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PALGRAVE STUDIES OF
MARKETING IN EMERGING ECONOMIES

Marketing Tourist Destinations

in Emerging Economies
Towards Competitive and Sustainable
Emerging Tourist Destinations
Edited by Ishmael Mensah
Kandappan Balasubramanian
Mohd Raziff Jamaluddin
Gina Alcoriza · Vanessa Gaffar
S. Mostafa Rasoolimanesh
Palgrave Studies of Marketing in Emerging
Economies

Series Editors
Robert E. Hinson
Durban University of Technology
University of Ghana Business School
Accra, Ghana

Ogechi Adeola
Pan-Atlantic University
Lagos Business School
Lagos, Nigeria
This book series focuses on contemporary themes in marketing and mar-
keting management research in emerging markets and developing econo-
mies. Books in the series cover the BRICS (Brazil, Russia, India, China
and South Africa), MINT (Mexico, Indonesia, Nigeria and Turkey),
CIVETS (Colombia, Indonesia, Vietnam, Egypt, Turkey, and South
Africa); EAGLE economies (those which are expected to lead growth in
the next ten years, such as Brazil, China, India, Indonesia, South Korea,
Mexico, Russia, Taiwan, and Turkey) and all other African countries
(classified under developing countries), taking into consideration the
demographic, socio-cultural and macro-economic factors influencing
consumer choices in these markets. The series synthesizes key subject
areas in marketing, discuss marketing issues, processes, procedures and
strategies across communities, regions and continents, and also the way
digital innovation is changing the business landscape in emerging
economies.
Palgrave Studies of Marketing in Emerging Economies presents a
unique opportunity to examine and discuss marketing strategy and its
implications in emerging economies, thereby filling a gap in current mar-
keting literature.
All chapter submissions to the series will undergo a double blind peer
review and all book proposals will undergo a single blind peer review.

More information about this series at

http://www.palgrave.com/gp/series/16591
 Ishmael Mensah
Kandappan Balasubramanian
Mohd Raziff Jamaluddin
Gina Alcoriza • Vanessa Gaffar
S. Mostafa Rasoolimanesh
Editors

Marketing Tourist
Destinations in
Emerging Economies
Towards Competitive and Sustainable
Emerging Tourist Destinations
Editors
Ishmael Mensah Kandappan Balasubramanian
University of Cape Coast Taylor’s University
Cape Coast, Ghana Selangor, Malaysia

Mohd Raziff Jamaluddin Gina Alcoriza

Universiti Teknologi MARA University of Santo Tomas–Legazpi
Selangor, Malaysia Manila, Philippines

Vanessa Gaffar S. Mostafa Rasoolimanesh

Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia Taylor’s University
Bandung, Indonesia Selangor, Malaysia

ISSN 2730-5554     ISSN 2730-5562 (electronic)

Palgrave Studies of Marketing in Emerging Economies
ISBN 978-3-030-83710-5    ISBN 978-3-030-83711-2 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-83711-2

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature
Switzerland AG 2022
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether
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illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and trans-
mission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or
dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication
does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant
protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book
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The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
 Preface

Many emerging economies are turning to tourism as the new economic

generator and are not sparing efforts at developing their tourism poten-
tials. This has heightened competition among tourist destinations.
However, emerging economies also have to compete with the well-­
established destinations in North America, Australia, and Europe. The
ability of emerging economies to compete favourably on the interna-
tional tourism market is constrained by a number of crises including ter-
rorism, political unrest, natural disasters, pandemics, and accidents,
which tend to affect the image and attractiveness of such destinations. In
addition, emerging economies suffer from institutional and structural
deficiencies as well as marketing challenges occasioned by the emergence
of new tourist destinations, disintermediation in the distribution system,
inadequate ICT infrastructure, changes in consumer behaviour, and frag-
mentation of the tourism industry. Addressing these challenges calls for a
well-coordinated management and marketing strategy.
The tourist destination is evolving, and new developments have impli-
cations for destination marketing in emerging economies. The debilitat-
ing effects of COVID-19 call for a new approach to destination marketing
in emerging economies. Also, advances in ICT have given rise to new
concepts such as digital marketing, collaborative marketing, social media
marketing and green marketing, e-tourism, and virtual tourism
(v-­tourism), which has led to the emergence of the concept of smart
v
vi Preface

­estinations. The Internet offers destination marketing organizations

d
(DMOs) a more cost-efficient option for reaching out to a global audi-
ence through social media and other digital platforms. Thus there is the
need for a book that synthesizes and addresses all the issues confronting
emerging economies in their destination marketing efforts. However,
most of the texts on tourism destination marketing and management
reflect destinations in more advanced countries. The body of knowledge
on destination marketing in the context of emerging economies is patchy
and scattered. This book seeks to bring all the destination marketing
issues and concepts relating to emerging destinations together in a single
book. Readers will understand all the nuances and contemporary issues
and developments in the field of destination marketing as applied to
emerging economies.
It is important to acknowledge the fact that emerging tourist destina-
tions have unique characteristics and peculiar challenges which have
implications for destination marketing. This book highlights the destina-
tion marketing challenges, best practices, and strategies relevant to emerg-
ing economies.

Cape Coast, Ghana Ishmael Mensah

Selangor, Malaysia  Kandappan Balasubramanian
Selangor, Malaysia  Mohd Raziff Jamaluddin
Manila, Philippines  Gina Alcoriza
Bandung, Indonesia  Vanessa Gaffar
Selangor, Malaysia  S. Mostafa Rasoolimanesh
 Acknowledgements

This book project would not have been accomplished without the sup-
port of some individuals and organizations. First, we wish to express our
sincerest appreciation to the series editors Prof. Robert Ebo Hinson and
Prof. Ogechi Adeola for believing in us and allowing us to contribute to
the book series ‘Palgrave Studies of Marketing in Emerging Economies’.
We also wish to acknowledge all the authors and anonymous reviewers
without whom this project would have been a failure. Our special thanks
go to the Team at Springer Nature, including Rubina Infanta Rani, the
Project Coordinator, for their immense support. Finally, we acknowledge
Mr Emmanuel Agbaglo and Ms Eunice Sakyi Kyeremah for editorial
assistance.

vii
 Contents

Part I Destination Attributes and Features   1

1 Nature and Scope of Destination Marketing in Emerging

Economies  3
Ishmael Mensah, Mohd Raziff Jamaluddin, Vanessa Gaffar,
Gina Alcoriza, Kandappan Balasubramanian, and S. Mostafa
Rasoolimanesh

2 Marketing Mix Strategies of Emerging Tourist

Destinations: The Case of Indonesia 27
Vanessa Gaffar

3 Special Events and Destination Marketing Strategies

in Emerging Economies in Asia 47
Mohd Raziff Jamaluddin and Wan Soraya Wan Abdul Ghani

4 Competitiveness of Emerging Economies as Tourist

Destinations 69
Emmanuel Gamor and Ishmael Mensah

ix
x Contents

Part II Travel Behaviour and ICT Applications in

Destination Marketing  99

5 Travel to Emerging Tourist Destinations: Motivations

and Decision-Making Processes101
Benjamin Appiah Osei

6 Service Quality, Tourist Satisfaction, and Destination

Loyalty in Emerging Economies121
Eunice Fay Amissah, Evelyn Addison-Akotoye, and Sarah
Blankson-Stiles-Ocran

7 Destination Distribution Systems and Travel

Disintermediation in Emerging Economies149
Christopher Mensah, Richmond Sakyi,
and Mavis Adjoa Forson

8 The Progress of ICT Applications in Destination

Marketing in Emerging Economies167
Kandappan Balasubramanian and S. Mostafa Rasoolimanesh

Part III Destination Marketing Process and Activities 187

9 New Approaches to Market Segmentation, Targeting and

Positioning: The Case of Maribojoc, Bohol, Philippines189
Maria Criselda G. Badilla

10 Homecoming Events and Diaspora Tourism Promotion

in Emerging Economies: The Case of the Year of Return
2019 Campaign in Ghana211
Ishmael Mensah

11 Destination Branding Slogans and their Impact on

Tourist Arrivals: The Case of the Philippines231
Reil G. Cruz and Joy Sheelah B. Era
 Contents xi

12 Opportunities and Challenges of Globalisation for

ASEAN Destinations Through the One Belt One Road
Initiative259
Agus Riyadi, Mohd Azlan Abu Bakar, and Candra Hidayat

13 Marketing Emerging Tourist Destinations During Crisis

and Pandemics275
Ishmael Mensah

Index299
 Notes on Contributors

Evelyn Addison-Akotoye is a lecturer in the Department of Hospitality

and Tourism Management, University of Cape Coast. She holds a PhD
in Hospitality Management from the same university. Her research inter-
ests cover issues related to nutrition literacy, food choice behaviour, menu
management and service quality.
Gina Alcoriza is an assistant professor and the programme chairperson
for the Tourism Management Programme at the University of Santo
Tomas–Legazpi, Legazpi City, Philippines. She holds a doctorate in
Business Administration from the University of Santo Tomas–Legazpi,
Philippines.
Eunice Fay Amissah is a senior lecturer and the head of the Department
of Hospitality and Tourism Management, University of Cape Coast. She
holds a PhD in Hospitality Management with a specialisation in service
quality management from the University of Cape Coast. Her research
interests include workplace diversity, work-family conflict and service
quality.
Maria Criselda G. Badilla is an associate professor at the University of
the Philippines Asian Institute of Tourism. She is also a tourism market
specialist and branding expert. Her research interests are in tourism
­marketing, destination branding and digital media. She has published

xiii
xiv Notes on Contributors

textbooks on tourism, which are used in tertiary and senior high schools
in the Philippines.
Mohd Azlan Abu Bakar is the Dean for Faculty of Management,
PICOMS International University College. He has lectured at the same
institution since 2018. He holds a professional degree from the Chartered
Institute of Logistics and Transport (CILT), UK, and a Master of Science
in Transport and Logistics. His research interests include supply chain
management and logistics management.
Kandappan Balasubramanian is an associate professor with the School
of Hospitality, Tourism and Events, Taylor’s University, Malaysia, and an
Apple Distinguished Educator. His research interests include Industrial
Revolution 4.0, service innovation in hospitality 4.0, teaching innova-
tion towards transformation in the educational and industry sector, mar-
keting in the hospitality industry as well as in higher education.
Sarah Blankson-Stiles-Ocran is Assistant Lecturer in Hospitality
Management at the Ho Technical University, Ghana. She holds an MPhil
degree in Hospitality Management from the University of Cape Coast.
Her research interests include employees’ well-being, employees’ work
attitudes, intentions and behaviour, as well as food handling, recipe
development and food tourism.
Reil G. Cruz is an associate professor at the University of the Philippines
Asian Institute of Tourism, where he also serves as the Institute Secretary.
He served as an international consultant in Human Resource
Development, Marketing, and Livelihood Generation for the UN World
Tourism Organization in East Timor, Sri Lanka, and North Korea from
2005 to 2006. His research interests include tourism planning and devel-
opment, tourism impact and sustainability, ecotourism, and sustainable
tourism.
Joy Sheelah B. Era is the Dean of the Institute of Tourism and Hotel
Management, Far Eastern University, Manila. She holds a PhD in
Philippine Studies and MA in Art Studies from the University of the
Philippines-Diliman. Her other affiliations include Accreditor of the
Philippine Association of Colleges and Universities Commission on
 Notes on Contributors xv

Accreditation (PACUCOA), and she has recently been assigned as a

Regional Quality Assurance Team (RQUAT) of the Commission on
Higher Education (CHED) for the tourism and hospitality programmes.
Mavis Adjoa Forson is an assistant lecturer at the Department of
Tourism and Hospitality Management, Ho Technical University. She
holds an MSc in Leisure, Tourism and Environment from Wageningen
University in the Netherlands and an MA in Hospitality Management
from the University of Cape Coast. Her research interests are tourism and
livelihoods, sustainable tourism development, and food and beverage
services.
Vanessa Gaffar is Associate Professor of Marketing in the Faculty of
Economics and Business Education, Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia.
She is a Vice Dean for Academic Affairs. She has been a visiting researcher
at Coventry University, UK. Her research interests are in the field of tour-
ism marketing, sports tourism, customer relationship management, social
media, and entrepreneurship.
Emmanuel Gamor is a PhD student at the School of Hotel and Tourism
Management, the Hong Kong Polytechnic University, and a faculty at
the Department of Hospitality Management of the Koforidua Technical
University, Ghana. He holds a Master of Philosophy in Hospitality
Management from the University of Cape Coast. He is also a Certified
Hospitality Educator (CHE) and a Certified Hotel Industry Analyst
(CHIA) by the American Hotel and Lodging Association. His research
interests include sustainable tourism, human resource management,
tourism marketing, and tourist behaviour.
Wan Soraya Wan Abdul Ghani is a lecturer for the Undergraduate
Event Management Degree Programme in the Faculty of Business and
Management, Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM), Malaysia. She holds
a master’s degree in Hotel and Tourism, majoring in Event Management
from the University of Queensland, Australia. Her research interests
include event management, sporting events, event marketing, and tour-
ism marketing.
xvi Notes on Contributors

Candra Hidayat is Assistant Professor of Hotel Management at the

Trisakti School of Tourism, Indonesia. He received his Graduate Double
Degree from Trisakti School of Tourism, Indonesia, and Burapha
University, Thailand. He is pursuing a doctoral programme at the Trisakti
School of Tourism, Indonesia.
Mohd Raziff Jamaluddin is a senior member of the Faculty of Hotel
and Tourism Management in the biggest university in Malaysia, Universiti
Teknologi MARA. He holds a PhD from Universiti Teknologi MARA. He
also holds the position of Adjunct Faculty at Alagappa University (India)
and Visiting Professor at PICOMS International University College,
Malaysia. His research interests include destination branding, hospitality
consumer behaviour, event management, and safety and security of tour-
ism destinations.
Ishmael Mensah is Professor of Tourism and Hospitality Management
and Ghana Director of the Confucius Institute at the University of Cape
Coast. He is also an external expert at Hunan City University. He holds
a PhD in Tourism from the University of Cape Coast as well as post-
graduate certificates in Hospitality Administration and Event Planning
and Tradeshow Management from Georgia State University, where he
was a fellow under the Ghana Tourism Capacity Development Initiative.
His research interests include service quality management, destination
marketing, environmental management in hotels, special events manage-
ment, and community-based tourism development.
Christopher Mensah is an associate professor at the Department of
Hospitality and Tourism Management, Ho Technical University. He
received his PhD in Tourism from the University of Cape Coast, Ghana.
His research interests are in the field of sexual harassment in hospitality
and tourism, customer satisfaction, hospitality human resource manage-
ment, hospitality education and special events.
Benjamin Appiah Osei is a PhD graduate from the School of Hospitality,
Tourism and Events, Taylor’s University, Malaysia. His research interests
include travel motivation and decision-making, application of advanced
technologies in hospitality, social media and travel behaviour, and eco-
citizenship behaviour.
 Notes on Contributors xvii

S. Mostafa Rasoolimanesh is an associate professor at the School of

Hospitality, Tourism and Events, at Taylor’s University. Rasoolimanesh is
an editorial board member of more than ten reputed tourism and hospi-
tality journals including the Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Technology,
Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management, and International Journal
of Tourism Policy. His research interests include sustainable tourism, heri-
tage tourism, destination planning and management, and urban
sustainability.
Agus Riyadi is Assistant Professor of Hotel Management at the Trisakti
School of Tourism, Indonesia. He had his master’s degree from Universiti
Teknologi MARA, Malaysia, and is pursuing a PhD programme at the
Universiti Teknologi MARA, Malaysia. He has 18 years of experience in
the hotel industry and higher education in tourism, with expertise in
marketing research.
Richmond Sakyi is an assistant lecturer in the Department of Hospitality
and Tourism Management, Ho Technical University. He holds a Master
of Philosophy in Tourism Management from the University of Cape
Coast. His research interests include tourism development, ecotourism,
hospitality and tourism marketing, and corporate social responsibility.
 Abbreviations

AAA African African-American

AEC ASEAN Economic Community
AMPC ASEAN Master Plan for Connectivity
AR Augmented Reality
ASEAN Association of Southeast Asian Nations
BAS Branding-Advertising-Selling
BAS Branding, Advertising, and Selling
BRI One Belt One Road
CBBE Customer-Based Brand Equity
CHSE Cleanliness, Health, Safety, and Environmental Sustainability
COMCEC Committee for Economic and Commercial Cooperation of the
Organization of the Islamic Cooperation
COVID-19 Coronavirus Disease 2019
CRS Computer Reservation Systems
CSFs Critical Success Factors
DMO Destination Marketing Organization
DOT Philippines Department of Tourism
EDM External Destination Marketing
ETC European Travel Commission
EU European Union
GDS Global Distribution Systems
GMTI Global Muslim Travel Index
GTA Ghana Tourism Authority

xix
xx Abbreviations

HS09 Homecoming Scotland 2009

IATA International Air Transport Association
ICT Information and Communication Technologies
IDD Internal Destination Development
IMF International Monetary Fund
IMFITP It’s More Fun in the Philippines
IOC International Olympic Committee
LADA Langkawi Development Authority
MATTA Malaysian Association of Tour and Travel Agents
MERS Middle East Respiratory Syndrome
MICE Meetings, Incentives, Conventions and Exhibitions
MME Malaysia Major Events
MyCEB Malaysia Convention and Exhibition Bureau
NAACP National Association for the Advancement of Coloured People
NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organisation
NTAs National Tourism Authorities
NTO National Tourism Organization
OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
OTA Online Travel Agent
PANAFEST Pan African Historical Theatre Festival
PATA Pacific Asia Travel Association
POSE Paid Media, Owned Media, Social Media, and Endorser
ROPAB Representation of the People Amendment Bill
SARS Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome
SDGs Sustainable Development Goals
SM Social Media
SMEs Small- and Medium-Sized Enterprises
SPBM Strategic Place Brand Management
TAST Transatlantic Slave Trade
TCL Travel Career Ladder
TTCI Travel and Tourism Competitiveness Index
UAE United Arab Emirates
UNESCO United Nations Education Scientific and Cultural Organization
UNWTO United Nations World Tourism Organization
VAC Visit ASEAN Campaign
VR Virtual Reality
WEF World Economic Forum
 Abbreviations xxi

WHO World Health Organization

WTO World Tourism Organization
WTTC World Travel and Tourism Council
YOR19 Year of Return 2019
 List of Figures

Fig. 1.1 The tourism system. (Source: Adapted from Leiper (1995)) 6
Fig. 3.1 The progress of mass tourism events 52
Fig. 4.1 Destination competitiveness model. (Source: Ritchie
and Crouch (2003)) 82
Fig. 5.1 Model of consumer decision-making. (Source: Engel
et al., 1978) 110
Fig. 6.1 Proposed framework of linkages between service quality,
perceived value, tourist satisfaction, and destination loyalty 134
Fig. 7.1 Tourism distribution channel 151
Fig. 8.1 E-tourism system’s conceptual framework (Kazandzhieva &
Santana, 2019). (Notes: DMOs: Destination management
organisations; DMSs: destination management systems
[TISCover, VisitSingapore, VisitFinland, MySwitzerland,
VisitBritain]; WS: web service; SM BEs: social media booking
engines [TripAdvisor, HolidayCheck, Facebook, Twitter];
MoAs: mobile applications; P2P BEs: per-to-per booking
engines [Airbnb, Uber]; Meta SEs: metasearch engines
[Google, Kayak, Skyscanner]; OTAs/TEMs: online travel
agencies/tourism e-mediaries [Expedia, Orbitz, Travelocity];
TAs WS: travel agents web service; TOs WS: tour operators
web service; GDSs: global distribution systems [Amadeus,

xxiii
xxiv List of Figures

Galileo]. Source: Velina Kazandzhieva/Hristina Santana,

E-tourism: Definition, development and conceptual
framework)172
Fig. 9.1 Steps in the process of market segmentation, targeting,
and positioning. (Source: Kotler et al. (2008)) 203
 List of Tables

Table 1.1 Summary of the activities of the DMO categorised as either

EDM or IDD 11
Table 4.1 Ranking of countries based on the travel and tourism
competitiveness index (2015–2019) 77
Table 8.1 Descriptions of e-tourism 170
Table 9.1 Proposed product development themes and target markets 204
Table 10.1 Tourist arrivals, receipts, and average expenditure
(2016–2019)219
Table 10.2 Total annual arrivals at selected attraction sites
(2016–2019)220
Table 11.1 Framework for destination branding analysis 238
Table 11.2 Inbound tourist arrivals, 1972–2020 250
Table 11.3 Philippines’ destination branding slogans (1973–2020) 252
Table 12.1 Visitor arrivals to ASEAN by country of origin and year
during 1995–1999 265

xxv
 Part I
Destination Attributes and Features
 1
Nature and Scope of Destination
Marketing in Emerging Economies
Ishmael Mensah, Mohd Raziff Jamaluddin,
Vanessa Gaffar, Gina Alcoriza,
Kandappan Balasubramanian,
and S. Mostafa Rasoolimanesh

Introduction
Emerging economies, which are also known as emerging markets, are
low- or middle-income economies with high economic growth potential.
However, they are usually less stable and imperfect with regard to the
efficiency and impartiality of their markets due to lapses in their

I. Mensah (*)
University of Cape Coast, Cape Coast, Ghana
e-mail: ikmensah@ucc.edu.gh
M. R. Jamaluddin
Universiti Teknologi MARA, Selangor, Malaysia
e-mail: raziff@uitm.edu.my
V. Gaffar
Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia, Bandung, Indonesia
e-mail: vanessa@upi.edu

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 3

I. Mensah et al. (eds.), Marketing Tourist Destinations in Emerging Economies, Palgrave
Studies of Marketing in Emerging Economies,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-83711-2_1
4 I. Mensah et al.

institutional frameworks, which are commonly known as institutional

voids (Meyer et al. 2016). They are countries that are transitioning from
the developing phase to the developed phase. These economies have lots
of potentials and have become increasingly important in the global econ-
omy in recent years. Emerging economies have also become very impor-
tant as tourist destinations. Tourism growth over recent years has largely
been driven by emerging economies (Kester & Croce, 2011). Emerging
tourist destinations are becoming particularly attractive to tourists from
the key generating markets in North America and Europe because they
have comparative advantages in cultural, ecological and other alternative
tourism products. In spite of this, emerging economies are far from
achieving their full potentials, as they are confronted with many chal-
lenges, which hinder effective destination marketing. Because emerging
destinations have to compete with the well-established tourist destina-
tions and battle with the adverse impacts of crises such as the COVID-19
pandemic, emerging destinations have to adopt more innovative and
strategic approaches to destination marketing.
For emerging destinations to achieve their full potentials, they must
strive to be competitive in the global tourism market. This requires desti-
nation marketing organisations (DMOs) in emerging economies to
develop and execute a well-thought-out marketing strategy. This intro-
ductory chapter tackles the foundational issues of emerging economies,
emerging tourist destinations and destination marketing. The chapter
focuses on issues such as the definition of concepts of destination market-
ing, tourist destination and emerging economies; the geographical scope
of emerging economies; as well as features of emerging tourist destina-
tions, destination marketing challenges of emerging tourist destinations,

G. Alcoriza
University of Santo Tomas–Legazpi, Manila, Philippines
e-mail: gina.alcoriza@ust-legazpi.edu.ph
K. Balasubramanian • S. M. Rasoolimanesh
Taylor’s University, Selangor, Malaysia
e-mail: kandappan.balasubramanian@taylors.edu.my;
mostafa.rasoolimanesh@taylors.edu.my
 1 Nature and Scope of Destination Marketing in Emerging… 5

destination mix and destination marketing organisations in emerging

economies. The chapter also sets the tone for the rest of the chapters,
examining the implications of the issues discussed for destination mar-
keting in emerging economies.

The Tourist Destination

The concept of tourist destination became popular in the post–World
War II period when most countries started opening their borders for
people and trade. The tourist destination has been defined as a system.
According to Tinsley and Lynch (2001, p. 372), it is a “system containing
several components such as attractions, accommodation, transport, and
other services and infrastructure”. Others have defined the tourist desti-
nation as a geographical area (Beirman, 2020; Buhalis, 2000). Buhalis
(2000) describes a destination as a geographical region serving integrated
services to tourists and composed of a combination of the tourism prod-
ucts or the places with distinct natural attractiveness and properties that
may be appealing to the tourists. Thus, a tourist destination is a geo-
graphical space in which several tourism resources exist. These include
attractions, infrastructure, equipment, service providers, other support
sectors and administrative organisations whose integrated and coordi-
nated activities provide tourists with the experience they expect from the
destination (Fyall et al., 2019). The geographical elements of Leiper’s
(1995) tourism system model (Fig. 1.1) can be used to explain the scope
of the tourist destination. The geographical elements include (a) the
traveller-­generating region, (b) the tourist destination region and (c)
transit route region.
The traveller-generating region (or home region) refers to the place
where the tourists come from. It is the generating market that stimulates
and motivates travel. The transit route region includes both the short
period of travel from the tourists’ home region to the destination and
other places on the way that the tourists may stop to visit. The tourist
destination region is one of the most important elements in the whole
tourism system. It is composed of suppliers who cater for the needs of the
tourists, physical resources which are crucial for attracting tourists, the
6 I. Mensah et al.

Departing Tourists

Traveller Tourist
Generating Transit Route Destination
Region Region

Returning Tourists

Travel Intermediaries Transport and Attractions

Marketing Activities Communication Access
Channels Accommodation
Amenities
Activities
Available packages
Environments: Physical, technological, social, cultural,
economic and political

Fig. 1.1 The tourism system. (Source: Adapted from Leiper (1995))

management of the destination and the provision of quality service,

which is vital for improving the images of destinations and motivating
tourists to visit. The tourist destination functions as a “pull” factor and
provides the space and resources for tourism activities at the destination.
It provides tourists with a variety of attractions, activities and memorable
travel experiences.
Elliott (1987) argued that the destination is multifaceted, including
service, size, location, ownership, market and, most importantly, the
actor-network relationship. Offering this multifaceted set of products
and services is, therefore, a prerequisite for creating attractive destinations
(Cracolici & Nijkamp, 2008). Ritchie and Zins (1978) identified eight
dimensions of destination attractiveness, namely nature and beauty; cul-
ture and social characteristics; sport, recreation and education facilities;
shopping and commercial facilities; infrastructure; the cost of living; atti-
tudes towards tourists; and accessibility of the destination. Other factors
that have been found to contribute towards the attractiveness of a desti-
nation include attractions and activities (Ritchie & Crouch, 2003), acces-
sibility of a destination (Kim, 1998), the host community (Kim et al.,
2012) and entertainment (Pullman & Gross, 2004).
 1 Nature and Scope of Destination Marketing in Emerging… 7

However, for most emerging economies, their natural resource endow-

ments have served as the main sources of attraction to tourists. Tang and
Rochananond (1990) examined the attractiveness of Thailand as a tourist
destination and found that natural beauty and climate, culture and social
characteristics, cost of living and attitudes towards tourists were the more
favourable attributes. Dickman (1997) coined the abbreviation 5As to
describe the destination mix, namely attractions, access, accommodation,
amenities and activities. However, a sixth element—available packages—
has been added to the mix to make it 6As (Buhalis, 2000). Attractions are
the locations, people, activities and things that draw visitors to a destina-
tion. Attractions could be in the form of natural and cultural landmarks,
historical sites, monuments, zoos and game reserves, aquaria, museums
and art galleries, gardens, architectural buildings, theme parks, sports
facilities, festivals and activities, animals and people (Benckendorff,
2014). Access is the transport infrastructure and technology that enable
people to reach their destination. Accommodation includes all forms of
lodging or place of stay that caters for the needs of tourists regularly and
at any time (Silaban et al., 2019). These include hostels, hotels, inns,
boarding houses, rest houses and lodging houses. Amenities are the sup-
port facilities or infrastructure that can fulfil the needs and desires of
tourists (Dewi et al., 2017). Singh et al. (2015) noted that there are four
types of amenities, namely tourist infrastructure (accommodation facili-
ties, facilities for arrivals servicing, tourist information and trails), para-
tourist infrastructure (transportation facilities—roads and transport
points), local facilities (communal and public transport, trade and service
facilities) and gastronomy and accompanying facilities (sport, leisure,
entertainment). Activities can be described as tourism products that can
build a portfolio or image for the country (Sharafuddin, 2015). Available
packages refer to the availability of services bundled by intermediaries that
promote the tourist destination. The United Nations World Tourism
Organization (UNWTO, 2007) has indicated that the tourist destina-
tion is shaped by attractions, public and private amenities, accessibility,
human resource, image and character, and price. The tourist destination
concept has evolved tremendously since the 1990s with concepts like
destination management, destination competitiveness, destination image
and destination marketing.
8 I. Mensah et al.

Destination Marketing
There is now a recognition that what tourist destinations offer is not just
a combination of various goods and services in a geographical unit, but
rather the experience of visiting a specific destination (Fyall et al., 2019).
Destination marketing is a type of marketing that seeks to promote a
destination (town, city, region, country) with the view to increase the
number of visitors (Lomanenko, 2018). Destination marketing can be
defined as a proactive, visitor-centred approach to the economic and cul-
tural development of a destination that balances and integrates the inter-
ests of visitors, service providers and the community (Wang, 2011). It is
also defined as a management process through which the national tourist
organisations and/or tourism enterprises identify their selected actual and
potential tourists; communicate with them to ascertain and influence
their wishes, needs, motivations, likes and dislikes, at the local, regional,
national and international levels; and develop and adapt their tourist
products with the view to achieving optimal tourist satisfaction, thereby
fulfilling their objectives (3G Learning, 2015). It is about engaging with
key players to drive awareness of the destination, thereby driving interest,
increasing tourist arrivals at the destination. Destination marketing is a
managerial process, demand-driven research, advertising and communi-
cation activity wherein the focus is on enticing potential external
consumers.
Destination marketing is now acknowledged as a pillar of the future
growth and sustainability of tourism destinations in an increasingly glo-
balised and competitive market for tourists (UNWTO, 2011).
Destination marketing as a management tool is a form of market-­oriented
strategic planning and hence as a strategic approach to place develop-
ment rather than a promotional tool (Blumberg, 2007). Destination
marketing covers all the activities from conception of ideas to realisation
of profits. The scope of destination marketing can relate to the functions
of marketing as well as the roles and responsibilities of the destination
marketing organisations (DMOs) that revolve around customer satisfac-
tion (Roshani, 2020) and as the main vehicle to compete and attract visi-
tors to their distinctive place or visitor space (Pike & Page, 2014).
 1 Nature and Scope of Destination Marketing in Emerging… 9

Destination Marketing Mix

Marketing activities play an essential role in determining the competitive

position of a tourist destination; thus, various marketing mix elements
need to be optimised. Marketing mix is a strategy of an organisation to
do the tasks in offering its product and influence the demand (Bakhshi,
2007; Kumar & Sharma, 2009). Some experts (see, e.g. Kotler et al.,
2008; Lilien, 1994) have recommended the use of marketing mix models
for decision-making. This is also true for emerging tourist destinations.
The classical marketing mix model consists of 4Ps, namely product, price,
place and promotion (McCarthy, 1975). However, this has been criti-
cised for not including uncontrollable external environmental factors.
Thus, the marketing mix has been extended into 7Ps, adding people,
process and physical evidence to the mix.
However, tourism destinations’ distinctive characteristics have com-
pelled some experts to propose other elements of the marketing mix, such
as Morrison’s (2009) 3Ps (partnership, packaging and programming).
Similarly, Bao (2018) argues that partners, passion and the presentation
should be added to the list to complete the traditional 7Ps. Nevertheless,
tourism destination marketers need to find the right combination of mar-
keting mix elements to offer suitable products to meet the right target
markets and attract tourists. A case in point is the marketing mix strategy
of Indonesia, which won the best destination marketing award in 2016
from Travel Weekly Asia. The marketing mix strategy of Indonesia
involved the application of a promotion strategy by the Ministry of
Tourism, which resulted in Indonesia winning. The strategy applied by
the institution to promote Indonesia as an attractive tourism destination
was Branding-Advertising-Selling (BAS), which was intensively con-
ducted to significantly project the “Wonderful Indonesia” image between
2015 and 2016. This strategy increased Indonesia’s position on the travel
and tourism competitiveness index from not available (NA) to 47 out of
144 countries during the period. Indonesia’s marketing strategy also
focused on Bali, Jakarta and Batam-Bintan, applying the 3As, namely
attractions, accessibility and amenity. The success of this strategy was fol-
lowed by the design of an intensive promotional strategy to market ten
10 I. Mensah et al.

new priority destinations to target 20 million tourists in 2019.

Furthermore, as noted by Amran (2015), the government issued dereg-
ulation policies to attract international tourists, for instance, by (a)
issuing a free visa regulation for international tourists from 169 coun-
tries, (b) permitting cruise ships to embark and disembark from
Indonesian harbours and (c) issuing clearance approval for a yacht to
enter Indonesian Territorial Waters (Clearance Approval for Indonesian
Territory—CAIT).

Destination Marketing Organisations

Destination marketing organisations (DMOs) have become vital for

coordinating the activities of emerging tourist destinations. The UNWTO
(2007) categorised them into three, namely national tourism authorities
(NTAs), regional provincial or state DMOs (RTOs) and local DMOs.
Tourist destinations are generally managed by DMOs. According to
Destinations International, a DMO is an organisation representing a par-
ticular destination and supporting local community’s long-term develop-
ment through travel and tourism strategies. Moreover, the UNWTO
(2007) states that DMOs are responsible for managing and marketing
destinations. The main functions of DMOs are marketing and ensuring
that tourist destinations remain competitive (Pike & Ryan, 2004; Volgger
& Pechlaner, 2014; Wang, 2008) by providing a collective platform for
marketing destinations to tourists.
According to Timareva et al. (2015), DMOs play a role in organising
and integrating all destination mix elements such as events, facilities,
transportation, infrastructure and hospitality resources, based on long-­
term travel and tourism planning strategies. The strategy employed by a
DMO usually includes image building, branding, marketing and com-
munication, with the aim of attracting tourists to a destination. In the
rural tourism destination context, Adeyinka-Ojo (2014) suggests that a
DMO is a network management organisation that plays a role as network
manager (Volgger & Pechlaner, 2014), especially in coordinating with
industry and collaborating with tourism destination stakeholders (Wang,
2008). The primary goals of a DMO are to provide mutual benefits for
 1 Nature and Scope of Destination Marketing in Emerging… 11

Table 1.1 Summary of the activities of the DMO categorised as either EDM or IDD

External destination marketing Internal destination development

activities activities
Web marketing Visitor management
Events, conferences and festivals Information/research
Cooperative programmes Coordinating tourism stakeholders
Direct mail Crisis management
Direct sales Human resources development
Sales blitzes Finance and venture capital
Trade shows Resource stewardship
Advertising Quality of the visitor experience
Familiarisation tours
Publications and brochures
Source: Arbogast et al. (2017)

various stakeholders, market the tourism products of a destination, posi-

tion the destination, improve the host community’s well-being, build
brands and ensure tourists’ loyalty towards tourist destinations. To achieve
these goals, DMOs need to collaborate and share the same visions with
the host community, an important stakeholder that creates a tourism des-
tination experience (Bhat & Gaur, 2012). Overall, DMOs need to ensure
that internal communication and socialisation run effectively; thus, the
stakeholders hold on to the shared destination vision and are committed
to developing tourist destinations (Bregoli, 2013).
The responsibilities of DMOs should include both an “external desti-
nation marketing” (EDM) function and an “internal destination devel-
opment” (IDD) function. The EDM function is meant to include all
activities aimed at attracting visitors to the destination. These activities
have an external orientation in that they aim to influence the actions of
persons outside the destination. IDD activities are described as encom-
passing all other forms of activities (apart from marketing) undertaken by
DMOs to develop and maintain tourism in the destination. The function
of destination development is internal in that the activities are aimed at
initiatives internal to the destination (Arbogast et al., 2017) (Table 1.1).
DMOs as a vehicle for tourism destination management and develop-
ment are unlikely to be able to claim too much responsibility for destina-
tion management, but they can play an important part in the management
12 I. Mensah et al.

of the destination product (Blumberg, 2007). DMOs seek to attract

more tourists to a destination. Today, DMOs, according to Čorak and
Živoder (2017), have a complex task to ensure sustainable destination
development through optimal use of resources and welfare of the local
community and achieve competitiveness in a fast-changing social and
economic climate. Furthermore, the DMO, as the leading entity in the
tourism destination, has a crucial role in promoting a greater engagement
of the tourism sector, its industries, as well as policy and decision-makers
with sustainable development. DMOs should align their policies and
actions with the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and the
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) (UNWTO, 2019). This will
allow them to maximise tourism’s contribution to all the 17 Goals and in
particular to the SDGs where tourism is specially included: (a) Goal 8:
decent work and economic growth; (b) Goal 12: sustainable production
and consumption; and (c) Goal 14: life below water. Within this context,
DMOs are called upon to incorporate the 17 SDGs in their plans and
policies and to monitor their implementation on an ongoing basis in
order to ensure compliance with the final goal of maximising the contri-
bution of tourism destination to the SDGs.
The responsibility of a DMO is not only limited to planning, market-
ing and promotion but also coordinating various developmental activities
(Presenza et al., 2005; Ritchie & Crouch, 2003). For destinations to
remain competitive, DMOs must play an important role of marketing,
promoting, building favourable images and providing information about
tourist destinations (Prideaux & Cooper, 2003). Pike (2004) stated that
the function of a DMO relates to human resources, politics, destination
policy and strategy, finance and budgeting, destination branding, tour-
ism assets and attractions, destination communication, promotion and
monitoring of performance. Heath and Wall (1992) also have a different
perspective on the function of DMOs, stating that the main tasks of
DMOs are strategy formulation, promotion of stakeholders’ interest,
product development and marketing.
DMOs’ success indicators are divided into two aspects: external and
internal performances. Marketing is part of the external performance,
while internal performance could be measured by coordination of desti-
nation stakeholders (Ritchie & Crouch, 2003; Presenza et al., 2005) to
 1 Nature and Scope of Destination Marketing in Emerging… 13

create quality, satisfying and memorable tourist experiences (Gartrell,

1988). The success can be achieved by managing networking, transpar-
ency, resources and professionalism, which are essential for effective coor-
dination and integration of the DMO and other stakeholders (Volgger &
Pechlaner, 2014). In the fourth industrial revolution era, technology
development encourages DMOs to use online platforms such as websites
and social media to build the image of and promote destinations
(Molinillo et al., 2018). In Singapore, for instance, the DMO and tour-
ism board aim to change the image of the country, which is one of the
biggest hubs in Southeast Asia, from a “stopover” destination to a real
tourist destination. To achieve this goal, a strategy that involves sharing
real stories of residents and local experts about the attractions in Singapore
has been employed. The campaign is conducted on microsites, exposing
potential tourists to cultural attractions including food, and the unique-
ness they will experience when they visit Singapore. In this case, the
DMO and the tourism board, with the help of media experts, created an
original and memorable experience for tourists visiting Singapore.
Nevertheless, some DMOs, especially in emerging economies, are
confronted with a number of challenges. Perhaps, the greatest challenge
is the fragmented nature of the tourism industry, with varied interest
groups, which makes coordination of the activities of various stakehold-
ers towards the realisation of shared goals a very daunting task (Laws
et al., 2011). There are also problems with weak institutional structures
and government bureaucracy, which result in inefficiencies and delays in
decision-making. Waitt (1996), for instance, examined the destination
marketing of Korea post-Olympic Games 1988 and found that the gov-
ernment bureaucracy was an obstacle to Korea becoming the leading des-
tination, even though the country had received attention worldwide from
the successful hosting of the Olympic Games.

Features of Emerging Economies

Though there is no commonly accepted definition of emerging markets
(Arnold & Quelch, 1998), they could be described as low- or middle-­
income economies with high economic growth potential. They are
14 I. Mensah et al.

countries that are transitioning from the developing phase to the devel-
oped phase. Emerging economies are also known as developing coun-
tries. Emerging economies have shifted from agriculture and export of
raw materials to industrialisation and have invested in a more productive
capacity. Several countries fall into this category. However, in the context
of this book, they include the newly industrialised economies in East Asia
such as Korea, Taiwan, Hong Kong and Singapore (Asian NIEs); Brazil,
Russia, India and China (BRICS); Mexico, Indonesia, Nigeria and
Turkey (MINT); Colombia, Indonesia, Vietnam, Egypt, Turkey and
South Africa (CIVETS); Countries of Central and Eastern Europe,
including the former Soviet Union, China and Mongolia (Transition
economies); and the new emerging economies of Africa, namely
Botswana, Ghana, Kenya, Mozambique, Nigeria, Tanzania, Uganda and
Zambia. Emerging economies differ significantly from developed coun-
tries in terms of their cost and factor conditions; their stages of economic,
social and political development; as well as their business systems
(Enderwick, 2007).
Sunje and Civi (2008) describe an emerging market as a market within
the political borders of an independent state that has a lower level of eco-
nomic development, transitional economy and society, a high rate of eco-
nomic growth and a huge future growth potential.
Atadil et al. (2017) describe emerging markets in the context of tour-
ism as both emerging sources and destination markets. Emerging econo-
mies exhibit a lot of potentials, including a rapid pace of economic
development, high growth potential, trade liberalisation and a free mar-
ket economy. These economies have become increasingly important in
the global economy in recent years. Emerging market economies
accounted for close to 70% of global output growth and just over 70% of
global consumption growth during 2010–2015 (International Monetary
Fund [IMF], 2014). It has been projected that by 2035, the GDP of
emerging markets will permanently exceed that of all advanced markets
(Wilson & Purushothaman, 2003). It has been forecasted that by 2050,
the BRIC economies, namely Brazil, Russia, India and China, will over-
take developed countries such as the United States, Japan, Germany, the
UK, France and Italy (Wilson & Purushorthaman, 2003). This has been
 1 Nature and Scope of Destination Marketing in Emerging… 15

attributed to the strong competitive challenge from domestic firms in

these emerging markets (Ramamurti & Singh, 2009).
In spite of this, emerging economies are confronted with many chal-
lenges which hinder them from achieving their full economic and tour-
ism potentials. These include informality and less developed government
and regulatory infrastructure (Marquis & Qian, 2014; Marquis et al.,
2011); lapses in institutional frameworks (Meyer & Peng, 2016); inade-
quate commercial and physical infrastructure (Sunje & Civi, 2008); sus-
ceptibility to external conflicts, coups and internal tensions (Hiatt &
Sine, 2014); less transparency; state intervention and high volatility of
key economic, political and institutional variables (Xu & Meyer, 2013);
as well as a youthful population, expanding workforce and rapid urban-
isation (Marquis & Raynard, 2015). These socio-economic challenges,
coupled with the impacts of crises, have significantly impacted the efforts
of DMOs in their efforts at competing in the global tourism industry.
Technological advancements, structural changes in the tourism market,
economic downturn, war and terrorist threats, climate change, natural
disasters as well as epidemics and pandemics have resulted in crises that
affect DMOs in fundamental ways (Gretzel et al., 2006).

Tourism Prospects of Emerging Economies

Tourism has become one of the most important sectors in many emerg-
ing markets (Singh, 1997). For these economies, tourism has become a
major source of economic growth and foreign income (Norwak et al.,
2003). The UNWTO (2015) projects that arrivals in emerging destina-
tions between 2010 and 2030 will increase at twice the rate of the
advanced economies, and this will account for a 57% share of the market.
Africa, the Middle East, and especially Asia and the Pacific regions are
expected to grow faster. Compared to the emerging economies, the
growth rate in tourist arrivals in mature destinations in the developed
economies of Northern and Western Europe, and North America will be
comparatively slower during the coming two decades.
As a result of these prospects, many governments of emerging econo-
mies are leaving no stone unturned at developing their tourism
16 I. Mensah et al.

industries. This is also because emerging markets enjoy a huge cost and
price advantage from tourism (Enderwick & Nagar, 2011). Tourism
growth globally, over recent years, has largely been driven by emerging
economies (Kester & Croce, 2011).
Tourism in emerging markets has drawn increasing attention (Cohen
et al., 2014). Emerging tourist destinations have increasingly become
attractive to tourists from the key source markets in North America and
Europe due to their natural and cultural attractions, which offer suitable
alternatives to the traditional attractions in advanced countries. Many
destinations in South East Asia, Africa and Latin America offer cultural,
heritage and natural attractions, which appeal to Western tourists who
are in search of novelty and exotic experiences. Hitchcock et al. (2009)
describe this as the search for something different, with tourists prioritis-
ing new natural and cultural environments. Emerging economies have a
comparative advantage in their natural endowments, including climate,
wildlife and cultural resources. They offer a rich supply of attractions and
natural resources that appeal to the main source markets in Europe and
America. According to Laws (1996), the shift in tourists’ interests towards
destinations in Southeast Asia, Africa and the Pacific is a reflection of
changes in tourists’ preferences. Emerging economies must capitalise on
these shifts in preferences by leveraging their competitive advantage in
cultural and natural attractions.

Challenges of Marketing
Emerging Destinations
Despite their huge potentials in the global tourism market, emerging
economies are confronted with a myriad of challenges that impede suc-
cessful destination marketing. Tourism-related challenges confronting
emerging economies include the absence of a national tourism organisa-
tion (NTO), poor coordination among institutions, non-prioritisation of
the tourism industry by government, insufficient use of ICT, lack of
proper marketing and promotion, inadequate human resources and poor
 1 Nature and Scope of Destination Marketing in Emerging… 17

tourism infrastructure (Arshad et al., 2018; Kimbu, 2011). According to

Mitchell (2006), the most apparent challenges facing the tourism indus-
try in developing economies include poor infrastructure; poor product
development and management; poor marketing; poor linkages within
the local economy; poor institutional and technical capabilities; and
shortage of suitable, qualified and skilled personnel. The preponderance
of crises, including financial crisis, natural disasters and epidemics in
emerging markets, is a major drawback to destination marketing. These
crises do not only render destinations unsafe for travel but also cast a slur
on the image of such destinations. Over the past decade, emerging econ-
omies have had a disproportionate share of crises, including the tsunami
in the Indian Ocean basin, SARS pandemic in the Asia Pacific region,
Ebola epidemic in West Africa and political unrests in North Africa and
the Middle East.
The technological dependency of emerging markets (Wu & Pangarkar,
2006) is also a major constraint to destination marketing, especially in
the COVID-19 era when almost everything has been moved to the vir-
tual space, and there has been the emergence of virtual tourism and smart
destinations. The inadequacy of ICT infrastructure in most emerging
economies renders them uncompetitive in the global tourism market.
There is also a problem with the images and the tourism product offer-
ings of some destinations in emerging economies. Third World destina-
tions face major difficulties in creating favourable destination images and
are often portrayed negatively in international tourism marketing, espe-
cially in terms of context and content (Dieke, 2010; Echtner & Prasad,
2003). Images influence actual travel behaviour (O’Leary & Deegan,
2005), so the association of destinations in the developing world with
crude and negative images tend to affect tourist arrivals in those destina-
tions. Finally, emerging economies have not made significant strides in
differentiating their tourism product offerings (Shani et al., 2009). Daye
(2010) laments that destinations such as the Dutch Caribbean islands are
mainly undifferentiated in terms of their tourism product offerings and
also in terms of general consumer awareness of those destinations.
However, destination positioning and clarity of destination image are fac-
tors that significantly influence the competitiveness of tourist destina-
tions (Dwyer & Kim, 2003).
18 I. Mensah et al.

Structure of the Book

The book is composed of 13 chapters, further organised under 3 sections
(Parts I, II and III). Part A, which is entitled “Destination Attributes and
Features”, is composed of the first four chapters. In Chap. 1, Ishmael
Mensah, Mohd Raziff Jamaluddin, Vanessa Gaffar, Gina Alcoriza,
Kandappan Balasubramanian and S. Mostafa Rasoolimanesh introduce
readers to the concepts, prospects and challenges of destination market-
ing in emerging economies. Vanessa Gaffar examines the marketing mix
strategies of emerging tourist destinations using Indonesia as a case study
in Chap. 2. This is followed by an analysis of special events as destination
marketing strategies in emerging economies in Asia by Raziff Jamaluddin
in Chap. 3. The section ends with an assessment of the competitiveness
of emerging tourist destinations by Emmanuel Gamor and Ishmael
Mensah in Chap. 4.
Part B, which comprises four chapters, is labelled “Travel Behaviour
and ICT Applications in Destination Marketing”. The section begins
with an analysis of the travel decision-making process and motivations
for travel to emerging tourist destinations by Benjamin Appiah Osei in
Chap. 5. In Chap. 6, Eunice Amissah, Evelyn Addison-Akotoye and
Sarah Blankson-Stiles-Ocran examine the issue of service quality, tourist
satisfaction and destination loyalty in emerging economies. Christopher
Mensah, Richmond Sakyi and Mavis Adjoa Forson provide an overview
of destination distribution systems and disintermediation in emerging
economies in Chap. 7. The section ends with an examination of the prog-
ress of information technology’s applications in destination marketing in
emerging economies by Kandappan Balasubramanian and S. Mostafa
Rasoolimanesh in Chap. 8.
Part C is entitled “Destination Marketing Process and Activities”.
There are five chapters in this section (Chaps. 9, 10, 11, 12 and 13).
The section begins with an examination of the approaches to market
segmentation, targeting and positioning of emerging tourist destina-
tions, with reference to the Maribojoc Bohol area of the Philippines by
Maria Criselda G. Badilla in Chap. 9. In Chap. 10, Ishmael Mensah
 1 Nature and Scope of Destination Marketing in Emerging… 19

examines the use of homecoming events for diaspora tourism promo-

tion in emerging economies, using the Year of Return 2019 campaign
in Ghana. The impacts of destination branding slogans on tourist arriv-
als in the Philippines is analysed by Reil G. Cruz and Joy Sheelah B. Era
in Chap. 11. This is followed by an evaluation of the opportunities and
challenges of the “One Belt One Road” as a globalisation strategy for
ASEAN destinations in Chap. 12. The final chapter (Chap. 13) com-
pletes the section with an examination of the issue of marketing emerg-
ing tourist destinations during crises and pandemics by Ishmael Mensah.

Conclusion
Tourism destinations are becoming competitive as more and more desti-
nations look to tourism as the new economic generator, replacing activi-
ties in agriculture, mining and manufacturing (Goeldner & Ritchie,
2006). This is especially the case with emerging economies that have to
compete with the well-established destinations in North America,
Australia and Europe. The fact is that tourist destinations in emerging
economies are confronted with a number of issues, including crises like
terrorism, political unrest, natural disasters and epidemics, as well as
institutional and structural deficiencies, which tend to affect the image,
attractiveness and marketing efforts of DMOs of such destinations.
Addressing these challenges calls for a well-coordinated management and
marketing strategy. The tourist destination is very dynamic and new
issues have emerged in contemporary times, which have implications for
destination marketing in emerging economies. These include the emer-
gence of new tourist destinations, destination branding, disintermedia-
tion in the distribution system, application of ICT, changes in consumer
behaviour and collaboration. This book addresses these issues by explain-
ing the concepts and drawing practical examples from emerging econo-
mies. This book aims to highlight the destination marketing challenges,
best practices and strategies relevant to emerging economies.
20 I. Mensah et al.

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surgeon for each regiment. The men appointed were for the most
part country physicians, many of them with little practice, who, on
reaching the field, were, in some respects, as ignorant of their duties
under the changed conditions as if they had not been educated to
the practice of medicine; and the medical director of the army found
his hands more than full in attempting to get them to carry out his
wishes. So, to simplify his labors and also to increase the efficiency
of his department, brigade hospitals were organized about the
beginning of 1862, and by general orders from the war department
brigade surgeons were appointed, with the rank of major, and
assigned to the staffs of brigadier-generals. These brigade surgeons
had supervision of the surgeons of their brigades, and exercised this
duty under the instructions of the medical director.
The regimental hospitals in the field were sometimes tents, and
sometimes dwellings or barns near camp. It was partly to relieve
these that brigade hospitals were established. The latter were
located near their brigade or division.
The hospital tent I have already described at some length. I may
add here that those in use for hospital purposes before the war were
24 feet long by 14 feet 6 inches wide, and 11 feet 6 inches high, but,
owing to their great bulk and weight, and the difficulty of pitching
them in windy weather, the size was reduced, in 1860, to 14 feet by
14 feet 6 inches, and 11 feet high in the centre, with the walls 4 feet
6 inches, and a “fly” 21 feet 6 inches by 14 feet. Each of these was
designed to accommodate eight patients comfortably. Army
Regulations assigned three such tents to a regiment, together with
one Sibley and one Wedge or A tent.
The Sibley tent I have likewise quite fully described. I will only add
here that, not having a “fly,” it was very hot in warm weather. Then,
on account of its centre pole and the absence of walls, it was quite
contracted and inconvenient. For these reasons it was little used for
hospital purposes, and not used at all after the early part of the war.
The hospital tents in the Army of the Potomac were heated, for the
most part, by what was called, for some reason, the California Plan.
This consisted of a pit, dug just outside of the hospital door, two and
a half feet deep, from which a trench passed through the tent,
terminating outside the other end in a chimney, built of barrels, or in
such a manner as I have elsewhere described. This trench was
covered throughout its entire extent with iron plates, which were
issued by the quartermaster’s department for that purpose. The
radiation of the heat from the plates kept the tent very comfortable.
The honor of organizing the first field hospital in tents is said to
belong to Dr. B. J. D. Irwin, U. S. A., of the Army of the Ohio. It
occurred at the battle of Shiloh. While establishing a hospital near
the camp of Prentiss’ division of that army, which had been captured
the day before, the abandoned tents still standing suggested
themselves to him as a convenient receptacle for his wounded. He at
once appropriated the camp for this purpose, and laid it out in
systematic form. It was clearly shown by this and succeeding
experiences during the war that the wounded treated under canvas
did better and recovered more rapidly than those treated in
permanent hospitals.
As fast as they could be procured, hospital tents were furnished,
three to a regiment, in accordance with the provision of Army
Regulations referred to. Each regiment provided its own nurses and
cooks. In general hospitals one nurse was allowed to ten patients,
and one cook to thirty.
The capacity of a regimental hospital tent, like a stagecoach,
varied according to the demand for room. I have said they were
designed to accommodate eight. An old army surgeon says, “Only
six can be comfortably accommodated in one of them, three on each
side.” But when the surgeons were crowded with the wounded, it
was a common practice to set two long narrow boards edgewise
through the centre of the tent, about twenty inches apart. If boards
were wanting, two good-sized poles were cut and used instead.
Between these was the passage for the surgeons and nurses.
Behind the boards or poles a filling of straw or fine boughs was
made and covered with blankets. On these latter could be placed
twenty patients, ten on either side; but they were crowded. When six
single cots were put in one of these tents, three on each side, ample
space was afforded to pass among them.
 A TWO-WHEELED AMBULANCE.

In the latter part of 1861, the government, realizing its pressing

needs, began to build general hospitals for the comfort and
accommodation of its increasing thousands of sick and wounded,
continuing to build, as the needs increased, to the very last year of
the war, when they numbered two hundred and five.
Before the civil war, the government had never been supplied with
carriages to convey the sick and wounded. Only two years before, a
board, appointed by the secretary of war, had adopted for
experiment a four-wheeled and a two-wheeled carriage. The four-
wheeled vehicle was tried in an expedition sent into New Mexico,
and was favorably reported on; the two-wheeled was never tested,
but was judged to be the best adapted to badly wounded men
(though the contrary proved to be the fact), and so the board
reported in favor of adopting these carriages in the ratio of five two-
wheeled to one four-wheeled.
When Surgeon Tripler took charge, he found several of these two-
wheeled carriages in Washington, but they were used chiefly as
pleasure-carriages for officers, or for some other private purpose.
This was stopped, for a time at least, and an order was issued,
leaving one to a regiment and requiring the rest to be turned over to
the quartermaster’s department. But the perversion of ambulances
from their proper use, I will add in passing, continued, to a greater or
less extent, till the end of the war. This very year McClellan issued
an order for them not to be used except for the transportation of the
sick and wounded, unless by authority of the brigade commander,
the medical director, or the quartermaster in charge, and the provost-
marshal was ordered to arrest officers and confine non-
commissioned officers and privates for violation of the order.
The most important steps taken towards organizing the medical
department, and placing it on that thorough basis which
distinguished it in the later years of the war, were the result of the
foresight, energy, and skilful management of Dr. Jonathan
Letterman, who was made medical director of the Army of the
Potomac on the 19th of June, 1862. His labor was something
enormous. It was during the progress of the Peninsular Campaign.
All was confusion. Medical supplies were exhausted. Thousands of
sick and wounded men were dying for want of proper care and
medicine. Yet this campaign, so disastrous in its results to our army
from a military point of view, was a valuable teacher in many
respects, and one of its most pointed and practical lessons was the
necessity shown of having the ambulances organized and under a
competent head. It remained for Dr. Letterman to appreciate this
need, and effect an organization which remained practically
unchanged till the close of the war. Here is the substance of the plan
which he drew up, and which General McClellan approved, and
published to the army in orders, Aug. 2, 1862, and which General
Meade reissued, with some additions and slight changes, a little
more than a year later.

AMBULANCE CORPS.
All of the ambulances belonging to an army corps were to be
placed under the control of the medical director of that corps, for
now, in addition to a medical director of the army, there was a
subordinate medical director for each army corps. Such an
ambulance corps was put into the hands of a captain as
commandant. This corps was divided and subdivided into division,
brigade, and regimental trains, corresponding to the divisions of the
army corps to which it belonged, having a first lieutenant in charge of
a division, a second lieutenant in charge of a brigade, and a
sergeant in charge of a regimental detachment. Besides these, three
privates, one of them being the driver, were to accompany each
ambulance on the march and in battle. The duties of all these men,
both officers and privates, were very carefully defined, as well for
camp as for the march and battle. Besides the ambulances, there
accompanied each corps one medicine-wagon and one army wagon
to a brigade, containing the requisite medicines, dressings,
instruments, hospital stores, bedding, medical books, small furniture
(like tumblers, basins, bed-pans, spoons, vials, etc.).
In addition to the foregoing articles, which were carefully assorted
both as to quantity and quality, each ambulance was required to
carry in the box beneath the driver’s seat, under lock and key, the
following articles:—
Three bed-sacks, six 2-pound cans beef-stock, one leather bucket,
three camp kettles (assorted sizes), one lantern and candle, six tin
plates, six table-spoons, six tin tumblers; and, just before a battle,
ten pounds hard bread were required to be put into the box.

A FOUR-WHEELED AMBULANCE.

There was another scheme, which was conceived and carried into
execution by Dr. Letterman, which deserves mention in this
connection. This was the establishment of Field Hospitals, “in order
that the wounded might receive the most prompt and efficient
attention during and after an engagement, and that the necessary
operations might be performed by the most skilful and responsible
surgeons, at the earliest moment.” Under Surgeon Tripler, there had
been rendezvous established in rear of the army, to which all the
wounded were taken for immediate attention, before being sent to
general hospitals. But there was no recognized system and
efficiency in regard to it. Just before an engagement, a field hospital
for each division was established. It was made by pitching a suitable
number of hospital tents. The location of such a hospital was left to
the medical director of the corps. Of course, it must be in the rear of
the division, out of all danger and in a place easily reached by the
ambulances. A division hospital of this description was under the
charge of a surgeon, who was selected by the surgeon-in-chief of
the division. With him was an assistant surgeon, similarly appointed,
whose duty it was to pitch the tents, provide straw, fuel, water, etc.,
and, in general, make everything ready for the comfort of the
wounded. For doing this the hospital stewards and nurses of the
division were placed under his charge, and special details made
from the regiments to assist. A kitchen or cook-tent must be at once
erected and the cooks put in possession of the articles mentioned as
carried in the ambulance boxes and hospital-wagons, so that a
sufficient amount of nourishing food could be prepared for immediate
use.
Another assistant surgeon was detailed to keep a complete record
of patients, with name, rank, company, and regiment, the nature of
their wound, its treatment, etc. He was also required to see to the
proper interment of those who died, and the placing of properly
marked head-boards at their graves.
Then, there were in each of these division hospitals three
surgeons, selected from the whole division, “without regard to rank,
but solely on account of their known prudence, judgment, and skill,”
whose duty it was to perform all important operations, or, at least, be
responsible for their performance. Three other medical officers were
detailed to assist these three. Nor was this all, for the remaining
medical officers of the division, except one to a regiment, were also
required to report at once to the hospital, to act as dressers of
wounds and assistants generally. In addition to these, a proper
number of nurses and attendants were detailed to be on hand. The
medical officers left with regiments were required to establish
themselves during the fighting in the rear of their respective
organizations, at such a distance as not to unnecessarily expose
themselves, where they could give such temporary aid to the
wounded as they should stand in need of.
I have said that these hospitals were to be located out of all
danger. That statement needs a little modifying. In case the tide of
battle turned against our army and it was compelled to retreat, what
was before a safe place might at once be converted into a place of
great danger. But a hospital could not be struck and its patients
moved at a moment’s or even a day’s warning, as a rule, and so it
was made the duty of the medical director of a corps to select a
sufficient number of medical officers, who, in case a retreat was
found necessary, should remain in charge of the wounded. When the
Rebels captured such a hospital, it was their general practice to
parole all the inmates—that is, require them to give their word of
honor that they would not bear arms again until they had been
properly exchanged as prisoners of war. Our government
established what were known as parole camps, where such
prisoners were required to remain until duly exchanged.

A MEDICINE WAGON.
 I think it can now be readily understood, from even this
fragmentary sketch, how the establishment of these field hospitals
facilitated the care of the wounded, and, by their systematic
workings, saved hundreds of lives. With a skilful, energetic man as
medical director of the army, giving his orders to medical directors of
corps, and these carefully superintending surgeons-in-chief of
divisions, who, in turn, held the surgeons and assistant surgeons
and officers of ambulance corps to a strict accountability for a careful
performance of their duties, while the latter fortified themselves by
judicious oversight of their subordinates, the result was to place this
department of the army on a footing which endured, with the most
profitable of results to the service, till the close of the war.
I vividly remember my first look into one of these field hospitals. It
was, I think, on the 27th of November, 1863, during the Mine Run
Campaign, so-called. General French, then commanding the Third
Corps, was fighting the battle of Locust Grove, and General Warren,
with the Second Corps, had also been engaged with the enemy, and
had driven him from the neighborhood of Robertson’s Tavern, in the
vicinity of which the terrific Battle of the Wilderness began the
following May. Near this tavern the field hospital of Warren’s Second
Division had been located, and into this I peered while my battery
stood in park not far away, awaiting orders. The surgeon had just
completed an operation. It was the amputation of an arm about five
inches below the shoulder, the stump being now carefully dressed
and bandaged. As soon as the patient recovered from the effects of
the ether, the attendants raised him to a sitting posture on the
operating-table. At that moment the thought of his wounded arm
returned to him, and, turning his eyes towards it, they met only the
projecting stub. The awful reality dawned upon him for the first time.
An arm had gone forever, and he dropped backwards on the table in
a swoon. Many a poor fellow like him brought to the operator’s table
came to consciousness only to miss an arm or a leg which perhaps
he had begged in his last conscious moments to have spared. But
the medical officers first mentioned decided all such cases, and the
patient had only to submit. At Peach-Tree Creek, Col. Thomas
Reynolds of the Western army was shot in the leg, and, while the
surgeons were debating the propriety of amputating it, the colonel,
who was of Irish birth, begged them to spare it, as it was very
valuable, being an imported leg,—a piece of wit which saved the
gallant officer his leg, although he became so much of a cripple that
he was compelled to leave the service.
It has been charged that limbs and arms were often uselessly
sacrificed by the operators; that they were especially fond of
amputating, and just as likely to amputate for a flesh-wound as for a
fractured bone, on the ground that they could do it more quickly than
they could dress the wound; that it made a neater job, thus gratifying
professional pride: but how the victim might feel about it or be
affected by it then or thereafter did not seem to enter their thoughts.
It was undoubtedly true that many flesh-wounds were so ugly the
only safety for the patient lay in amputation. A fine fellow, both as a
man and soldier, belonging to my company, lost his arm from a flesh-
wound—needlessly, as he and his friends always asserted and
believed.

A FOLDING LITTER.

A STRETCHER.

A corporal of the First Massachusetts Heavy Artillery suffered a

compound fracture of the left knee-joint from a piece of shell by
which he was struck at the battle of Hatcher’s Run, Oct. 27, 1864. In
the course of time he reached the Lincoln Hospitals (well do I
remember them as they stood on Capitol Hill where they were
erected just before the bloody repulse at Fredericksburg), where a
surgeon decided that his leg must come off, and, after instructing the
nurse to prepare him for the operating-room, left the ward. But the
corporal talked the matter over with a wounded cavalryman (this was
a year when cavalrymen were wounded quite generally) and decided
that his leg must not come off; so, obtaining the loaded revolver of
his comrade, he put it under his pillow and awaited the reappearance
of the surgeon. He returned not long after, accompanied by two men
with a stretcher, and approached the cot.
“What are you going to do?” asked the corporal.
“My boy, we will have to take your leg off,” was the reply of the
surgeon.
“Not if I know myself,” rejoined the corporal, with determination
expressed in both looks and language.
For a moment the surgeon was taken aback by the soldier’s
resolute manner. But directly he turned to the men and said, “Come,
boys, take him up carefully,” whereupon the stretcher-bearers
advanced to obey the order. At the same instant the corporal drew
the revolver from beneath his pillow, cocked it, and, in a voice which
carried conviction, exclaimed, “The man that puts a hand on me
dies!” At this the men stepped back, and the surgeon tried to reason
with the corporal, assuring him that in no other way could his life be
saved. But the corporal persisted in declaring that if he died it should
be with both legs on.
At that “Sawbones,” (as the men used to call them) lost his temper
and sought out the surgeon in general charge, with whom he soon
returned to the corporal. This head surgeon, first by threats and
afterwards by persuasion, tried to secure the revolver, but, failing to
do so, turned away, exclaiming, with an oath, “Let the d⸺ fool
keep it and die!” but a moment after, on second thought, said to the
first surgeon that, as they wanted a subject to try the water-cure on,
he thought the corporal would meet that want. After obtaining a
promise from the surgeon that he would not himself take the leg off
or allow any one else to, the corporal assented to the proposition.
A can was then arranged over the wounded knee, in such a
manner as to drop water on the cloth which enwrapped it day and
night, and a cure was finally effected.
 This is the substance of the story as I received it from the lips of
the corporal himself, who, let me say in passing, was reduced to the
rank of private, and mustered out of the service as such, for daring to
keep two whole legs under him. His bravery in the hour of peril—to
him—deserved better things from his country than that.

PLACING A WOUNDED MAN ON A STRETCHER.

But to return to the field hospital again; on the ground lay one
man, wounded in the knee, while another sat near, wounded in the
finger. This latter was a suspicious wound. Men of doubtful courage
had a way of shooting off the end of the trigger-finger to get out of
service. But they sometimes did it in such a bungling manner that
they were found out. The powder blown into the wound was often the
evidence which convicted them. These men must be proud of such
scars to-day.
Three wounded Rebels also lay in the tent, waiting for surgical
attention. Of course, they would not be put upon the tables until all of
our own wounded were attended to; they did not expect it. In one
part of the tent lay two or three of our men, who were either lifeless
or faint from loss of blood. Only a few rods away from the tent were
some freshly made graves enclosing the forms of men whose
wounds had proved fatal, either having died on their way to the
hospital or soon after their arrival. Among these was the gallant
Lieutenant-Colonel Theodore Hesser, who was shot in the head
while bravely leading the Seventy-second Pennsylvania Infantry in a
charge. The graves were all plainly marked with small head-boards.
A drizzling rain added gloom to the scene; and my first call at a field
hospital, with its dismal surroundings, was brief.

CARRYING A WOUNDED MAN TO THE REAR.

One regulation made for this department of the service was never
enforced. It provided that no one but the proper medical officers or
the officers, non-commissioned officers, and privates of the
ambulance corps should conduct sick or wounded to the rear, either
on the march or in battle, but as a matter of fact there were probably
more wounded men helped off the field by soldiers not members of
the ambulance corps than by members of that body. There were
always plenty of men who hadn’t the interests of the cause so nearly
at heart but what they could be induced, without much persuasion,
when bullets and shells were flying thick, to leave the front line and
escort a suffering comrade to the rear. Very often such a sufferer
found a larger body-guard than could well make his needs a pretext
for their absence from the line. Then, too, many of these escorts
were most unfortunate, and lost their way, so that they did not find
their regiment again until after the battle was over. A large number of
them would be included among the Shirks and Beats, whom I have
already described. But, in truth, it was not possible for the
ambulance corps to do much more in a hot fight than to keep their
stretchers properly manned. Each ambulance was provided with two
of these, and the severely wounded who could not help themselves
must be placed on them and cared for first, so that there was often
need for a helping hand to be given a comrade who was quite
seriously wounded, yet could hobble along with a shoulder to lean
on.
The designating mark of members of the ambulance corps was,
for sergeants, a green band an inch and a quarter broad around the
cap, and inverted chevrons of the same color on each arm, above
the elbow; for privates the same kind of band and a half chevron of
the same material. By means of this designation they were easily
recognized.
By orders of General Meade, issued in August, 1863, three
ambulances were allowed to a regiment of infantry; two to a regiment
of cavalry, and one to a battery of artillery, with which it was to
remain permanently. Owing to this fact, an artillery company
furnished its own stretcher-bearers when needed. I shall be
pardoned the introduction of a personal incident, as it will illustrate in
some measure the duties and trials of a stretcher-bearer. It was at
the battle of Hatcher’s Run, already referred to, or the Boydton Plank
Road, as some called it. The guns had been ordered into position
near Burgess’ Tavern, leaving the caissons and ambulance nearly a
half-mile in the rear. Meanwhile, a flank attack of the enemy cut off
our communications with the rear for a time, and we thought
ourselves sure of an involuntary trip to Richmond; but the way was
opened again by some of our advance charging to the rear, and by
the destructive fire from our artillery. Soon orders came for the
battery to return to the rear. In common with the rest, the writer
started to do so when a sergeant asked him to remain and help take
off one of our lieutenants, who was lying in a barn near by, severely
wounded. So actively had we been engaged that this was my first
knowledge of the sad event. But, alas! what was to be done? Our
ambulance with its stretchers was to the rear. That could not now
avail us. We must resort to other means. Fortunately, they were at
hand. An abandoned army-blanket lay near, and, carefully placing
the lieutenant on this, with one man at each corner, we started.
But the wounded officer was heavy, and it was, as can readily be
seen, an awkward way of carrying him. Moreover, his wound was a
serious one,—mortal as it soon proved,—and every movement of
ours tortured him so that he begged of us to leave him there to die.
Just then we caught sight of a stretcher on which a wounded Rebel
was lying. Some Union stretcher-bearers had been taking him to the
rear when the flank attack occurred, when they evidently abandoned
him to look out for themselves. It was not a time for sentiment; so,
with the sergeant at one end of the stretcher and the narrator at the
other, our wounded enemy was rolled off, with as much care as time
would allow. With the aid of our other comrades we soon put the
lieutenant in his place, and, raising the stretcher to our shoulders,
started down the road to the rear. We had gone but a few rods,
however, before the enemy’s sharpshooters or outposts fired on us,
driving us to seek safety in the woods. But it was now dusk, and no
easy matter to take such a burden through woods, especially as it
rapidly grew darker. Suffice it to know, however, that, after more than
an hour’s wandering and plunging, our burden was delivered at the
ambulance, where another of our lieutenants, also mortally
wounded, was afterwards to join him. This fragment of personal
experience will well illustrate some of the many obstacles which
stretcher-bearers had to contend with, and disclose the further truth
that in actual combat the chances for severely wounded men to be
taken from the field were few indeed, for at such a time stretcher-
bearers, like the proverbial “good men,” are scarce.
I omitted to say in the proper connection that the men whose
wounds were dressed in the field hospitals were transported as
rapidly as convenient to the general hospitals, where the best of care
and attention could be given them. Such hospitals were located in
various places. Whenever it was possible, transportation was by
water, in steamers specially fitted up for such a purpose. There may
be seen in the National Museum at Washington, the building in
which President Lincoln was assassinated, beautiful models of these
steamers as well as of hospital railway trains with all their furnishings
of ease and comfort, designed to carry patients by rail to any
designated place.
Another invention for the transportation of the wounded from the
field was the Cacolet or Mule Litter, which was borne either by a
mule or a horse, and arranged to carry, some one and some two,
wounded men. But although it was at first supposed that they would
be a great blessing for this purpose, yet, being strapped tightly to the
body of the animal, they felt his every motion, thus making them an
intensely uncomfortable carriage for a severely wounded soldier, so
that they were used but very little.
The distinguished surgeon Dr. Henry I. Bowditch, whose son,
Lieut. Bowditch, was mortally wounded in the cavalry fight at Kelly’s
Ford, voiced, in his “Plea for an Ambulance System,” the general
dissatisfaction of the medical profession with the neglect or
barbarous treatment of our wounded on the battle-field. This was as
late as the spring of 1863. They had petitioned Congress to adopt
some system without delay, and a bill to that effect had passed the
House, but on Feb. 24, 1863, the Committee on Military Affairs, of
which Senator Henry Wilson was chairman, reported against a bill “in
relation to Military Hospitals and to organize an Ambulance Corps,”
as an impracticable measure at that time, and the Senate adopted
the report, and there, I think, it dropped.
 CHAPTER XVII.
SCATTERING SHOTS.

“His coat was e’er so much too short,

His pants a mile too wide,
And when he marched could not keep step
However much he tried.”

THE CLOTHING.

Forty-two dollars was the sum allowed by the government to

clothe the private soldier for the space of one year. The articles
included in his outfit were a cap or hat (usually the former), blouse,
overcoat, dress coat, trousers, shirts, drawers, socks, shoes, a
woollen and a rubber blanket. This was the wardrobe of the infantry.
It should be said, however, that many regiments never drew a dress
coat after leaving the state, the blouse serving as the substitute for
that garment. The artillery and cavalry had the same except that a
jacket took the place of the dress coat, boots that of shoes, and their
trousers had a re-enforce, that is, an extra thickness of cloth
extending from the upper part of the seat down the inside of both
legs, for greater durability in the service required of these branches
in the saddle.
This outfit was not sufficient to last the year through, for various
reasons, and so the quartermaster supplied duplicates of the
garments when needed. But whatever was drawn from him beyond
the amount allowed by the government was charged to the
individual, and deducted from his pay at the end of the year. If,
however, a man was so fortunate as not to overdraw his allowance,
which rarely happened, he received the balance in cash.
The infantry made way with a large amount of clothing. Much of it
was thrown away on the march. A soldier burdened with a musket,
from forty to eighty rounds of ammunition, according to
circumstances; a haversack stuffed plump as a pillow, but not so
soft, with three days rations; a canteen of water, a woollen and
rubber blanket, and a half shelter tent, would be likely to take just
what more he was obliged to. So, with the opening of the spring
campaign, away would go all extra clothing. A choice was made
between the dress coat and blouse, for one of these must go. Then
some men took their overcoat and left their blanket. In brief, when a
campaign was fairly under way the average infantryman’s wardrobe
was what he had on. Only that and nothing more. At the first start
from camp many would burden themselves with much more than the
above, but after a few miles tramp the roadside would be sprinkled
with the cast-away articles. There seemed to be a difference
between Eastern and Western troops in this respect, for reasons
which I will not attempt now to analyze, for Grant says (Memoirs, vol.
ii., pp. 190-191):—
“I saw scattered along the road, from Culpeper to Germania Ford,
wagon-loads of new blankets and overcoats thrown away by the
troops to lighten their knapsacks; an improvidence I had never
witnessed before.”
 It was a way the Army of the Potomac had of getting into light
marching order.
When the infantry were ordered in on a charge, they always left
their knapsacks behind them, which they might or might not see
again. And whenever they were surprised and compelled to fall back
hastily, they were likely to throw aside everything that impeded their
progress except musket and ammunition. Then, in the heat of battle,
again there was a dispensing with all encumbrances that would
impair their efficiency. For these and other reasons, the
governmental allowances would not have been at all adequate to
cover the losses in clothing. Recognizing this fact, the government
supplied new articles gratis for everything lost in action, the
quartermaster being required to make out a list of all such articles,
and to certify that they were so lost, before new ones could be
obtained.
But the men who did garrison duty
were not exempt from long clothing
bills more than were those who were
active at the front. I have in mind the
heavy artillerymen who garrisoned the
forts around Washington. They were
in receipt of visits at all hours in the
day from the most distinguished of
military and civil guests, and on this
account were not only obliged to be
efficient in drill but showy on parade.
Hence their clothing had always to be
of the best. No patched or untidy
garments were tolerated. In the spring
of 1864, twenty-four thousand of
these men were despatched as re-
enforcements to the Army of the
Potomac, and a fine lot of men they
were. They were soldiers, for the most
part, who had enlisted early in the
war, and, having had so safe—or, as
the boys used to say, “soft”—and easy IN HEAVY MARCHING ORDER.
a time of it in the forts, had re-enlisted,
only to be soon relieved of garrison
duty and sent to the front as infantry. But while they were veterans in
service in point of time, yet, so far as the real hardships of war were
concerned, they were simply recruits. I shall never forget that muggy,
muddy morning of the 18th of May, when, standing by the roadside
near what was known as the “Brown House,” at Spottsylvania, I saw
this fine-looking lot of soldiers go by. Their uniforms and equipments
all seemed new. Among the regiments was the First Maine Heavy
Artillery.
“What regiment is this?” was inquired at the head of the column by
bystanders.
“First Maine,” was the reply.
After the columns had marched by a while, some one would again
ask what regiment it was, only to find it still the First Maine. It
numbered over two thousand strong, and, never having lost any men
in battles and hard campaigning, its ranks were full. The strength of
these regiments struck the Army of the Potomac with surprise. A
single regiment larger than one of their own brigades!
These men had started from Washington with knapsacks that were
immense in their proportions, and had clung to them manfully the
first day or two out, but this morning in question, which was of the
sultriest kind, was taxing them beyond endurance, as they plunged
along in the mire marching up to the front; and their course could
have been followed by the well stuffed knapsacks—or “bureaus,” as
some of the old vets called them—that sprinkled the roadside. It
seemed rather sad to see a man step out of the ranks, unsling his
knapsack, seat himself for a moment to overhaul its contents,
transfer to his pocket some little keepsake, then, rising, and casting
one despairing look at it, hurry on after the column. Many would not
even open their knapsacks, but, giving them a toss, would leave
them to fate, and sternly resume their march. It was the second in
the list of sacrifices that active campaigning required of them. Their
first was made in cutting loose from their comfortable quarters and
accumulated conveniences in the forts, which they had so recently
left.
The knapsack, haversack, canteen, and shelter-tent, like the arms,
were government property, for which the commanding officer of a
company was responsible. At the end of a soldier’s term of service,
they were to be turned in or properly accounted for.

ARMY CATTLE.
An army officer who was reputed to have been of high and hasty
temper, who certainly seemed to have been capable of rash and
inconsiderate remarks, was once overheard to say of soldiers that
they were nothing but cattle, and deserved to be treated only as
such. In the short sketch here submitted on the subject of Army
Cattle, I do not include the variety above referred to, but rather the
quadrupedal kind that furnished food for them.
In the sketch on Army Rations I named fresh beef as one of the
articles furnished, but I gave no particulars as to just how the army
was supplied with it. This I will now endeavor to do.
When there came an active demand for fresh and salt meat to
feed the soldiers and sailors, at once the price advanced, and
Northern farmers turned their attention more extensively to grazing.
Of course, the great mass of the cattle were raised in the West, but
yet even rugged New England contributed no inconsiderable quantity
to swell the total. These were sent by hundreds and thousands on
rail and shipboard to the various armies. On their arrival, they were
put in a corral. Here they were subject, like all supplies, to the
disposition of the commissary-general of the army, who, through his
subordinates, supplied them to the various organizations upon the
presentation of a requisition, signed by the commanding officer of a
regiment or other body of troops, certifying to the number of rations
of meat required.
When the army was investing Petersburg and Richmond, the
cattle were in corral near City Point. On the 16th of September,
1864, the Rebels having learned through their scouts that this corral