicting future references and letters of recommendation:
performance.
Extraneous factors involved in
Even though references
are commonly used to
Writing and Reading such Letters
screen and select
employees, they have not
Research has indicated that the method used
been successful in by the letter writer is often more important
predicting future than the actual content.
employee success.
 Ethical Issues
Providing references and letters of recommendation is a rather subjective process,
several ethical problems can arise involving their use. Raynes (2005) lists three
ethical guidelines that reference providers should follow:
Explicitly state your relationship with the person you are recommending.
Without understanding the exact nature of the referee–referent relationship,
making judgments about the content of a reference can be difficult.
Be honest in providing details.
Referee has both an ethical and a legal obligation to provide relevant information
about an applicant.
Let the applicant see your reference before sending it, and give him the chance to
decline to use it
 Predicting
Performance
Using Applicant Training
and Education
 A meta-analysis
For many by ffg and
ýobs... Feldman (2009)
Found that better educated
It is common that employees had higher
applicants must have performance, were more likely
a minimum level of to e n g a g e in organizational
citizenship behaviors, less
education or training likely to be absent, and less
to be considered. likely to e n g a g e in on-the-job
substance abuse than were
employees with lower levels
of education.
 Predicting
Performance
Using Applicant Knowledge
Used primarily in the public sector, especially for promotions, job knowledge tests
are designed to measure how much a person knows about a job.

Job Knowledge Test

A test that measures the amount of job-related knowledge an applicant possesses.
These tests are similar to the exams given several times a semester in a college
class. They are typically given in multiple-choice fashion for ease of scoring, but
they also can be written in essay format or given orally in a job interview.
Examples:
1.Test of computer programming knowledge
2. Knowledge of electronics, and
3. Knowledge of mechanical principles.
 Standardized Job
Knowledge Test
These are commonly used by state licensing boards for such occupations as
lawyers and psychologists.

A meta-analysis by Dye, Reck, and McDaniel (1993) indicates that job

knowledge tests are g ood predictors of both training performance
and on -the-job performance.
Even though job knowledge tests do a g ood job of predicting
performance, they often result in adverse impact and can be used
only for jobs in which applicants are expected to have job knowledge
at the time of hire or promotion.
 Predicting
Performance
Using Applicant Ability
Ability tests tap the extent to which an applicant can
learn or perform a job-related skill. Ability tests are
used primarily for occupations in which applicants are
not expected to know how to perform the job at the
time of hire. Instead, new employees will be taught
the necessary job skills and knowledge.
Examples of such occupations include police officers,
firefighters, and military personnel.
 Cognitive ability includes such
dimensions as oral and written
comprehension, oral and written
expression, numerical facility,
originality, memorization, reasoning
(mathematical, deductive, inductive),
and general learning.
Cognitive ability is important for

Cognitive professional, clerical, and supervisory

jobs, including such occupations as
supervisor, accountant, and secretary.
Cognitive ability tests are commonly

Ability used because they are excellent

predictors of employee performance in
the United States and in Europe, are
easy to administer, and are relatively
inexpensive.
Cognitive ability is thought to predict
work performance in two ways: by
allowing employees to quickly learn
job-related knowledge and by
processing information resulting in
better decision making.
Cognitive Tests designed to measure

Ability the level of intelligence, or

the amount of knowledge
p o s s e s s e d b y an applicant.

Test
Wonderlic The short amount of time (12
minutes) necessary to take
the test, as well as the fact

Personnel that it can be administered

in a group setting, that
makes it popular, and this

Test test is most commonly used

in industry.
A potential breakthrough in cognitive ability tests is
the Siena Reasoning Test (SRT). The developers of this
test theorized that the large race differences in
scores on traditional cognitive ability tests were due
to the knowledge needed to understand the
questions rather than the actual ability to learn or
process information (intelligence).

For example: Colt is to horse as _____ is to dog.

A type of test related to cognitive ability is the
situational judgment test. In this test, applicants are
given a series of situations and asked how they
would handle each one. These situations cover such
topics (constructs) as leadership skills, interpersonal
skills, personality tendencies, teamwork, and job
knowledge.
Though situational judgment tests are correlated with
cognitive ability, the combination of the two is more
valid than either test alone.
 Perceptual ability consists of
vision (near, far, night,
peripheral), color discrimination,
depth perception, glare

Perceptual sensitivity,
recognition),
(sensitivity,
speech
and
auditory
(clarity,
hearing
attention,
sound localization). Abilities from

Ability this dimension are useful for such

occupations as machinist, cabinet
maker, die setter, and tool and
die maker.
Measure of facility with such
processes as spatial relations and
form perception.
 Psychomotor ability includes
finger dexterity, manual
dexterity, control precision,
multilimb coordination,
response control, reaction
Psychomotor time, arm-hand steadiness,
wrist-finger
speed -of-limb.
speed, and

Ability Psychomotor abilities

useful for such jobs as
are

carpenter, police officer,

sewing-machine operator,
post office clerk, and truck
driver.
 Physical ability tests are often
used for jobs that require
physical strength and stamina,
such as police officer,
firefighter, and lifeguard.
Physical ability is measured in
one of two ways: job simulations

Physical and physical agility tests. With a

job simulation, applicants
actually demonstrate job-related
physical behaviors.

Ability For example, firefighter

applicants might climb a ladder
and drag 48-pound hose 75 feet
across a street, police applicants
might fire a gun and chase
down a suspect and lifeguard
applicants might swim 100 yards
and drag a drowning victim
back to shore.
 Job analyses consistently indicate that
the physical requirements of police
officers can b e divided into two
categories: athletic and defensive.
Athletic requirements are easy to
simulate because they involve such
behaviors as running, crawling, and
pulling.

Physical Defensive requirements, however, are

difficult to safely and accurately
simulate because they involve such
behaviors as applying restraining

Ability holds,
attackers.
kicking, and fending

Tests commonly used to measure the

abilities needed to perform defensive
behaviors include push-ups, sit-ups,
off

and grip strength.

Because physical ability tests have
tremendous adverse impact against
women, they have been criticized on
three major points: job relatedness,
passing scores, and the time at which
they should be required.
 Job Relatedness
Though few people would disagree that it is better for a
police officer to be strong and fit than weak and out of
shape, many argue whether it is necessary to be
physically fit.
Currently, many police officers are overweight, slow, and
out of shape, yet they perform safely and at high levels.
Critics argue that physical agility is not an essential part of
the job. This is especially true due to technological
advances in policing.
 Passing Scores
A second problem with physical ability tests is determining passing scores;
that is, how fast must an applicant run or how much weight must be lifted to
pass a physical ability test? Passing scores for physical ability tests are set
based on one of two types of standards: relative or absolute.
Relative standards indicate how well an individual scores compared with
others in a group such as women, police applicants, or current police
officers.
The advantage to using relative standards is that adverse impact is
eliminated because men are compared with men and women with women.
The problem with relative scales, however, is that a female applicant might
be strong compared with other women, yet not strong enough to perform
the job. Furthermore, relative standards based on protected classes (e.g.,
sex, race) were made illegal by the 1991 Civil Rights Act.
 Passing Scores
In contrast, absolute passing scores are set at the
minimum level needed to perform a job. For example, if a
police officer needs to be able to drag a 170-pound
person from a burning car, 170 pounds becomes the
passing score. A s one can imagine, the problem comes in
determining the minimum amounts. That is, how fast does
an officer need to run to adequately perform the job?
Because people come in all sizes, how many pounds does
an officer need to be able to drag.
 When the ability
must be present
A third problem with physical ability requirements is the
point at which the ability must be present. Most police
departments require applicants to pass physical ability
tests on the same day other tests are being completed.
Applicants are then given suggestions on how they can
get themselves into the proper condition. Some cities
even hold conditioning programs for applicants! Such
policies greatly reduce adverse impact by increasing the
physical ability of female applicants.
 Predicting
Performance
Using Applicant Skill
 The applicant performs actual
job-related tasks.
Excellent selection tools for
various reasons:
Directly related to job tasks

Work (excellent content validity).

Scores from work samples
tend to predict actual work
performance (excellent
criterion validity).

Samples Applicants are able to see the

connection
sample and
between

performed on the job.

the
job
work

Have lower racial differences

in test scores than d o written
cognitive ability tests.
 A method of selecting
employees in which
applicants participate in
several job-related activities,
at least one of which must

Assessment be a simulation, and are

rated by
evaluators.
several trained

Centers MAJOR ADVANTAGE:

Assessment methods are
all job-related and
multiple trained assessors
help to guard against
many (but not all) types
of selection bias.
 An assessment center
exercise designed to
simulate the types of
In-basket information that daily
come across a manager’s
Technique or employee’s desk in
order to observe the
applicant’s responses to
such information.
 A n exercise designed
to place an applicant in
Simulation a situation that is similar
to the one that will be
encountered on the job.
 In this exercise,
applicants meet
Leaderless in small groups
and are given a
Group job-related
problem to solve
Discussions or a job-related
issue to discuss.
 An exercise, usually
found in assessment
centers, that is
Business designed to simulate
the business and
Game marketing activities
that take place in an
organization.
 Predicting
Performance
Using Prior Experience
 The basis for
experience ratings is
the idea that past
experience will predict
future experience.
Experience Support for this notion
comes from a meta-
analysis by Quiñones,
Ratings Ford,
(1995)
and Teachout
that found a
significant relationship
between experience
and future job
performance (r = .27).
 A method of selection
involving application
blanks that contain
Biodata questions that research
has shown will predict
job performance.
 Advantages of Biodata
Research has shown that they can predict work behavior in
many jobs, including sales, management, clerical, mental
health counseling, hourly work in processing plants, grocery
clerking, fast-food work, and supervising.
They have been able to predict criteria as varied as
supervisor ratings, absenteeism, accidents, employee theft,
loan defaults, sales, and tenure. Biodata instruments result in
higher organizational profit and growth (Terpstra & Rozell,
1993).
Biodata instruments are easy to use, quickly administered,
inexpensive, and not as subject to individual bias as
interviews, references, and résumé evaluation
 Development of a
Biodata Instrument
 The gathering of
File biodata from employee
files rather than by
Approach questionnaire.
 The method of
Questionnaire obtaining biodata
from questionnaires
Approach rather than from
employee files.
 Predicting
Performance
Personality, Interest, and
Character
 Personal Inventories
A psychological assessment designed to measure various aspects
of an applicant’s personality.

Test of fformal Personality

measure the traits exhibited by normal individuals in everyday life.
Examples of such traits are extraversion, shyness, assertiveness, and
friendliness. Determination of the number and type of personality
dimensions measured by an inventory can usually be (1) based on a
theory, (2) statistically based, or (3) empirically based.
number of dimensions in a theory-based test is identical to the
number postulated by a well-known theorist.
number of dimensions in a statistically based test is determined
through a statistical process called factor analysis.
empirically based test is determined by grouping answers given
by people known to possess a certain characteristic.
 Test of Psychopathology
Determine whether individuals have serious psychological
problems such as depression, bipolar disorder, and
schizophrenia.
Projective tests provide the respondent with unstructured
tasks such as describing ink blots and drawing pictures in
which a psychologist analyzes his or her responses.
Common tests in this category also include the Rorschach
Inkblot Test and the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT).
Objective tests are structured so that the respondent is
limited to a few answers that will be scored by
standardized keys. By far the most popular and heavily
studied test of this type is the Minnesota Multiphasic
Personality Inventory (MMPI-2).
 Interest Inventories
Psychological test designed to identify vocational
areas in which an individual might be interested.
The theory behind these tests is that an individual
with interests similar to those of people in a
particular field will more likely be satisfied in that
field than in a field composed of people whose
interests are dissimilar.
Useful in vocational counseling – helping
people find the careers for which they are
best suited).
 Integrity Tests
Also called an honesty test; a psychological test designed to
predict an applicant’s tendency to steal.
There are also overt or personality-based paper-and-pencil
integrity tests.
Overt integrity tests are based on the premise that a person’s
attitudes about theft as well as his previous theft behavior will
accurately predict his future honesty.
Personality-based integrity tests are more general in that they
tap a variety of personality traits (e.g., conscientiousness, risk
taking) thought to be related to a wide range of
counterproductive behavior such as theft, absenteeism, and
violence.
Overt tests are more reliable and valid in predicting theft and
other counterproductive behaviors than are personality-
based tests (Ones, Viswesvaran, & Schmidt, 1993).
 Conditional Reasoning Tests
Test designed to reduce faking by asking test-takers to select the
reason that best explains a
statement.
Aggressive individuals tend to believe (LeBreton, Barksdale, Robin, &
James, 2007) that:
1. Most people have harmful intentions behind their behavior (hostile
attribution bias);
2. It is important to show strength or dominance in social interactions
(potency bias);
3. It is important to retaliate when wronged rather than try to maintain a
relationship (retribution bias);
4. Powerful people will victimize less powerful individuals (victimization
bias);
5. Evil people deserve to have bad things happen to them (derogation of
target bias); and
6. Social customs restrict free will and should be ignored (social
discounting bias).
 Graphology
Also called handwriting analysis, a method of measuring
personality by looking at the way in which a person writes.
Research on graphology has revealed interesting findings.
First, graphologists are consistent in their judgments
about script features but not in their interpretation
about what these features mean.
Second, trained graphologists are no more accurate or
reliable at interpreting handwriting samples than are
untrained undergraduates or psychologists.
Most importantly, the small body of scientific literature
on the topic concludes that graphology is not a useful
technique in employee selection.
 Predicting
Performance
Limitations Due to Medical and
Psychological Problems
 Drug Testing
It is one of the most controversial testing methods used by
HR professionals.
Drug testing. Tests that indicate whether an applicant has
recently used a drug.
HR professionals believe not only that illegal drug use is
dangerous but also that many employees are under the
effect of drugs at work.
Illegal Drug users are more likely:
To miss work.
To use health care benefits.
More likely to be fired and quit their jobs.
To have accidents on the job.
 Drug Testing
According to the Quest Diagnostics’ Drug Testing
Index, the increase in drug testing has resulted in
fewer applicants testing positive for drugs.
Applicants seem to accept drug testing as being
reasonably fair but not on the current drug users
if it results in termination but not when the
consequence for being caught is rehabilitation.
 Drug Testing is usually
done in two stages.
1. An employee or applicant provides a urine, saliva, or hair
sample that is subjected to an initial screening test.
Urine or saliva - employers can use an on-site
“instant” screener that provides results in seconds,
or they can send the employee to a drug testing
lab.
Hair samples - it must be sent to a lab for testing.
Although hair samples are less convenient and
more expensive than urine or saliva samples, they
have the advantage of measuring drug use
occurring further back than is the case for urine or
saliva samples.
 Drug Testing is usually
done in two stages.
2. It is done by a Medical Review Office (MRO) at a testing lab to ensure
that the initial results were accurate.
Drug test is very accurate in detecting the presence of drugs BUT not
determinants of impairment.
Most drugs can be detected 2-3 days after used.
Testing conducted on hair follicles rather than urine samples can detect
drug usage over longer periods, whereas testing using blood, saliva, or
perspiration samples detect drug usage over shorter periods of time.
A disadvantage to testing hair follicles is that it takes a few days before
drugs will be detected in the hair; thus, it is not a g ood method to
determine whether an employee is currently under the influence.
 Psychological Exams
It is common for employers to give psychological exams to
applicants after a conditional offer of hire has been made
such as in jobs involving public sector (e.g., law enforcement,
nuclear power and transportation)
If the applicant fails the exam, the offer is rescinded.
Psychological exams usually consist of an interview by a
clinical psychologist.
Psychological exams are not intended to predict employee’s
performance. They should only be used to assess whether a
potential employee is a danger to himself or others.
 Medical Exams
Employers require a medical exam be taken
after a conditional offer of hire has been
made.
Physician is given a copy of the job
description and asked to determine if there
are any medical conditions that will keep the
employee from safely performing the job.
Comparison of
Techniques
Comparison of Techniques
Validity
It was found in the study that unstructured interview,
education, interest inventories, and some personality
traits are not good predictors of future employee
performance for most jobs. It is also clear that ability,
work samples, biodata, and structured interviews do a
fairly good job of predicting future employee
performance.
The most valid selection battery includes a cognitive
ability test and either a work sample, an integrity test,
or a structured interview (Schmidt & Hunter, 1998).
Though some selection techniques are better than
others, all are potentially useful methods for selecting
employees.
Comparison of Techniques
Legal Issues
Methods used to select employees are most
prone to legal challenge when they result in
adverse impact, invade an applicant’s privacy,
and do not appear to be job-related
Applicants perceive interviews, work
samples/simulations, and résumés as being the
most job-related/fair, and they view
graphology, integrity tests, and personality
tests as being the least job related/fair
(Anderson et al., 2010)
Reýectíhg
Aþþlícđhts
 A letter from an
ReýectíOh organization to an
applicant informing the
Letter applicant that he or
she will not receive a
job offer.
ImpOrtaHCe Of Wrítí Hg a
ReýectíOH Letter
a. It maintains your company’s good
reputation.
b. It displays that you have common
courtesy.
c. It maintains your company’s
professionalism.
d. It builds bridges.
e. It keeps them as your customers.
RefereHCe TextbOOk